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SPONS' 


MECHANICS'  OWN  BOOK 


A  MANUAL 


FOR 


HANDICRAFTSMEN  AND  AMATEURS. 


SECOND   EDITION. 


E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  125,  STEAND,  LONDON, 

NEW  YORK:  35,  MURRAY  STREET. 
1886. 


T 


D 


LONDON  : 

PRINTED   BY   WILLIAM   CLOWES   AND   SONS,   LIMITED, 

STAJIFCIUD   STREKT  AND    CHAFING   CROSS. 


■j  HE  GETTY  CENTER 
LIBRARY 


INTKODUCTION. 


The  title  of  this  work  almost  suffices  to  indicate  tbe  character  of  tlie  con- 
tents, without  the  aid  of  any  prefatory  explanation.  The  authors  have  no 
new  theories  to  advance,  nor  discoveries  to  relate  :  their  aim  has  been 
rather  to  discuss  from  an  everyday  practical  view  the  various  mechanical 
trades  that  deal  with  the  conversion  of  wood,  metals,  and  stone  into  useful 
objects. 

The  method  of  treatment  of  each  branch  is  scientific,  yet  simple.  First 
in  order  comes  the  raw  material  worked  upon,  its  characters,  variations, 
and  suitability.  Then  the  tools  used  in  working  up  the  material  are 
examined  as  to  the  principles  on  which  their  shape  and  manipulation  are 
based,  including  the  means  adopted  for  keej)ing  them  in  order,  by  grinding, 
tempering,  filing,  setting,  handling,  and  cleaning.  A  third  section,  where 
necessary,  is  devoted  to  explaining  and  illustrating  typical  examples  of  the 
work  to  be  executed  in  the  particular  material  under  notice.  Thus  the  book 
forms  a  complete  guide  to  all  the  ordinary  mechanical  operations ;  and 
whilst  professional  workmen  will  find  in  it  many  suggestions  as  to  the 
direction  in  which  improvements  should  be  aimed  at,  amateur  readers  will 
be  glad  to  avail  themselves  of  the  simple  directions  and  ingenious  devices 
by  which  they  can  in  a  great  degree  overcome  the  disadvantage  of  a  lack  of 
manipulative  skill. 

To  render  the  book  still  more  useful  to  the  emigrant  and  colonist,  who 
often  has  only  his  own  wits  to  depend  on  in  building  and  repairing  his 
home,  several  further  chapters  have  been  added,  dealing  with  the  enclosure, 
approaches,  water  supply,  drainage,  warming,  lighting,  and  ventilation  of  a 
dwelling. 

In  conclusion,  hearty  thanks  are  tendered  to  the  many  specialists  whose 
writings  have  combined  to  give  unusual  value  to  the  book.  It  is  hoped  that 
the  following  list  is  complete  : — 

Sir  J.  Savile  Lumley  on  bronze  casting ;  J.  Richards,  T.  D.  West, 
W.  H.  Cooper,  and  Leander  Clarke  on  iron  founding  and  casting ;  Joshua 
Eose  on  chisels,  and  hammering  iron  plates  ;  Cameron  Knight  on  black- 
smithing  generally  ;  E.  Kirk  on  soldering  and  burning ;  Dr.  Anderson  on 

a  2 


tV  INTRODUCTION. 

woods ;  Eev.  A.  Eigg  and  A.  Cabo  on  carpenters'  tools ;  Grimsliaw  and 
Hodgson  on  saws ;  Henry  Adams  on  joints  in  woodwork ;  E.  J.  Palmer  and 
J.  Cowan  on  dovetailing  and  dowelling;  A.  Yorke,  E.  Luckhurst,  and 
A.  Watkins,  on  rustic  constructions  ;  D.  B.  Adamson  on  veneering ;  T.  J. 
Barnes  on  wood  carving ;  J.  Dalton  on  French  polishing ;  J.  Woodley  on 
brickwork ;  J.  Slater  on  roofing ;  P.  J.  Davies  on  lead  glazing ;  W.  F. 
Smith  on  metal-working  machine  tools  ;  E.  Lock  wood  on  electric  bells  and 
telephones;  E.  W.  Edis  on  paperhaugings ;  Field  on  lighting;  Eldridge  on 
gas-fitting  ;  A.  Walmisley  on  ventilation  ;  Dr.  Pridgin  Teale  on  warming  ; 
Eev.  J.  A.  Eivington  on  fresco  painting ;  W.  E.  Corson  on  stairs ;  and 
E.  Gambler  Bousfield  on  house  construction  in  Canada.  Mention  may  also 
be  made  of  T.  J.  Syer,  1,  Finsbury  Street,  Chiswell  Street,  at  whose  work- 
shops amateurs  can  receive  lessons  in  the  manipulation  of  tools.  Lastly, 
some  acknowledgment  is  due  to  the  following  technical  journals,  whose 
interesting  columns  always  rcjiay  perusal,  viz.  American  Artizan,  American 
Machinist,  Builder,  Building  News,  Cabinet-maker,  Deutsche  Industrie 
Zeitung,  English  Mechanic,  Industrial  World,  Iron  Age,  Plumber  and 
Decorator,  Sanitary  Eecord,  Scientific  American. 

The  Editous. 


CONTENTS. 


Mechanical  Drawing  :  buying  and  keeping  instruments ;  drawing  boards ;  scales  , 
squares  ;  paper ;  mounting  ;  mounting  on  linen  ;  pencilling  ;  erasing  errors  ;  inking  ; 
testing  straight-edge  ;  using  parallel  rules  ;  using  compasses  ;  tints,  dimensions,  and  centre 
lines;  title;  nature  of  drawings;  finishing  a  drawing;  colours;  shading;  colouring 
tracings  ;  removing  drawings  from  the  board ;  mounting  engravings ;  fixing  pencil  draw- 
ings ;  tracing-cloth;  tracing-paper;  transfer-paper;  copying  drawings     .,       pages  1-13 

Casting  and  Founding :  general  outline  of  the  operations.  Brass  mid  Bronze  Casting : 
characters  of  the  various  alloys  employed,  reactions  of  the  metals  on  each  other,  mixing 
the  metals,  effects  of  tempering;  furnaces,  their  construction,  means  of  producing 
draught,  fuel,  the  ordinary  cupola,  the  ordinary  melting  furnace,  the  circular  melting 
furnace,  the  reverberatory  furnace ;  crucibles ;  moulding  ;  facing  the  moulds,  filling  the 
moulds,  moulding  in  wax,  forma  perduta  method,  castings  of  natural  objects  ;  casting, 
pouring  the  metal,  temperature  for  pouring,  escape  of  gases  from  the  mould,  ornaments 
in  relief;  cores;  making  bronze  figures;  using  plaster  patterns,  finishing  the  casting, 
bronzing  its  surface,  Japanese  bronzes,  inlaying  on  bronzes ;  casting  en  cire  perdue,  the 
model,  reproduction  in  wax,  formation  of  the  core,  constructing  the  lanthorn,  retouching 
the  wax  bust,  preparing  the  bust  before  making  the  cope,  formation  of  the  cope,  firing 
'the  block,  the  final  casting  in  bronze.  Iron  Founding :  pattern-making,  cores,  shrinkage, 
'taper ;  tools,  crucibles,  pots,  moulding  flasks,  packing  the  flasks,  clamping  them  ;  casting 
in  sand,  with  and  without  cores  ;  casting  in  loam  ;  forms  of  castings  ;  examining  castings 
as  to  quality  and  soundness ;  shrinkage  of  iron  castings ;  chilling  iron  castings  .,      13-44 

Forging  and  Finishing :  definition  of  the  terms  ;  explanation  of  the  technical  phrases, 
to  make  up  a  stock,  fireirons,  rod,  bar,  plate,  to  take  a  heat,  to  finish  at  one  heat,  to  draw 
down,  to  draw  away,  to  upset,  scarfing,  butt-weld,  tongue-joint,  to  punch,  to  drift  out, 
the  hammerman,  the  tuyere  or  tweer ;  forges  or  hearths ;  anvils  ;  vices  and  tongs  ; 
hammers ;  cutting  tools,  principles  and  practices  in  making  chisels  ;  drilling  and  boring, 
construction  of  drills;  swaging  tools;  surfacing  tools,  filing  up,  cleaning  clogged  files, 
polishing  ;  screw-cutting  tools ;  forging  ;  welding,  wrought  iron,  steel,  steel  to  wrought 
iron;  tempering,  hardening,  softening,  annealing,  the  colour  scale,  case-hardening; 
examples  of  smiths'  work, — making  keys,  bolts,  nuts,  tongs,  hammers,  chisels,  files, 
scrapers,  drifts,  punches,  spanners,  wrenches  ;  adjusting  surfaces  by  hammering ;  red-lead 
joints;  rust  joints ;  riveting       44-90 

Soldering :  solders,  composition  and  characters  of  these  alloys ;  colouring  solders  to 
match  metals.  Burning  or  Autogenous  soldering  :  adaptations  of  the  process,  application 
to  pewter,  brass  castings,  iron  castings,  stove  plates  ;  burning  seams  in  lead ;  the  burning 
machine,  air-vessels,  bellows,  tubes,  jets,  wind  guards.  Cold  soldering :  the  flux,  the 
solder,  application.  Hai-d  soldering  various  metals  and  objects.  Soft  soldering :  the 
solders,  fluxes,  irons,  and  bits  employed,  and  precautions  needed.  Generalities, — including 
blowpipes,  lamps,  mechanical  blowers,  supports,  tools,  braziers'  hearth,  means  of  heating 
the  iron  ;  hints  on  fluxes,  spelter,  commercial  grades  of  solder,  cleaning  impure  solder, 
soldering  zinc  and  galvanized  iron,  soldei'ing  without  an  iron,  soldering  brass  to  platinum. 

a  3 


VI  CONTENTS. 

soldering  brass  wire,  soldering  brass  to  steel,  mending  cracked  bell,  soldering  iron  and 
steel,  soldering  silver,  soldering  glass  to  metal,  soldering  platinum  and  gold,  mending  tin 
saucepans,  soldering  brass,  soldering  pewters  and  compo  pipes,  laying  sheet  lead,  mending 
leaden  pipe,  gas  for  blowpipe  work,  blowpipe  brazing         90-116 

Slieet-metal  working  :  useful  characters  of  sheet  metals.  Striking  out  the  patterns, 
— relations  of  circles,  cones,  cylindrical  tubes.  Tools, — mallet,  cutting  tools,  flattening 
tools,  folding  tools,  forming  tools.  Working  the  metals, — seamless  goods,  bending,  spinning ; 
seamed  goods,  pipes,  cups,  square  boxes,  riveting 116-126 

Carpentry  : — Woods  :  acacia,  ake,  alder,  alerce,  alerse,  apple,  ash,  assegai,  beeches,  birches, 
blackwood,  boxes,  broadleaf,  bunya-bunya,  cedars,  cedar  boom,  cherry,  chestnut,  cypress, 
cypress  pine,  dark  yellow-wood,  deal,  deodar,  dogwoods,  doom  boom,  ebony,  elms, 
eucalyptus,  fir,  greenheart,  gums,  hickories,  hinau,  hinoki,  hornbeam,  horoeka,  horopito, 
ironbark,  ironwood,  jacks,  jaral,  jarrah,  kaiwhiria,  kamahi,  kanyiu,  kauri,  kohe-kohe, 
kohutuhutu,  kohwai,  larches,  lignum-vitje,  locust-tree,  mahoganies,  maire,  maire-taw-hake, 
mako,  mango,  manuka,  maple,  mingi-mingi,  miro,  monoao,  mora,  muskwood,  mutti, 
nageswar,  nanmu,  naugiia,  neem,  neinei,  oaks,  pai-ch'ha,  pear,  persimmon,  pines,  plane, 
pohutukawa,  poon,  poplar,  pukatea,  puriri,  pymma,  pynkado,  rata,  rewa-rewa,  rohun,  rose- 
wood, sabicu,  sal,  satinwood,  sawara,  she-pine,  sissu,  sneezewood,  S23ruces,  stopperwood, 
stringy-bark,  sycamore,  tamanu,  tauekaha,  Tasmanian  myrtle,  tawa,  tawhai,  teak,  titoki, 
toon,  totara,  towai,  tulip,  walnuts,  willow,  yellow-wood,  yew  ;  British  Guiana  woods  ;  Cape, 
Natal,  and  Transvaal  woods  ;  Ceylon  woods  ;  English  woods  ;  Indian  woods  ;  New  Zealand 
woods :  Queensland  woods ;  Straits  Settlements  woods ;  Tasmanian  woods ;  West  Indian 
woods ;  growth  of  wood  ;  felling  ;  squaring ;  features  ;  defects  ;  selecting  ;  classification  ; 
market  forms  ;  seasoning ;  decay  ;  preserving  ;  fireproofing  ;  conversion  ;  shrinkage  ; 
composition  ;  suitability  ;  strength  ;  measuring  ;  prices.  Tools  :  Guiding  tools, — chalk 
line,  rule,  straight-edge,  squares,  spirit  level,  plumb  level,  gauges,  bevels,  mitre-box, 
compasses,  callipers,  trammel,  shooting-board,  bell-centre  punch,  combinations;  Holding 
tools, — pincers,  vices,  clamps  ;  Rasping  tools, — saws  (principles,  qualities,  selecting,  using, 
filing,  setting,  sharpening,  gumming ;  examples  of  teeth  for  cross-cuts,  back-saws,  fleam 
tooth,  buck-saws,  web-saws,  rip-saws,  circular  saws,  baud-saws  ;  jig-saws,  table  for  jig  and 
circular  saws,  home-made  fret-saw) ;  files  (principles,  forms,  using,  sharpening)  ,  Edge- 
tools, — chisels  and  gouges  (principles,  forms,  using),  spokeshaves,  planes  (principles,  forms, 
adjusting,  using),  sharjieniug  methods  (grindstones,  oilstones),  miscellaneous  forms 
(circular  plane,  rounder,  box  scraper,  veneer  scrape]-,  mitre-plane,  combination  filisters, 
adjustable  dado) ;  Boring  tools, — awls,  gimlets,  augers,  bits  and  braces,  drills,  miscella- 
neous (angular  bit  stock,  countersink,  expansion  bit,  boring  machine) ;  Striking  tools, — 
hammers,  mallets ;  Chopping  tools, — axes  and  hatchets  (principles,  using,  form  of  handle, 
form  of  cutting  edge),  adzes  (curvature);  Accessories, — bench,  bench-stops,  holdfasts, 
sawing  rest,  bench-vices ;  nails,  nail-punch,  nail-pullers ;  screws,  screw-driver.  Care  of 
Tools  :  wooden  parts,  iron  parts,  rust  preventives,  rust  removers.  Construction  :  joints, 
definition  of  carpentry  and  joinery,  principles  of  joints,  equal  bearing,  close  jointing, 
strains,  classification  of  joints,  classification  of  fastenings,  lengthening  joints,  strengthening  ■ 
joints,  bearing  joints,  post  and  beam  joints,  strut  joints,  miscellaneous  joints,  fastenings, 
keying,  corner-piecing,  mortising  and  tenoning,  half-lap  joint,  dovetailing,  blind  dovetails, 
mechanical  aids  in  dovetailing,  dowelling,  joining  thin  woods,  glueing,  hinging.  Examples 
of  Construction  :  workshop  appliances, — tool-chest,  carpenters' bench,  grindstone  mount; 
rough  furniture, — steps,  ladders,  cask-cradle,  tables,  seats  (box  stool,  3-legged  stool, 
chairs),  washstand,  bedstead,  chest  of  drawers,  dresser ;  garden  and  yard  accessories, — 
wheelbarrow,  poultry  and  pigeon  house,  hives,  forcing  frames,  greenhouses,  summer- 
houses,  fences,  gates ;  house  building, — floors,  roofs,  doors,  windows         ..      ..      126-350 

Cabinet-making: — Woods:  Amboyna,  apple,  ash,  beech,  beefwood,  birch,  box,  camphor, 
canary,  cedar,  cherry,  ebony,  holly,  kingwood,  lime,  locust-wood,  mahogany,  maple,  oak, 
partridge-wood,  pear,  pine,  plane,  rose,  sandal,  satin,  teak,  tulip,  walnut,  zebra.     Tools : 


CONTENTS.  Vii 

tool-chest,  bench,  planes,  dowel  plate,  smoothing  implements,  sawinfj  vest,  moulding  board, 
mitring  and  shooting  board,  vice.  Veneering:  cutting  veneers,  fixing  the  veneer  by  the 
hammering  and  cauling  processes,  presses  and  hammers  employed ;  inlaying,  imitation 
inlaying.  Examples :  couch,  chairs,  folding  bookcase,  chest  of  drawers,  wardrobe,  side- 
board               350-386 

Carving  and  Fretwork  : — Carving :  woods, — camphor,  ebony,  lime,  mahogany,  oak, 
pear,  sandal,  sycamore,  walnut,  wild  cherry,  yew  ;  qualities  of  wood,  staining,  adaptability  ; 
tools,  their  selection,  qualities,  use,  sharpening ;  operations.  Fretwork  :  woods ;  tools  ; 
operations 386-399 

XTpllolstery  :  tools  ;  materials  ;  leather  work, — small  chair  buttoned  and  welted,  plain 
seats,  easy  chairs,  settees  and  couches  ;  hair  cloth  ;  fancy  coverings, — plain  seats,  buttoned 
seats,  spring  edges,  French  easy  chairs,  needlework  chairs  ;  mattresses, — spring,  tufted  top, 
folding,  stutled,  French  pallets  ;  beds  and  pillows         399-405 

Painting-,  Graining,  and  Marhling -.—Painting .-  definition  of  paints;  basic 
pigments, — white-lead,  red-lead,  zinc  oxide,  iron  oxide;  colouring  pigments, — blacks,  blues, 
browns,  greens,  lakes,  oranges,  reds,  yellows ;  vehicles  or  mediums, — linseed-oil ;  driers  ; 
grinding;  storing;  applying;  priming;  drying;  filling;  coats;  brushes;  surface; 
removing  old  paint ;  cleaning  painf;  knotting  ;  water-colours ;  removing  smell  ;  discolora- 
tion ;  miscellaneous  paints, — cement  paint  for  carton-pierre,  coloured  paints,  copper  paint, 
floor  painting,  gold  paint,  iron  paint,  iron  painting,  lead  paints,  lime  paints,  silicated 
paint,  steatite  paint,  tin-roofing  paint,  transparent  paint,  tungsten  paints,  window  paint, 
zinc  painting  ;  composition  of  paints  ;  measuring  painters'  work  ;  painters'  cream  ;  wall 
painting,  frescoes,  spirit  fresco,  preparing  the  ground,  the  pigments  admissible  for  colour- 
ing, preparation  of  the  colours,  production  of  delicate  tints,  the  fixing  medium  and  its 
application,  unalterable  durability  of  the  finished  work.  Graining  :  object  of  the  process, 
outline  of  the  operations,  colours,  tools  ;  styles  of  graining — ash,  chestnut,  mahogany,  maple, 
oak  (light  and  dark),  rosewood,  satinwood,  walnut ;  hints.  Marbling :  the  production  of 
painted  surfaces  iu  imitation  of  black  and  gold,  black  Bardilla,  Derbyshire  spar,  dove, 
Egyptian  green,  granites,  Italian  jasper,  royal  red,  St.  Ann's,  sienna,  and  verd  antique 
marbles 405-433 

Staining  :  the  staining  of  wood  considered  as  a  substitute  for  painting,  objects  to  be 
attained,  essential  features  to  be  observed  ;  recipes  for  compounding  and  applying  black 
stains,  black-board  washes,  blue  stains,  brown  stains,  ebonizing,  floor  staining,  green 
stains,  grey  stains,  imitating  and  darkening  mahogany,  oak  stains,  purple  stains,  red 
stains,  imitating  satinwood,  violet  stains,  imitating  and  darkening  walnut,  and  yellow 
stains         433-446 

Gilding  :  what  the  process  consists  in ;  leaf  metals ;  composition  and  characters  of  the 
sizes  used  for  attaching  the  leaf;  tools  and  apparatus.  The  operation  of  Dead  gilding, — 
preparing  the  surface  to  receive  the  leaf,  transferring  the  leaf  to  the  surface,  when  to  lay 
it,  making  good  the  blank  spaces,  completing  the  adh  'sion,  sizing  the  surface  ;  modifications 
for  dead  gilding  on  plain  wood,  polished  wood,  cards,  textiles,  painted  and  japanned 
surfaces,  metals,  masonry,  ivory,  and  plaster  of  Paris.  Bright  Gilding — on  transparent 
material,  such  as  glass ;  securing  adhesion  of  the  leaf,  making  fancy  patterns ;  on  opaque 
material 446-449 

Polishing  :  principles.  Marble  polishing :  producing  a  plane  surfoce,  taking  off  the 
rough,  polishing  up,  rendering  brilliant,  filling  flaws  ;  polishing  imitation  marbles.  Metal 
polishing:  the  broad  principles  of  polishing  metallic  surfaces  by  hand,  best  means  of 
conducting  the  operation,  mistaken  notions  to  be  avoided,  running  work  in  the  lathe, 
relative  merits  of  oils  and  water;  Belgian  burnishing  powder  ;  brass-polishes;  burnishing, 
kinds  of  burnishers,  precautions  in  using  the  burnisher,  variations  in  the  tools  and 
methods  adapted  for  plated  goods,  gold  and  silver  leaf  on  wood,  gold  leaf  on  metal ;  leather 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

gilding ;  engravers'  burnishers ;  clockmakers'  burnishers  ;  burnishing  book  edges,  cutlery, 
pewter,  and  silver ;  making  crocus ;  emery  paper,  emery  paper  pulp,  emery  wheels ; 
friction  polish  ;  german  silver  polish  ;  glaze  wheels  for  finishing  steel ;  polishing  gold  and 
silver  lace ;  an  artificial  grindstone ;  polishing  and  burnishing  iron  and  steel ;  plate 
powders ;  prepared  chalk ;  putty  powder ;  razor  pastes  ;  rottenstone  or  tripoli ;  rouges. 
Wood  polishing:  object  of  the  process,  what  it  consists  in,  the  preliminary  filling  in, 
modes  of  performing  it  and  materials  employed,  smoothing  the  surface,  rubbing  in  linseed- 
oil,  the  foundation  coat  of  polish,  its  importance  and  the  precautions  to  be  observed  in 
applying  it,  the  bodying-in  process,  allowing  to  harden,  putting  on  the  final  polish, 
original  recipe  for  making  the  finishing  polish,  unfavourable  characters  of  the  ingredients, 
attempts  to  improve  by  bleaching  the  lac,  a  new  evil  thus  introduced,  action  of  solvents 
on  the  lac,  meteorological  conditions  to  be  observed  when  polishing,  most  favourable 
range  of  temperature,  state  of  the  weather,  reasons  for  its  influence ;  general  method  of 
wood  polishing  adopted  in  America ;  the  processes  carried  on  in  first-class  piano  factories ; 
collection  of  recipes  for  furniture  creams,  French  polishes,  reviving  fluids,  compounds  for 
darkening  furniture,  wood-fillers,  and  mixtures  for  black  woodwork,  carvings,  antique 
furniture,  fancy  woods,  black  and  gold  work,  white  and  gold  work,  &c. ;  polishing  woods 
in  the  lathe,  modifications  to  suit  hard  and  soft  woods  ;  the  Japanese  lacquer  shiunkei  as  a 
substitute  for  French  polishing       449-472 

Varnish.irig' :  nature  of  varnishes,  points  governing  their  qualities,  objects  in  view  in 
using  varnishes ;  ingredients  of  varnishes  ;  the  principal  resins  and  gums,  their  varnish- 
making  qualifications  ;  solvents  and  their  suitability  ;  driers  and  the  objections  to  them  ; 
kinds  of  varnish  and  their  essential  differences  ;  mixing  varnishes,  white  oil  vai'uishes  or 
spirit  and  turpentine  varnishes  ;  rules  regulating  the  application  of  varnishes ;  recipes  for 
compounding  oil  varnishes  (copal,  amber,  Coburg,  wainscot,  &c.),  spirit  varnishes  (cheap 
oak,  copal,  hard  spirit,  French  polish,  hardwood  lacquer,  bi'ass  lacquer,  &c.),  turpentine 
varnishes,  Brunswick  black,  and  varnish  for  ironwork         472-475 

Meclianical  Movements  :  simple,  compound,  and  perpetual  motion  ;  pulleys,  blocks 
and  tackle,  White's  pulleys,  Spanish  bartons,  mangle-wheel  and  pinion,  fusee-chain  and 
spring-box,  frictional  clutch-box,  other  kinds  of  clutch-box,  throwing  in  and  out  of  gear 
the  speed  motion  in  lathes,  tilt-hammer  motion,  ore-stamper  motion,  reciprocating  rotary 
motion,  continuous  rotary  motion  converted  into  intermittent  rotary  motion,  self-reversing 
motion,  eccentrics,  crank  motions,  cams,  irregular  vibrating  motion,  feed-motion  of 
drilling  machine,  quick  return  crank  motion  of  shaping  machines,  rectilinear  motion  of 
horizontal  bar,  screw  bolt  and  nut,  uniform  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion,  rectilinear 
motion  of  slide,  screw  stamping  press,  screw-cutting  and  slide-lathe  motion,  spooling- 
frame  motion,  micrometer  screw,  Persian  drill,  rack  and  pinion,  cam  between  friction 
rollers  in  a  yoke,  double  rack,  substitute  for  crank,  doubling  length  of  stroke  of  piston- 
rod,  feed-motion  of  planing  machines,  fiddle  drill,  substitute  for  crank,  bell-crank  lever, 
motion  used  in  air-pumps,  Chinese  windlass,  shears  for  cutting  metal  plates,  lazy  tongs, 
toothed  sectors,  drum,  triangular  eccentric,  cam  and  rod,  cam-wheel,  expansion  eccentric, 
rack  and  frame,  band-saw,  toggle-joint  for  punching  machine,  silk  spooling  motion,  crank 
and  fly-wheel,  yoke-bar,  steam-engine  governor,  valve  motion,  bell-crank,  ellipsograph, 
elbow-lever,  pawl  and  elbow-lever,  crank-pin  and  bell -crank,  treadle  and  disc,  centrifugal 
governor  for  steam-engines,  water-wheel  governor,  knee-lever ;  cam,  bar,  and  rod  ;  spiral 
grooved  drum ;  disc,  crank-pin,  and  slotted  connecting-rod ;  slotted  crank,  engine 
governor,  valve  motion  and  reversing  gear,  obtaining  egg-shaped  elliptical  motion,  silk 
spooling  motion,  carpenters'  bench  clamp,  uncoupling  engines,  varying  speed  of  slide  in 
shaping  machines,  reversing  gear  for  single  engine,  diagonal  catch  and  hand-gear, 
disengaging  eccentric-rod,  driving  feed-rolls,  link-motion  valve-gear,  screw  clamp, 
mangle-wheel  and  pinions,  mangle-rack,  rolling  contact,  wheel  and  pinion,  ratchet-wheel, 
worm-wheels,  pin-wheel  and  slotted  pinion,  Geneva  stop,  stops  for  watches,  cog-\"rheels, 
roller  motion  in  wool-combing  machines,  ratchet  and  pawl,  drag-link  motion,  expanding 


CONTENTS.  IX 

pulley,  chain  and  chain  pulley,  lantern-wheel  stops,  transmitted  circular  motion,  inter- 
mittent circular  motion,  tappet-arm  and  ratchet-wheel,  spur-gear  stops,  pawl  and  crown- 
ratchet,  ratchet-wheel  stops,  brake  for  cranes,  dynamometer,  pantograph,  union  coupling, 
anti-friction  bearing,  releasing  sounding-weight,  releasing  hook  in  pile-driving,  centrifugal 
check-hooks,  sprocket-wheel,  differential  movement,  combination  movement,  series  of 
changes  of  velocity  and  direction,  variable  motion,  circular  into  reciprocating  motion, 
Colt's  revolver  movement,  Otis's  safety  stop,  Clayton's  sliding  journal  box,  Pickering's 
governor,  windlass,  rack  and  pinion  for  small  air-pumps,  feeding  sawing  machine,  movable 
head  of  turning  lathe,  toe  and  lifter,  conical  pendulum,  mercurial  compensation  pendulum, 
compound  bar  compensation  pendulum,  watch  regulator,  compensation  balance,  maintaiu- 
ing  power  in  going  barrel,  Harrison's  going  barrel,  parallel  rulei's,  Cavtwright's  parallel 
motion,  piston-rods,  Chinese  windlass,  gyroscope,  Bohnenberger's  machine,  gyroscope 
governor,  drilling  apjiaratus,  see-saws,  helicograph,  spiral  line  on  cylinder,  cycloidal  sur- 
faces, polishing  mirrors.  White's  dynamometer,  edge-runners,  Robert's  friction  proof, 
portable  cramp  drills.  Bowery's  clamp,  tread-wheels,  pendulum  saws,  adjustable  stand 
for  mirrors,  cloth-dressing  machine,  feed-motion  of  Woodworth's  planing  machine,  Russian 
door-shutting  contrivance,  folding  ladder,  self-adjusting  step-ladder,  lit'ting  jack,  jig-saw, 
polishing  lenses,  converting  oscillating  into  rotary  motion,  reciprocating  into  rotary 
motion,  Parsons's  plan  for  same,  four-way  cock,  continuous  circular  into  intermittent 
rectilinear  reciprocating  motion,  repairing  chains,  continuous  circular  into  intermittent 
circular,  Wilson's  4-motion  feed  for  sewing-machines,  Brownell's  crank  motion,  describing 
parabolas,  cyclographs,  describing  pointed  arches,  centrolinead,  Dickson's  device  for  con- 
verting oscillating  into  intermittent  circular  motion,  proportional  compasses,  Buchanan 
and  Righter's  slide-valve  motion,  trunk-engine,  oscillating  piston  engine,  Root's  double 
quadrant  engine,  rotary  engines,  bisecting  gauge,  self-recording  level,  assisting  crank  of 
treadle  motion  over  dead  centres,  continuous  circular  into  rectilinear  reciprocating 
motion,  continuous  circular  into  rocking  motion,  Root's  double  reciprocating  engine, 
Holly's  rotary  engine,  Jonval  turbine,  reciprocating  motion  from  continuous  fall  of  water, 
water-wheels,  Fourneyron  turbine,  Warren's  turbine,  volute  wheel.  Barker  mill,  tumbler, 
Persian  wheel,  water-raising  machines,  Montgolfier's  hydraulic  ram,  D'Ectol's  oscillating 
column,  swing  boat,  lift-pump,  force-pump,  double-acting  pump,  double  lantern-bellows 
pump,  rotary  pumps,  Hiero's  fountain,  diaphragm  forcing  pump,  counter-balance  bucket, 
pulley  and  bucket,  reciprocating  lift,  Fairbairn's  bailing  scoop,  Lansdell's  steam  siphon 
pump,  swinging  gutters,  chain  pumps,  weir  and  scouring  sluice,  balance  pumps,  steam 
hammer,  Hotchkiss's  atmospheric  hammer,  rotary  motion  from  dilferent  temperatures  in 
two  bodies  of  water,  flexible  water  main,  air-pump,  aeolipile  or  Hero's  steam  toy,  Brear's  bilge 
ejector,  gasometer.  Hoard  and  Wiggin's  steam  trap,  Ray's  steam  trap,  wet  gas-meter,  Powers's 
gas  regulator,  dry  gas-meter,  converting  wind  or  water  motion  into  rotary  motion,  common 
windmill,  vertical  windmill,  paddle-wheel,  screw  propeller,  vertical  bucket  paddle-wheel. 
Brown  and  Level's  boat-detaching  hook,  steering  apparatus,  capstan,  lewis,  tongs  for  lifting 
stones,  drawing  and  twisting  in  textile  spinning,  fan  blower,  siphon  pressure  gauge, 
mercurial  barometer,  epicyclic  trains,  Ferguson's  mechanical  paradox,  aneroid  or  Bourdon 
gauge,  Magdeburg  gauge  ;  gearings,  spur-gears,  multiple  gearing,  brush  wheels,  disc 
wheel  and  spur-gear,  worm  and  worm-wheel,  friction  wheels,  elliptical  spur-gears,  inter- 
nally-toothed spur-gear  and  pinion,  uniform  into  variable  rotary  motion,  uniform  and 
varied  rotary  motion,  sun-and-planet  motion,  frictional  grooved  gearing,  bevel  gears  and 
ratchet-wheels,  bevel  gears  and  double  clutch,  mangle  or  star  wheel,  jumping  rotary 
motion,  registering  revolutions,  scroll  gears,  mangle-rack,  doubling  speed  by  gears,  wheel- 
work  in  base  of  capstan,  Hewlett's  adjustable  frictional  gearing,  scroll  gear  and  sliding 
pinion,  Entwisle's  gearing       ..      -.      475-531 

Turning' :  the  operation.  Lathes,  mandrels,  chucks,  poppet-heads,  rests,  supports,  boring 
collars,  true  frames,  self-acting  slide-rest,  poppet-heads  for  self-acting  lathes,  complete 
double-gear  foot-lathe,  single-gear  foot-lathe,  compound  slide-rests  ;  hints  on  lathe  mani- 


X  CONTENTS. 

pulation,  form  of  tools,  shape  of  cutting  edges,  angle  of  holding,  number  of  tools  required, 
screw  cutting,  skilfiilness  with  hand  tools.  Tools:  their  selection.  Metal-turning  tools: 
their  temper,  grinding,  cutting  angles,  typical  examples ;  iron-turning  tools :  common 
roughing  tool,  round  nose,  parting  tool,  knife  tool  for  finishing  edges  and  faces,  boring 
tools  for  hollow  cylinders,  square  nose,  scraping  tool,  spring  tool,  finishing  tools  for 
rounded  work;  brass-turning  tools;  use  of  water  in  turning;  adapting  tools ;  making 
a  grindstone ;  whetting  tools ;  making  milling  tools  for  screw-heads ;  making  centre 
punches  and  drills ;  scribing  block.  Tool-holders  :  the  swivel  tool-holder  and  its  adap- 
tation to  various  needs — e.  g.  planing  under  horizontal  surface  of  a  lathe-bed,  planing 
in  a  limited  space,  clearing  a  proj  ecting  boss,  cutting  a  vertical  slot,  undercutting 
slots  and  clearance  corners,  cutting  square  threads ;  relation  of  the  cutting  and  clearance 
angles  to  the  work  done ;  grinding  the  cutting  edges,  and  means  suitable  therefor ; 
angle-gauges  for  maintaining  correct  forms ;  system  in  running  an  engineering  works ; 
rehardening  cutters ;  forged  tools  superseded ;  general  remarks  on  the  relative  merits 
of  the  swivel  holders;  broad  finishing  and  its  limits.  Drilling  and  boring  tools:  early 
forms  of  the  twist  drill  ;  necessity  for  absolutely  identical  clearance  angles ;  equal  lips 
cannot  be  attained  by  hand  grinding;  experiments  on  the  cutting  angle;  why  common 
drills  run  ;  fixing  standard  shape  and  clearance  for  lips  of  twist  drills  ;  the  grinding  line  ; 
grinding  machines  for  twist  drills  ;  results  of  tests  and  experiments  with  twist  drills. 
Milling  :  range  of  milling  machines ;  milling  cutters ;  faults  of  the  old  system  ;  modern 
milling  cutters — how  they  are  made  and  set  ;  various  forms, — disc,  cylindrical,  circular 
saw-like,  conical,  annular,  and  complex  forms ;  precautions  in  making  large  cutters ; 
cutting  speed  and  power  required.  Wood-turning  tools  :  plain  gouges  and  chisels  ;  turning 
straight  stuff;  feeling  the  work  ;  holding  the  tool ;  flaws  in  tools  ;  selection  of  gouges  and 
chisels,  their  thickness,  angle  of  cutting  edge,  and  shape  of  edge  ;  various  forms  of  round- 
nosed  tool,  and  how  to  make  them  from  worn-out  files ;  fixing  the  tools  in  handles ; 
restoring  the  edges  of  wood-turning  tools 531-561 

Masonry :  Stonework :  durability  of  natural  stones,  conditions  which  affect  it,  chemical 
composition  must  be  considered,  physical  structure  and  its  influence,  average  life  of  various 
building  stones  ;  working  ;  hardness  ;  strength  ;  weight ;  appearance  ;  position  in  quarry 
seasouing ;  natural  beds  ;  destructive  agents, — chemical,  mechanical,  lichens,  molluscs  ; 
examination, — Brard's  test,  acid  test.  Smith's  test;  quarrying;  classification;  granite; 
serpentine  ;  sandstones  ;  limestones, — marble,  compact  limestones,  shelly  limestones,  mag- 
nesian  limestones  ;  preserving, — painting,  silicatising,  other  processes  ;  stonemasons'  tools, — 
saws,  mallets,  chisels  ;  laying  stonework, — rough  rubble,  coursed  rubble,  combined  rubbles, 
ashlar  work  ;  joining  stones;  stone  walls.  Brickwork:  bricks, — classification,  cutters, 
rubbers,  ordinary  buildmg,  underburnt ;  names  and  prices  of  various  kinds  of  brick,  with 
minute  descriptions ;  qualities  of  a  good  building  brick  ;  size;  testing.  Terracotta  blocks, 
joining  them,  their  advantages  and  disadvantages ;  errors  in  using  terracotta  ;  faults  in 
making  it.  Limes  :  rich  or  fat  limes,  poor  limes,  hydraulic  limes,  artificial  hydraulic  limes. 
Sand :  argillaceous,  siliceous,  and  calcareous,  its  characters  and  impurities  ;  washing, 
substitutes.  Mortar  :  its  quality  governed  by  that  of  its  constituents  ;  danger  of  using  fat 
limes  ;  superiority  of  hydraulic  lime  and  cement ;  objects  of  using  sand,  and  conditions  to  be 
observed  ;  choice  of  water  ;  proportions  of  sand  desirable  ;  measuring  the  ingredients  of 
mortar;  mixing  the  mortar  ;  selenitic  mortar  ;  lime  and  cement  mixtures  ;  grout ;  moisture 
essential  to  the  setting  of  mortars.  Bricklayers' tools.  Laying  bricks  :  sizes,  breaking  joint, 
bond  ;  headers,  stretchers,  and  closers  ;  English  and  Flemish  bond;  raking  courses  in  thick 
walls :  keeping  the  work  level  and  plumb  ;  ensuring  adhesion  between  the  brick  and  the 
mortar;  pointing  and  finishing  brickwork, — striking,  tuck  pointing,  weather  joint,  bastard 
tuck,  bastard-tuck  pointing,  evils  and  uselessness  of  the  common  methods  and  descrij)tion  of 
how  it  should  be  done ;  examples  of  first  and  second  courses  of  walls  in  various  styles  of 
bond  ;  hollow  walls  ;  fireplaces.  Concrete  ;  the  materials  composing  it,  their  choice  and 
proportions  ;  mixing ;  laying  moulds  for  constructing  walls  ;  the  cementing  material ;  bulk 


CONTENTS.  Xi 

produced  ;  selenitic  concrete ;  expansion  of  concrete.     Saltpetreing  of  walls — causes   and 
cure.     Damp  walls  and  their  prevention.     Scaffolding  for  bricklayers       ..      ,.      561-604 

Plastering  and  Whitewashing  :  Plastering  -.  materials, — basis  of  plasters,  Portland 
cement,  Parian  or  Keating's  cement,  composition  of  the  several  coats ;  lime,  water,  and 
hair  used  ;  coarse  stuff",  fine  stuff,  plasterei's'  putty,  gauged  stuff;  selenitic  plaster  ;  rough 
cast ;  stucco ;  scagliola  ;  Marezzo  marble  ;  mouldings  and  ornaments  in  plaster  and  papier 
machd  ;  tools ;  lathing ;  laying  and  pricking-up.  Whitewashing,  Calcimining  or  Distemper 
Fainting :  common  whitewash  or  lime  whiting ;  common  colouring,  making  whiting  ; 
white  and  coloured  distemper ;  indoor  operations  on  good  ceilings  ;  a  simple  lime-wash  ; 
a  good  stone-colour  wash  ;  a  waterproof  calcimine  that  bears  washing  ;  re-whiting  an  old 
dirty  ceiling  ;  further  hints  and  recipes  for  milk  distempers  and  whitewashes,.      604-613 

Roofing  :  pitches  of  roofs,  what  decides  them,  and  what  are  generally  adopted  ;  thatching  ; 
shingles  or  shides  ;  felt ;  dachpappe  ;  Willesden  paper ;  slates  ;  tiles  ;  metallic  roofing 

613-627 

Glazing  :  Glass  of  various  kinds  ;  putty,  soft  putty,  to  soften  putty  ;  tools ;  lead  glazing  ; 
special  methods  of  glazing,  not  dependent  on  putty      627-634 

Bell-hanging  :  the  ordinary  domestic  bell  system,  tubes,  wires,  cranks,  gimlet,  bells,  and 
general  directions  ;  electric  bells, — the  battery,  wires,  circuit-closer,  bells,  arrangement  of 
series  ;  systems  with  1  bell  and  1  press  button,  1  bell  and  2  buttons,  2  bells  and  1  button, 
annunciator  system,  double  system,  bell  and  telephone  ;  making  electric  bell, — backboard 
and  cover,  electro-magnet,  bobbins  or  coils,  filling  the  bobbins  with  wire,  putting  the  bell 
together 634-640 

Gas-fitting  :  fixing  brackets  and  pendants,  making  joints,  using  the  tongs      ..     640-642 

Paper-hanging  :  classification  of  wall  papers,  their  characters  and  uses  ;  how  sold ; 
colours  to  avoid ;  papers  for  damp  walls ;  varnishing,  sizing,  painting  and  washing  wall 
papers  ;  wall  papers  considered  as  ornament,  and  rules  as  to  colour,  pattern,  dado,  and 
frieze  ;  pasting,  cutting,  and  hanging  the  paper,  and  precautions  to  be  observed     642-646 

Lighting  :  natural  lighting,  window  area ;  artificial  lighting  by  candles,  oils,  gas,  and 
electricity.  Oil  lamps,  their  principles,  and  the  objects  aimed  at  in  the  various  forms  of 
wick,  burner,  and  regulator.  Gas,  how  supplied,  computing  the-  number  of  burners 
necessary,  advantage  of  a  ventilator,  how  to  turn  off  gas  at  night ;  construction  of 
burners  and  conditions  that  govern  it ;  distribution  of  jets  ;  selection  of  glass  globes  ;  how 
to  utilize  fully  the  luminosity  of  the  gas.  Electric  lighting, — rules  and  regulations  for 
minimizing  risk,  joining  the  wires 646-654 

Ventilating  :  window  ventilators,  Butler's  system,  Arnott's  system,  Morse's  system, 
American  plan  in  large  buildings,  method  at  St.  Thomas's  Hospital,  method  at  Guy's 
Hospital,  Harding's  ventilators,  system  adopted  by  the  Sanitary  Engineering  and  Venti- 
lating Co.,  Boyle's  air-pump  ventilators,  Kershaw's  chimney  cowl 654—658 

Warming  :  conserving  heat,  double  windows ;  radiant  heat  and  hot  air,  their  relative 
position  as  regards  health  ;  open  grates  ;  open  stoves,  economizing  fuel  with  ordinary 
grates;  close  stoves  ;  hot-air  furnaces  ;  hot-water  heating  ;  steam  heating      ..      658-667 

Foundations  :  points  to  be  considered ;  foundations  on  rock,  gravel,  sand,  clay,  firm 
ground  overlying  soft  ground,  soft  ground  of  indefinite  thickness  ;  concrete  ;  fascines  ; 
piling;  footings;  damp  course        667-670 

Roads  and  Bridges :  Roads :  the  original  foot  track,  temporary  roads  in  unmapped 
country,  one  made  across  the  Chenab ;  plank  roads  and  turnouts ;  pavements, — flagging, 
asphalt,  cement  floors.  Bridges, — simple  timber  bridge,  paved  causeway,  boat  bridges, 
travelling  cradles,  rope  bridges,  weighted  beams 670-676 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

Banks,  Hedges,  Ditches,  and  Drains ..     676-677 

Water  Supply  and  Sanitation  :  river  water,  cleansing  ;  spring  water,  filtering ; 
wells,  sinking  in  various  strata,  steiniug,  simple  plan  used  in  India ;  pumps  and  various 
other  methods  of  raising  water  ;  ponds,  cavern  tanks,  artificial  rain  ponds.  Drains  and 
traps. 677-680 

House  Construction :  Log  huts,  building  the  firejilace.  Frame  houses.  Earth  walls. 
Stairs.  Colonial  houses, — jieculiar  conditions  of  building  in  Canada,  Ceylon,  and  India,  to 
suit  the  climatic  requirements        680-688 


SPONS' 


MECHANICS'    OWN   BOOK. 


MECHANICAL  DRAWING.— A  knowledge  of  the  method  of  mating  working 
■drawings,  and  a  capability  of  interpreting  them  correctly  and  with  facility,  are  essential 
qualifications  in  a  mechanic,  as  almost  all  work,  unless  that  of  a  very  simple  character, 
is  first  drawn  to  scale,  and  then  carried  out  in  detail  according  to  the  drawing.  The 
following  observations  on  the  subject  are  mainly  condensed  from  Richards'  '  Workshop 
Manipulation,'  and  the  first  and  second  series  of  Binns'  '  Orthographic  Projection.' 

The  implements  required  by  the  draughtsman  include  drawing-boards,  scales,  squares, 
compasses,  ruling  pens,  pencils,  Indian  ink,  paper,  indiarubber,  and  water-colours. 

Buying  and  Keeping  Instruments. — Persons  with  limited  means  will  find  it  better  to 
procure  good  instruments  separately  of  any  respectable  maker,  W.  Stanley  of  Holborn 
for  instance,  as  they  may  be  able  to  afford  them,  than  to  purchase  a  complete  set  of 
inferior  instruments  in  a  case.  Instruments  may  be  carefully  preserved  by  merely 
rolling  them  up  in  a  piece  of  wash-leather,  leaving  space  between  them  that  they  may 
not  rub  each  other ;  or,  what  is  better,  having  some  loops  sewn  on  the  leather  to  slip  each 
instrument  separately  under. 

Drawing-boards. — You  may  procure  2  drawing-boards,  42  in.  long  and  30  in.  wide,  to 
receive  "  double  elei)hant "  paper.  Have  the  boards  plain,  without  elects,  or  ingenious 
devices  for  fastening  the  paper ;  they  should  be  made  from  thoroughly  seasoned  wood, 
at  least  I J  in.  thick,  as  if  thinner  they  will  not  be  heavy  enough  to  resist  the  thrust  of  the 
T-squares.  The  qualities  a  good  drawing-board  should  possess  are,  an  equal  surface, 
which  should  be  slightly  rounded  from  the  edges  to  the  centre,  in  order  that  the  drawing- 
paper  when  stretched  upon  it  may  present  a  solid  surface ;  and  that  the  edges  should  be 
perfectly  straight,  and  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  With  2  boards,  one  may  be  used 
lor  sketching  and  drawing  details,  which,  if  done  on  the  same  sheet  with  elevations, 
■dirties  the  paper,  and  is  apt  to  lower  the  standard  of  the  finished  drawing  by  what 
may  be  called  bad  association.  Details  and  sketches,  when  made  on  a  separate  sheet, 
should  be  to  a  larger  scale  than  elevations.  By  changing  from  one  scale  to  another,  the 
mind  is  schooled  in  proportion,  and  the  conception  of  sizes  and  dimensions  is  more  apt 
to  follow  the  finished  work  to  which  the  drawings  relate. 

Sades. — In  working  to  regular  scales,  such  as  J,  a,  or  -Jg.  size,  a  good  j^lan  is  to  use  a 
common  rule,  instead  of  a  graduated  scale.  There  is  nothing  more  convenient  for  a 
mechanical  draughtsman  than  to  be  able  to  readily  resolve  dimensions  into  various  scales, 
and  the  use  of  a  common  rule  for  fractional  scales  trains  the  mind,  so  that  computations 
come  naturally,  and  after  a  time  almost  without  effort. 

Sqjiares. — A  plain  T-square,  with  a  parallel  blade  fastened  on  the  side  of  the  head, 
but  not  imbedded  into  it,  is  the  best ;  in  this  way  set  squares  c  an  be  passed  over  the 

B 


2  Mechanical  Drawing. 

head  of  a  T-square  in  working  at  the  edges  of  the  drawing.  It  is  strange  that  a  drawing 
square  should  ever  have  been  made  in  any  other  manner  tlian  this,  and  still  more  strange, 
that  people  will  use  squares  that  do  not  allow  the  set  squares  to  pass  over  the  heads  and 
come  near  to  the  edge  of  the  board.  A  bevel  square  is  often  convenient,  but  should  be 
an  independent  one ;  a  T-square  that  has  a  movable  blade  is  not  suitable  for  general 
use.  Combinations  in  drawing  instruments,  no  matter  what  their  character,  should  be 
avoided.  For  set  squares,  or  triangles,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  no  material  is  so 
good  as  ebonite ;  such  squares  are  hard,  smooth,  impervious  to  moisture,  and  contrast 
with  the  paper  in  colour ;  besides,  they  wear  longer  than  those  made  of  wood.  For 
instruments,  it  is  best  to  avoid  everything  of  an  elaborate  or  fancy  kind.  Procure 
only  such  instruments  at  first  as  are  really  required,  of  the  best  quality,  and  then  add 
others  as  necessity  may  demand ;  in  this  way,  experience  will  often  suggest  modifications 
of  size  or  arrangement  that  will  add  to  the  convenience  of  a  set. 

Paper. — The    following  table    contains    the    dimensions  of  every  description    of 
English  drawing-paper. 


in.  in. 

Demy 20  by  15 

Medium 22  „  17 

Royal 24  „  19 

Imperial 31  „  21 

Elephant  ..        ..       27  „  23 


Columbier 

Atlas       

Double  Elephant 

Antiquarian     . . 

Emperor 68 


in. 

in. 

34 

by  23 

33 

„  26 

40 

„  26 

52 

„  29 

68 

„  48 

For  making  detail  drawings  an  inferior  paper  is  used,  termed  Cartridge  ;  this 
answers  for  line  drawings,  but  it  will  not  take  colours  or  tints  perfectly.  Continuous 
cartridge  paper  is  also  much  used  for  full-sized  mechanical  details,  and  some  other 
purposes.  It  is  made  uniformly  53  in.  wide,  and  may  be  had  of  any  length  by  the  yard, 
up  to  300  yd.  For  plans  of  considerable  size,  mounted  paper  is  used,  or  the  drawings 
are  afterwards  occasionally  mounted  on  canvas  or  linen. 

Mounting. — In  mounting  sheets  that  are  likely  to  be  removed  and  replaced,  for  the 
purpose  of  modification,  as  working  drawings  generally  are,  they  can  be  fastened  very 
well  by  small  copper  tacks  driven  in  along  the  edges  at  intervals  of  2  in.  or  less.  The 
paper  can  be  very  slightly  dampened  before  fastening  in  this  manner,  and  if  the  opera- 
tion is  carefully  performed  the  paper  will  be  quite  as  smooth  and  convenient  to  work 
upon  as  though  it  were  pasted  down;  the  tacks  can  be  driven  down  so  as  to  be  flush 
with,  or  below  the  surface  of,  the  paper,  and  will  offer  no  obstruction  to  squares.  If  a 
drawing  is  to  be  elaborate,  or  to  remain  long  upon  a  board,  the  paper  should  be  pasted 
down.  To  do  this,  first  prepare  thick  mucilage,  or  what  is  better,  glue,  and  have  it 
ready  at  hand,  with  some  slips  of  absorbent  paper  1  in.  or  so  wide.  Dampen  the  sheet 
on  both  sides  with  a  sponge,  and  then  apply  the  mucilage  along  the  edge,  for  a  width 
of  J-|  in.  It  is  a  matter  of  some  difficulty  to  place  a  .sheet  upon  a  board;  but  if  the 
board  is  set  on  its  edge,  the  paper  can  be  applied  without  assistance.  Then,  by  putting 
the  strips  of  paper  along  the  edge,  and  rubbing  over  them  with  some  smooth  hard 
instrument,  the  edges  of  the  sheet  can  be  pasted  firmly  to  the  board,  the  paper  slips 
taking  up  a  part  of  the  moisture  from  the  edges,  which  are  longest  in  drying.  If  left 
in  this  condition,  the  centre  will  dry  first,  and  the  paper  be  pulled  loose  at  the  edges  by 
contraction  before  the  paste  has  time  to  dry.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  pass  over  the 
centre  of  the  sheet  with  a  wet  sponge  at  intervals  to  keep  the  paper  slightly  damp  until 
the  edges  adhere  firmly,  when  it  can  be  left  to  dry,  and  will  be  tight  and  smooth.  One 
of  the  most  common  difficulties  in  mounting  sheets  is  in  not  having  the  gum  or  glue 
thick  enough ;  when  thin,  it  will  bo  absorbed  by  the  wood  or  the  paper,  or  is  too  long  in 
drying.  It  should  be  as  thick  as  it  can  be  applied  with  a  brush,  and  made  from  clean 
Arabic  gum,  tragacantb,  or  fine  glue.  Thumb-tacks  are  of  but  little  use  in  mechanical 
drawing  except  for  the  most  temporary  purposes,  and  may  very  well  be  dispensed  with 


Mechanical  Drawing.  3 

altojtether ;   they  injure  the  drawing-boards,  obstruct  the  squares,  and  disfigure  the 
sheets. 

Mounting  on  Linen. — The  linen  or  calico  is  first  stretched  by  tacking  it  tiglitly  on  a 
frame  or  board.  It  is  then  thoroughly  coated  with  strong  size,  and  left  until  nearly  dry. 
The  sheet  of  paper  to  be  mounted  requires  to  be  well  covered  with  paste ;  this  -will  be 
best  if  done  twice,  leaving  the  first  coat  about  10  minutes  to  soak  into  the  paper.  After 
applying  the  second  coat,  place  the  paper  on  the  linen,  and  dab  it  all  over  with  a  clean 
cloth.     Cut  off  when  thoroughly  dry. 

Pencilling. — This  is  the  first  and  the  most  important  operation  in  drawing ;  more 
skill  is  required  to  produce  neat  pencil-work  than  to  ink  in  the  lines  after  the  pencilling 
is  done.  A  beginner,  unless  he  exercises  great  care  in  the  pencil-work  of  a  drawing, 
■will  have  the  disappointment  to  find  the  paper  soon  becoming  dirty,  and  the  pencil  lines 
crossing  each  other  everywhere,  so  as  to  give  the  whole  a  slovenly  appearance.  lie  will 
also,  unless  he  understands  the  nature  of  the  operations  in  which  he  is  engaged,  make 
the  mistake  of  regarding  the  pencil-work  as  an  unimportant  part,  instead  of  constituting, 
as  it  does,  the  main  drawing,  and  thereby  neglect  that  accuracy  •which  alone  can  make 
either  a  good-looking  or  a  valuable  one.  Pencil-work  is  indeed  the  main  operation,  the 
inking  being  merely  to  give  distinctness  and  permanency  to  the  lines.  The  main  thing 
in  pencilling  is  accuracy  of  dimensions  and  stopping  the  lines  where  they  should  ter- 
minate without  crossing  others.  The  best  pencils  only  are  suitable  for  drawing  ;  if  the 
plumbago  (graphite)  is  not  of  the  best  quality,  the  points  require  to  be  continually 
sharpened,  and  the  pencil  is  worn  away  at  a  rate  that  more  than  makes  up  the  difference 
in  cost  between  the  finer  and  cheaper  grades  of  pencils,  to  say  nothing  of  the  effect 
upon  a  drawing.  It  is  common  to  use  a  flat  point  for  drawing  pencils,  but  a  round  one 
will  often  be  found  quite  as  good  if  the  pencils  are  fine,  and  some  convenience  is 
gained  by  a  round  point  for  freehand  use  in  making  rounds  and  fillets.  A  Faber 
pencil,  that  has  detachable  points  which  can  be  set  out  as  they  are  worn  away,  is 
convenient.  For  compasses,  the  lead  points  should  be  cylindrical,  and  fit  into  a  metal 
sheath  without  paper  packing  or  other  contrivance  to  hold  them  ;  and  if  a  draughtsman 
has  instruments  not  arranged  in  this  manner,  he  should  have  them  changed  at  once, 
both  for  convenience  and  economy.  If  the  point  is  intended  for  sketching,  it  la  cut 
equally  from  all  sides,  to  produce  a  perfectly  acute  cone.  If  this  be  used  for  line 
drawing,  the  tip  will  be  easily  broken,  or  otherwise  it  soon  wears  thick ;  thus,  it  is 
much  better  for  line  drawing  to  have  a  thin  flat  point.  The  general  manner  ef  pro- 
ceeding is,  first,  to  cut  the  pencil,  from  2  sides  only,  with  a  long  slope,  so  as  to  produce 
a  kind  of  chisel-end,  and  afterwards  to  cut  the  other  sides  away  only  sufficient  to  be 
able  to  round  the  first  edge  a  little.  A  point  cut  in  the  manner  described  may  be  kept 
ill  good  order  for  some  time  by  pointing  the  lead  upon  a  small  piece  of  fine  sandstone  or 
fine  glass-paper  ;  this  will  be  less  trouble  than  the  continual  application  of  the  knife, 
which  is  always  liable  to  break  the  extreme  edge. 

Erasing  Errors. — To  erase  Cumberland-lead  pencil  marks,  native  or  liottle  india- 
rubber  answers  perfectly.  This,  however,  will  not  entirely  erase  any  kind  of  German 
or  other  manufactured  pencil  marks.  What  is  found  best  for  this  purpose  is  fino  vul- 
canised india-rubber ;  this,  besides  being  a  more  powerful  eraser,  has  also  the  quality  of 
keeping  clean,  as  it  frets  away  with  the  friction  of  rubbing,  and  presents  a  continually 
renewed  surface  to  the  drawing;  the  worn-oft"  particles  produce  a  kind  of  dust,  easily 
swept  away.  Vulcanised  rubber  is  also  extremely  useful  for  cleaning  off  drawings,  as 
it  will  remove  any  ordinary  stain. 

For  erasing  ink  lines,  the  point  of  a  penknife  or  erasing  knife  is  commonly  used,  A 
much  better  means  is  to  employ  a  piece  of  fine  glass-paper,  folded  several  times,  imtil  it 
presents  a  round  edge ;  this  leaves  the  surface  of  the  paper  in  much  better  order  to  draw 
upon  than  it  is  left  from  knife  erasures.  Fine  size  api^lied  with  a  brush  will  be  found 
convenient  to  prevent  colour  running. 

B  2 


4  Mechanical  Drawing. 

To  produce  finished  drawings,  it  is  necessary  that  no  portion  should  be  erased, 
otlierwise  the  colour  applied  will  be  unequal  in  tone;  thus,  when  highly  finished  me- 
clianical  drawings  are  required,  it  is  usual  to  draw  an  original  and  to  copy  it,  as 
mistakes  are  almost  certain  to  occur  in  delineating  any  new  machine.  Where  sufficient 
time  cannot  be  given  to  draw  and  copy,  a  very  good  way  is  to  take  the  surface  off  the 
paper  with  fine  glass-paper  before  commencing  the  drawing ;  if  this  be  done,  the  colour 
will  ilow  equally  over  any  erasure  it  may  be  necessary  to  make  afterwards. 

Where  ink  lines  are  a  little  over  the  intended  mark,  and  it  is  difficult  to  erase  them 
without  disfiguring  other  portions  of  the  drawing,  a  little  Chinese  white  or  flake-white 
mixed  rather  dry,  may  be  applied  with  a  fine  sable-brush;  this  •will  render  a  small 
defect  much  less  perceptible  than  by  erasure. 

Whenever  the  surface  of  the  paper  is  roughened  by  using  the  erasing  knife,  it  should 
be  rubbed  down  with  some  hard  and  perfectly  clean  rounded  instrument. 

Inldnq. — Ink  used  in  drawing  should  always  be  the  best  that  can  be  procured  ;  without 
good  ink  a  draughtsman  is  continually  annoyed  by  an  imperfect  working  of  pens,  and 
the  washing  of  the  lines  if  there  is  shading  to  be  done.  The  quality  of  ink  can  only  be 
determined  by  experiment;  the  perfume  that  it  contains,  or  tin-foil  wrappers  and 
Chinese  labels,  are  no  indication  of  quality ;  not  even  the  price,  unless  it  be  with 
some  first-class  house.  It  is  better  to  waste  a  little  time  in  preparing  ink  slowly 
than  to  be  at  a  continual  trouble  with  pens,  which  will  occur  if  the  ink  is  ground 
too  rapidly  or  on  a  rough  surface.  To  test  ink,  a  few  lines  can  be  drawn  on  the  margin 
of  a  sheet,  noting  the  shade,  how  the  ink  flows  from  the  pen,  and  whether  the 
lines  are  sharp.  Aftt-r  the  lines  have  dried,  cross  them  with  a  wet  brush:  if 
they  wash  readily,  the  ink  is  too  soft ;  if  they  resist  the  water  for  a  time  and 
tlicn  wash  tardily,  the  ink  is  good.  It  cannot  be  expected  that  inks  soluble  in 
water  can  permanently  resist  its  action  after  drying ;  in  fact,  it  is  not  desirable 
tliat  drawing  inks  should  do  so,  for  in  shading,  outlines  should  be  blended  into 
the  tints  whore  the  latter  are  deep,  and  this  can  only  be  effected  by  washing.  Pens  will 
generally  fill  by  capillary  attraction ;  if  not,  they  should  be  made  wet  by  being  dipped 
into  water.  They  should  not  be  put  into  the  mouth  to  wet  them,  as  there  is  danger 
of  poison  from  some  kinds  of  ink,  and  the  habit  is  not  a  neat  one.  In  using  ruling  pens, 
they  should  be  held  nearly  vertical,  leaning  just  enough  to  prevent  them 
from  catcliing  on  the  paper.  Beginners  have  a  tendency  to  hold  pens  at  a  low 
angle,  and  drag  them  on  their  side,  but  this  will  not  produce  clean  sharp  lines,  nor 
allow  the  linos  to  be  made  near  enough  to  the  edges  of  square  blades  or  set 
squares.  The  pen  should  be  held  between  the  thumb  and  first  and  second  fingers, 
the  knuckles  being  bent,  so  that  it  may  be  at  right  angles  with  the  length  of  the  hand. 
The  ink  should  be  rubbed  up  fresh  every  day  upon  a  clean  palette.  Liquid  ink  and 
other  shnilar  preparations  are  generally  failures.  The  ink  should  be  moderately  thick, 
so  that  the  pen  when  slightly  shaken  will  retain  it  ^  in.  up  the  nibs.  The  pen  is  supplied 
by  breathing  between  the  nibs  before  immersion  iu  the  ink,  or  by  means  of  a  small  camel- 
hair  brush ;  the  nibs  will  afterwards  require  to  be  wiped,  to  prevent  the  ink  going  upon 
the  edge  of  the  instrument  to  be  drawn  against.  The  edge  used  to  direct  the  pen  should 
in  no  instance  be  less  than  -j-'g-  in.  in  thickness  :  Jy  in.  is  perhaps  the  best.  If  the  edge 
be  very  thin,  it  is  almost  impossible  to  prevent  the  ink  escaping  upon  it,  with  the  great 
risk  of  its  getting  on  to  the  drawing.  Before  putting  the  pen  away,  it  should  be 
carefully  wiped  between  the  nibs  by  drawing  a  piece  of  folded  paper  through  them 
until  they  are  dry  and  clean. 

AVith  all  forms  of  dotting  pen  a  little  knack  is  required  in  using.  If  straight  lines 
are  to  be  produced,  it  is  advisable  to  lay  a  piece  of  writing  paper  right  up  to  the  place 
where  the  line  is  intended  to  commence.  By  this  means  it  is  readily  discovered  if  the 
pen  is  working  well.  It  also  avoids  a  starting-point  on  the  drawing,  which  very  com- 
monly leaves  a  few  dots  running  into  each  other.     Fur  drawing  circles  with  the  dotting 


Mechanical  Drawing.  5 

pen,  fixed  iu  the  compass,  the  same  precaution  is  necessary.  The  paper  may  bo  pushed 
aside  as  soon  as  it  comes  in  the  way  of  conipktiug  the  circle.  Another  luceaaary  pre- 
caution with  dotting  pens  is  not  to  stop  during  the  production  of  a  line.  In  all  dotting 
pens  the  rowels  have  to  be  made  rather -loose  to  run  freely,  and  by  this  cause  are  liable 
to  wobble ;  to  avoid  this,  the  pen  should  be  held  slightly  obliiiue  to  the  direction  of  the 
line,  so  as  to  run  the  rowel  against  one  nib  only. 

Testing  Straight-edge. — Lay  the  straight-edge  upon  a  stretched  sheet  of  paper,  placing 
weights  upon  it  to  hold  it  firmly  ;  then  draw  a  line  against  the  edge  with  a  needle  in  a 
holder,  or  a  very  fine  hard  pencil,  held  constantly  vertical,  or  at  one  angle  to  the  paper, 
being  careful  to  use  as  light  pressure  as  possible.  If  the  straight-edge  be  then  turned 
over  to  the  reverse  side  of  the  line,  and  a  second  line  be  produced  in  a  similar  manner 
to  the  first,  at  about  ..'^  in.  distance  from  it,  any  inequalities  in  the  edge  will  appear  by 
the  diflerences  of  the  distances  in  various  parts  of  the  lines,  which  may  be  measured 
by  spring  dividers.  Another  method  will  be  found  to  answer  well  if  3  straight-edges 
are  at  hand ;  this  method  is  used  in  making  the  straight-edge.  Two  straight-edges  are 
laid  together  upon  a  flat  surface,  and  the  meeting  edges  examined  to  see  if  they  touch 
in  all  parts,  reversing  them  iu  every  possible  way.  If  these  appear  perfect,  a  third 
straight-edge  is  applied  to  each  of  the  edges  already  tested,  and  if  that  touch  it  in  all 
parts  the  edges  are  all  perfect.  It  may  be  observed  that  the  first  two  examined,  although 
they  touch  perfectly,  may  be  regular  curves  ;  but  if  so,  the  third  edge  applied  will 
detect  the  curvature. 

Using  Parallel  Eule. — One  of  the  rules  is  pressed  down  firmly  with  the  fingers,  while 
the  other  is  moved  by  the  centre  stud  to  the  distances  at  which  parallel  lines  are 
required.  Should  the  bars  not  extend  a  suflicient  distance  for  a  required  parallel  line, 
one  rule  is  held  firmly,  and  the  other  shifted,  alternately,  until  the  distance  is  reached. 

Using  Compasses. — It  is  considered  best  to  place  the  forefinger  upon  the  head,  and  to 
move  the  legs  within  the  second  linger  and  thumb.  Iu  dividing  distances  into  equal 
parts,  it  is  be^t  to  hold  the  dividers  as  much  as  possible  by  the  head  joint,  after  they 
are  set  to  the  required  dimensions ;  as  by  touching  the  legs  they  are  liable  to  change,  if 
the  joint  moves  softly,  as  it  should.  In  dividing  a  line,  it  is  better  to  move  the  dividers 
alternately  above  and  below  the  line  from  each  point  of  division,  than  to  roll  them 
over  continually  iu  one  direction,  as  it  saves  the  shifting  of  the  fingers  on  the  head  of 
the  dividers.  In  taking  off  distances  with  dividers,  it  is  always  better,  first  to  open, 
them  a  little  too  wide,  and  afterwards  close  them  to  the  point  required,  than  set  them  by 
opening. 

Tints,  Dimensions,  and  Centre  Lines. — A  drawing  being  inked  in,  the  next  things  are 
tints,  dimensions,  and  centre  lines.  The  centre  line  should  be  in  red  ink,  and  pass 
through  all  points  of  the  drawing  that  have  an  axial  centre,  or  where  the  work  is  similar 
and  balanced  on  each  side  of  the  line.  This  rule  is  a  little  obscure,  but  will  be  best 
understood  if  studied  in  connection  with  the  drawing. 

Dimension  lines  should  be  in  blue,  but  may  be  in  red.  Where  to  put  them  is  a 
great  point  in  drawing.  To  know  where  dimensions  are  required  involves  a  knowledge 
acquired  by  practice.  The  lines  should  be  fine  and  clear,  leaving  a  space  iu  their  centre 
for  figures  when  there  is  room.  The  distribution  of  centre  lines  and  dimensions  over  a 
drawing  must  be  carefully  studied,  for  the  double  purpose  of  giving  it  a  good  appear- 
ance and  to  avoid  confusion.  Figures  should  be  made  like  printed  numerals ;  they  are 
much  better  understood  by  the  workman,  look  more  artistic,  and  when  once  learned 
require  but  little  if  any  more  time  than  written  figures.  If  the  scale  employed  is  feet 
and  inches,  dimensions  to  3  ft.  should  be  in  inches,  and  above  this  in  feet  and  inches ; 
this  corresponds  to  shop  custom,  and  is  more  comprehensible  to  the  workman,  however 
wrong  it  may  be  according  to  other  standards. 

In  shading  drawings,  be  careful  not  to  use  too  deep  tints,  and  to  put  the  shades 
in  the  right  place.    Many  will  contend,  and  not  without  good  reasons,  that  working 


6  Mechanical  Drawing. 

drawings  require  no  shading;  yet  it  -will  do  no  barm  to  learn  how  and  where  they  can 
be  bhadfd  :  it  is  better  to  omit  the  shading  frnm  choice  than  from  necessity.  Sec- 
tions must,  of  course,  be  shaded — with  lines  is  the  old  custom,  yet  it  is  certainly  a 
tedious  and  useless  one;  sections  with  light  ink  shading  of  different  colours,  to  indicate 
the  kind  of  material,  are  easier  to  make,  and  look  much  better.  By  the  judicious 
arrangement  of  a  drawing,  a  large  share  of  it  may  be  in  sections,  -which  in  almost 
every  case  are  the  best  views  to  work  by.  The  proper  colouring  of  sections  gives 
a  good  appearance  to  a  drawing,  and  makes  it  "stand  out  from  the  paper."  In  sliading 
sections,  leave  a  margin  of  white  between  the  tints  and  the  lines  on  the  upper  and  left- 
liand  sidcH  of  the  section :  this  breaks  the  connection  or  sameness,  and  the  effect  is 
striking  ;  it  separates  the  parts,  and  adds  greatly  to  the  clearness  and  general  appear- 
ance of  a  drawing. 

Cyliiiihical  parts  in  the  plane  of  sections,  such  as  shafts  and  bolts,  should  be  drawn 
full,  and  Iiave  a  "  round  shade,"  which  relieves  the  flat  appearance — a  point  to  bo 
avoided  as  much  as  possible  in  sectional  views. 

Title — The  title  of  a  drawing  is  a  feature  that  has  much  to  do  with  its  appearance, 
and  tlie  iMiprcssion  conveyed  to  the  mind  of  an  observer.  While  it  can  add  nothing  to 
the  real  value  of  a  drawing,  it  is  so  easy  to  make  plain  letters,  that  the  apprentice  is 
urged  to  learn  this  as  soon  as  he  begins  to  draw ;  not  to  make  fancy  letters,  nor  indeed, 
any  kind  except  plain  block  letters,  which  can  be  rapidly  laid  out  and  finished,  and  con- 
sequently emplo}'ed  to  a  greater  extent.  By  drawing  6  parallel  lines,  and  making  5 
spaces,  and  then  crossing  them  with  equidistant  lines,  the  i^oints  and  angles  in  block 
letters  arc  determined  ;  after  a  little  practice,  it  becomes  the  work  of  but  a  few  minutes 
to  put  down  a  title  or  other  matter  on  a  drawing  so  that  it  can  be  seen  and  read  at  a 
glance  in  searching  for  sheets  or  details.  In  the  manufacture  of  machines,  there  are 
usually  so  many  sizes  and  modifications,  that  drawings  should  assist  and  determine  in  a 
large  degree  the  completeness  of  classification  and  record.  For  simplicity  sake  it  is 
well  to  assume  symbols  for  machines  of  diiferent  classes,  consisting  generally  of  tho 
letters  of  (he  alphabet,  qualified  by  a  single  number  as  an  exponent  to  designate  capacity 
or  different  modifications.  Assuming,  in  the  case  of  engine  lathes,  A  to  be  the  symbol 
for  lathes  of  all  sizes,  then  those  of  different  capacity  and  modification  can  be  represented 
in  the  drawings  and  records  as  A',  A",  and  so  on,  requiring  but  2  characters  to  indicate  a 
lathe  of  any  kind.  These  syndools  should  be  marked  in  large  plain  letters  on  the  left-hand 
lower  corner  of  sheets,  so  that  any  one  can  sec  at  a  glance  what  the  drawings  relate  to. 
'VMien  (ho  dimensions  and  symbols  are  added  to  a  drawing,  the  next  thing  is  pattern  or 
catalogue  numbers.  These  should  be  marked  in  prominent,  plain  figures  on  each  piece, 
either  in  red  or  other  colour  that  will  contrast  with  the  general  face  of  the  drawing. 

Katnrr  of  Drawings. — Isometrical  perspective  is  often  useful  in  drawing,  especially 
in  wood  siructures,  when  the  material  is  of  rectangular  section,  and  disijosed  at  right 
angles,  as  in  machine  frames.  One  isometrical  view,  which  can  be  made  nearly  as 
quickly  as  a  true  elevation,  will  show  all  the  parts,  and  may  be  figured  for  dimensions 
tlie  Bame  as  piano  views.  True  perspective,  although  rarely  necessary  in  mechanical 
drawing,  may  be  studied  with  advantage  in  connection  with  geometry;  it  will  often  lead 
to  the  explanation  of  problems  in  isometric  drawing,  and  will  also  assist  in  free-hand 
lines  that  have  sometimes  to  be  made  to  show  parts  of  machinery  oblique  to  the  regular 
planes. 

Geometrical  drawings  consist  of  plans,  elevations,  and  sections ;  plans  being  views  on 
the  top  of  tho  object  in  a  horizontal  plane ;  elevations,  views  on  the  sides  of  the  object 
in  vertical  planes ;  and  sections,  views  taken  on  bisecting  planes,  at  any  angle  through 
an  object. 

Drawings  in  true  elevation  or  in  section  are  based  upon  flat  planes,  and  given 
dimon.sions  parallel  to  the  planes  in  which  the  views  are  taken. 

Two  elevations  taken  at  right  angles  to  each  other  fix  all  points,  and  give  all 


Mechanical  Drawing.  7 

dimensions  of  parts  that  have  their  axis  parallel  to  tho  planes  on  which  the  views  are 
taken  ;  but  when  a  machine  is  complex,  or  when  several  parts  lie  in  the. same  plane,  3 
and  sometimes  4  views  are  required  to  display  all  the  parts  in  a  comprelicnsive  manner. 

Mechanical  drawings  should  be  made  with  reference  to  all  the  processes  that  are 
required  in  the  construction  of  the  work,  and  the  drawings  should  bo  responsible,  not 
only  for  dimensions,  but  for  unnecessary  expense  in  fitting,  forging,  pattern-making, 
moulding,  and  so  on. 

Every  part  laid  down  has  something  to  govern  it  that  may  be  termed  a  "  base  " — 
some  condition  of  function  or  position  which,  if  understood,  will  suggest  size,  shape,  and 
relation  to  other  parts.  By  searching  after  a  base  for  each  and  every  part  and  detail, 
the  draughtsman  proceeds  upon  a  regular  system,  continually  maintaining  a  test  of  what 
is  done. 

Finisliing  a  Drawing. — While  to  finish  a  drawing  without  any  error  or  defect  should 
be  the  draughtsman's  object,  he  should  never  be  in  haste  to  reject  a  damaged  drawing, 
but  sliould  exercise  his  ingenuity  to  see  how  far  injuries  done  to  it  may  be  remedied. 
Never  lose  a  drawing  once  begun  ;  and  since  ijrcvention  is  easier  and  better  than  cure, 
always  work  calmly,  inspect  all  instruments,  hands,  and  sleeves,  that  may  touch  a 
drawing,  before  commencing  an  operation ;  let  the  paper,  instruments,  and  person  be 
kept  clean,  and  when  considerable  time  is  to  be  spent  upon  a  portion  of  the  paper,  let 
the  remainder  be  covered  with  waste  paper,  pasted  to  one  edge  of  the  board.  For  the 
final  cleaning  of  the  drawing,  stale  bread,  or  the  old-fashioned  black  indiarubber,  if  not 
sticky,  is  good;  but,  aside  from  the  carelessness  of  ever  allowing  a  drawing  to  get  very 
dirty,  any  fine  drawing  will  be  injured,  more  or  less,  by  any  means  of  removing  a 
considerable  quantity  of  dirt  from  it.  Another  excellent  means  of  preventing  injuries, 
■which  should  bo  adopted  when  the  drawing  is  worked  upon  only  at  intervals,  is  to 
enclose  the  board,  when  not  in  use,  in  a  bag  of  enamelled  cloth  or  other  fine  material. 

Colours. — For  colouring  drawings,  the  most  soluble,  brilliant,  and  transparent  water- 
colours  are  used  ;  this  particularly  applies  to  plans  and  sections.  The  colour  is  not  so 
much  intended  to  represent  that  of  the  material  to  be  used  in  the  construction,  as  to 
clearly  distinguish  one  material  from  another  employed  on  the  same  work.  The  following 
table  shows  the  colours  most  employed  by  the  profession : — 

Carmine  or  Crimson  Lake       For  brickwork  in  plan  or  section  to  be  executed. 

-r>        .      -Di  fFlintwork,    lead,    or   parts   of    brickwork  to  ba 

Prussian  Blue |     removed  by  alterations. 

Venetian  Red Brickwork  in  elevation. 

Violet  Carmine Granite. 

Eaw  Sienna        English  timber  (not  oak). 

Burnt  Sienna     Oak,  teak. 

Indian  Yellow Fir  timber. 

Indian  Red         Mahogany. 

Sepia Concrete  works,  stone. 

Burnt  Umber      Clay,  earth. 

Payne's  Grey     Cast  iron,  rough  wrought  iron. 

Dark  Cadmium Gun  metal. 

Gamboge Brass. 

Indigo  Wrought  iron  (bright;. 

Indigo,  with  a  little  Lake  Steel  (bright). 

Hooker's  Green Meadow  land. 

Cobalt  Blue        Sky  effects. 

And  some  few  others  occasionally  for  special  purposes. 

In  colouring  plans  of  estates,  the  colours  that  appear  natural  are  mostly  adopted, 
which  may  be  produced  by  combinring  the  above.     Elevations  and  perspective  drawings 


8  Mechanical  Drawing. 

are  also  represented  in  natural  colours,  the  primitive  colours  being  mixed  aud  varied  b^ 
the  judgment  of  the  drauglitsman,  who,  to  produce  the  best  eflfects,  must  be  iu  some 
degree  an  artist. 

Care  should  be  taken  in  making  an  elaborate  drawing,  which  is  to  receive  colour, 
tliat  the  hand  at  no  time  rest  upon  the  surface  of  the  paper,  as  it  is  found  to  leave  a. 
greasiness  difficult  to  remove.  A  piece  of  paper  placed  under  the  hand,  and  if  the  square 
is  not  very  clean,  under  that  also,  will  prevent  this.  Should  the  colours  from  any  cause,, 
work  greasily,  a  little  prepared  ox-gall  may  be  dissolved  iu  the  water  with  which  the 
colours  are  mixed,  and  will  cause  them  to  work  freely. 

Shading. — For  shading,  camel-  or  sable-hair  brushes,  called  softeners,  are  generally 
Tised :  these  have  a  brush  at  each  end  of  the  handle,  one  being  much  larger  than  tlie 
other.  The  manner  of  using  the  softener  for  shading  is,  to  fill  the  smaller  brush  with 
colour,  and  to  thoroughly  moisten  the  larger  one  with  water ;  the  colour  is  then  laid  upon 
the  drawing  with  the  smaller  brush,  to  represent  the  dark  portion  of  the  shade,  and 
immediately  after,  while  the  colour  is  quite  moist,  the  brush  that  is  moistened  with 
water  is  drawn  down  the  edge  intended  to  be  shaded  ofl';  this  brush  is  then  wiped  uponr 
a  cloth  and  drawn  down  the  outer  moist  edge  to  remove  the  surplus  water,  which  will 
leave  the  shade  perfectly  soft.  If  very  dark  shades  are  required,  this  has  to  be  repeated 
when  the  first  is  quite  dry. 

To  tint  large  surfaces,  a  large  camel-hair  brush  is  used,  termed  a  wash-brush.  The 
manner  of  proceeding  is,  first,  to  tilt  the  drawing,  if  practicable,  and  commence  by 
putting  the  colour  on  from  the  upper  left-hand  corner  of  the  surface,  taking  short  strokes- 
the  width  of  the  brush  along  the  top  edge  of  the  space  to  be  coloured,  immediately  fol- 
lowing with  another  line  of  similar  strokes  into  the  moist  edge  of  the  first  line,  and  so 
on  as  far  as  required,  removing  the  last  surplus  colour  with  a  nearly  dry  brush.  The 
theory  of  the  above  is,  that  you  may  perfectly  unite  wet  colour  to  a  moist  edge,  although 
you  cannot  to  a  dry  edge  without  showing  the  juncture.  For  tinting  surfaces,  it  is  well 
always  to  mix  more  than  sufficient  colour  at  first. 

Colouring  Tracings. — It  is  always  best  to  colour  tracings  on  the  back,  as  the  ink  lines 
are  liable  to  be  obliterated  when  the  colour  is  applied.  Mix  the  colours  very  dark,  so 
that  they  may  appear  of  proper  depth  on  the  other  side.  If  ink  or  colour  does  not  ruii 
freely  on  tracing  cloth,  mix  Loth  with  a  little  ox-gall. 

Eemoving  Drawings  from  the  Board. — Make  a  pencil  line  round  the  paper  with  the 
T-square  at  a  suificient  distance  to  clear  the  glued  edge,  and  to  cut  the  paper  with  a 
penknife,  guided  by  a  stout  ruler.  In  no  instance  should  the  edge  of  the  T-square  be 
used  to  cut  by.  A  piece  of  hard  wood  5  in.  thick  by  2  in.  wide,  and  about  the  length 
of  the  paper,  forms  a  useful  rule  for  the  purpose,  and  may  be  had  at  small  cost.  The 
instrument  used  for  cutting  off,  in  any  important  draughtsman's  office,  is  what  is  tenned 
a  stationers'  rule,  which  is  a  piece  of  hard  wood  of  similar  dimensions  to  that  just 
described,  but  with  the  edges  covered  with  brass.  It  is  necessary  to  have  the  edge- 
thick,  to  prevent  the  point  of  the  knife  slipping  over.  Either  of  the  above  rules  will 
also  answer  to  turn  the  edge  of  the  paper  up  against  when  glueing  it  to  the  board. 

Mounting  Ungravings.—  Sti-ain  thin  calico  on  a  frame,  then  carefully  paste  on  the 
engraving  bo  as  to  be  free  from  creases ;  afterwards,  when  dry,  give  2  coats  of  thin  size 
(a  piece  the  size  of  a  small  nut  in  a  small  cupful  of  hot  water  will  be  strong  enough)  ; 
finally,  when  dry,  varnish  with  white  hard  vamish. 

Fencil  Drawings,  to  fix. — Prepare  water-starch,  in  the  manner  of  the  laundress,  of 
such  a  strength  as  to  form  a  jelly  when  cold,  and  then  apply  with  a  broad  camel-hair 
brush,  as  in  varnishing.  The  same  may  be  done  with  thin,  cold  isinglass  water  or  size, 
or  rice  water. 

Tracing-doth. — Varnish  the  cloth  with  Canada  balsam  dissolved  in  turpentine,  to 
which  may  be  added  a  few  drops  of  castor-oil,  but  do  not  add  too  much,  or  it  will  not 
dry.     Try  a  little  piece  first  with  a  small  quantity  of  varnish.     The  kind  of  cloth  to  use 


Mechanical  Drawing.  9 

is  fine  linen ;  do  not  let  the  varnish  be  too  thick.  Sometimes  difficulties  are  encountered 
in  tracing  upon  cloth  or  calico,  especially  in  making  it  take  the  ink.  In  tlio  lirst  place, 
the  tracing  should  be  made  in  a  warm  room,  or  the  cloth  will  expand  and  become  flabby. 
The  excess  of  glaze  may  be  removed  by  rubbing  the  surface  with  a  chamois  leather,  on 
which  a  little  powdered  chalk  has  been  strewn;  but  this  practice  possesses  the 
disadvantage  of  thickening  the  ink,  besides,  it  might  be  added,  of  making  scratches 
which  detract  fiom  the  effect  of  the  tracing.  The  use  of  ox-gall,  wliich  makes  tlie  ink 
"  take,"  has  also  the  disadvantage  of  frequently  making  it  "  run,"  while  it  also  changes 
the  tint  of  the  colours.  The  following  is  the  process  recommended :  Ox-gall  is  filtered 
through  a  filter  paper  arranged  over  a  funnel,  boiled,  and  strained  through  fine  linen, 
which  arrests  the  scum  and  other  impurities.  It  is  then  placed  again  on  the  fire,  and 
powdered  chalk  is  added.  When  the  effervescence  ceases,  the  mixture  is  again  filtered, 
affording  a  bright  colourless  liquid,  if  the  operation  Las  been  carefully  performed.  A 
drop  or  two  may  be  mixed  with  the  Indian  ink.  It  also  has  the  property  of  effacing 
lead-pencil  marks.  When  the  cloth  tracings  have  to  be  heliographed,  raw  sienna  is  also 
added  to  the  ink,  as  this  colour  unites  with  it  most  intimately,  besides  intercepting  the 
greatest  amount  of  light. 

Tracing-paper. — (1)  A  German  invention  has  for  its  object  the  rendering  more  or  less 
transparent  of  paper  used  for  writing  or  drawing,  either  with  ink,  pencil,  or  crayon,  and 
also  to  give  the  paper  such  a  surface  that  such  writing  or  drawing  may  be  completely 
removed  by  washing,  without  in  any  way  injuring  the  paper.  The  object  of  making  the 
paper  translucent  is  that  when  used  in  schools  the  scholars  can  trace  the  copy,  and  thus 
become  proficient  in  the  formation  of  letters  without  the  explanations  usually  necessary ; 
and  it  may  also  bo  used  in  any  place  where  tracings  may  be  required,  as  by  laying  the 
paper  over  the  object  to  be  copied  it  can  be  plainly  seen.  Writing-paper  is  used  by 
preference,  its  preparation  consisting  in  first  saturating  it  with  benzine,  and  then 
immediately  coating  the  paper  with  a  suitable  rapidly-drying  varnish  before  the  benzine 
can  evaporate.  The  application  of  varnish  is  by  preference  made  by  plunging  the  paper 
into  a  bath  of  it,  but  it  may  be  applied  with  a  brush  or  sponge.  The  varnish  is 
prepared  of  the  following  ingredients : — Boiled  bleached  linseed-oil,  20  lb. ;  lead 
shavings,  1  lb. ;  zinc  oxide,  5  lb. ;  Venetian  turpentine,  J  lb.  Mix,  and  boil  8  hours. 
After  cooling,  strain,  and  add  5  lb.  white  copal  and  J  lb.  sandarach.  (2)  The  following 
is  a  capital  method  of  preparing  tracing-paper  for  architectural  or  engineering 
tracings : — Take  common  tissue-  or  cap-paper,  any  size  of  sheet ;  lay  each  sheet  on  a 
flat  surface,  and  sponge  over  (one  side)  with  the  following,  taking  care  not  to  miss  any 
part  of  the  surface  :— Canada  balsam,  2  pints  ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  3  pints  ;  to  which 
add  a  few  drops  of  old  nut-oil ;  a  sponge  is  the  best  instrument  for  applying  the  mixture, 
which  should  be  used  warm.  As  each  sheet  is  prepared,  it  should  be  hung  up  to  dry 
over  2  cords  stretched  tightly  and  parallel,  about  8  in.  apart,  to  prevent  the  lower 
edges  of  the  paper  from  coming  in  contact.  As  soon  as  dry,  the  sheets  should  be 
carefully  rolled  on  straight  and  smooth  wooden  rollers  covered  with  paper,  about  2  in. 
in  diameter.  The  sheets  will  be  dry  when  no  stickiness  can  be  felt.  A  little  practice 
will  enable  any  one  to  make  good  tracing-paper  in  this  way  at  a  moderate  rate.  The 
composition  gives  substance  to  the  tissue-paper.  (3)  You  may  make  paper  sufliciently 
transparent  for  tracing  by  saturating  it  with  spirits  of  turpentine  or  benzoline.  As 
long  as  the  paper  continues  to  be  moistened  with  either  of  these,  you  can  carry  on  your 
tracing ;  when  the  spirit  has  evaporated,  the  paper  will  be  opaque.  Ink  or  water- 
colours  may  be  used  on  the  surface  without  running.  (4)  A  convenient  method  for 
rendering  ordinary  drawing-paper  transparent  for  the  purpose  of  making  tracings,  and 
of  removing  its  transparency,  so  as  to  restore  its  former  appearance  when  the  drawing 
is  completed,  has  been  invented  by  Puscher.  It  consists  in  dissolving  a  given  quantity 
of  castor-oil  in  1,  2,  or  3  volumes  of  absolute  alcohol,  according  to  the  thickness 
of  the  paper,  and  applying  it  by  means  of  a  sponge.     The  alcohol  evaporates  in  a  few 


10  Mechanical  Drawing. 

minutes,  and  the  tracing:-paper  is  dry  and  ready  for  immediate  use.  The  drawing  or 
tracing  can  be  made  either  with  lead-pencil  or  Indian  iuk,  and  the  oil  removed  from  the 
paper  by  immersing  it  in  absolute  alcohol,  thus  restoring  its  original  opacity.  The 
alcohol  employed  in  removing  the  oil  is,  of  course,  preserved  for  diluting  the  oil  used 
in  preparing  the  next  sheet.  (5)  Put  J  oz.  gum-mastic  into  a  bottle  holding  6  oz.  best 
spirits  of  turpentine,  shaking  it  up  day  by  day ;  when  thoroughly  dissolved,  it  is  ready 
for  use.  It  can  be  made  thinner  at  any  time  by  adding  more  turps.  Then  take  some 
sheets  of  the  best  quality  tissue-paper,  open  them,  and  apply  the  mixture  with  a  small 
brush.  Hang  up  to  dry.  (G)  Saturate  ordinary  writing-paper  with  petroleum,  and 
wipe  the  surface  dry.  (7)  Lay  a  sheet  of  tine  white  wove  tissue-paper  on  a  clean  board, 
brush  it  softly  on  both  sides  with  a  solution  of  beeswax  in  spirits  of  turpentine  (say 
about  i  oz.  in  h  pint),  and  hang  to  dry  for  a  few  days  out  of  the  dust. 

Transfer-paper.— {I)  Rub  the  surface  of  thin  post  or  tissue-paper  with  graphite 
(blacklead),  vermilion,  red  chalk,  or  other  pigment,  and  carefully  remove  the  excess  of 
colouring  matter  by  rubbing  with  a  clean  rag.  (2)  Eub  into  thin  white  paper  a 
mixture  of  6  parts  lard  and  1  of  beeswax,  with  sufficient  fine  lampblack  to  give  it  a 
good  colour ;  apply  the  mixture  warm,  and  not  in  excess.  (3)  Under  exactly  the  same 
conditions  use  a  compound  consisting  of  2  oz.  tallow,  J  oz.  powdered  blacklead 
(graphite),  J  pint  linseed  oil,  and  enough  lampblack  to  produce  a  creamy  consistence. 

Copyinrj  Lraidmjs. — Apart  from  the  mechanical  operation  of  tracing,  there  are 
several  methods  by  which  facsimile  copies  of  drawings  can  be  produced  with  a  very 
slight  expenditure  of  labour  and  at  small  cost.  These  will  now  be  described.  (1)  Cyano- 
type,  or  ferro-prussiate  paper.  This  is  prepared  by  covering  one  side  of  the  sheet  with 
a  mixture  of  red  prussiate  of  potash  (potassium  ferrocyanide)  and  iron  peroxide ;  under 
the  influence  of  light,  i.  e.  mider  the  white  portions  of  the  drawing  to  be  copied,  the 
ferric  compound  is  reduced  to  the  state  of  a  ferrous  salt,  which  gives  with  the  red 
prussiate  of  potasli  an  intense  blue  coloration,  analogous  to  Prussian  blue.  This 
coloration  is  not  produced  in  the  portions  of  the  sensitive  paper  protected  from  the 
light  by  the  black  lines  of  the  drawing  to  be  copied,  and  on  washing  the  print  the 
design  appears  in  white  lines  on  a  blue  ground.  The  formula  for  preparing  the  sensitive 
paper  is  as  follows: — Dissolve  10  dr.  red  prussiate  of  potash  (ferrocyanide)  in  4  oz. 
water;  dissolve  separately  15  dr.  ammonio-citrate  of  iron  in  4  oz.  water;  filter  the 
2  solutions  through  ordinary  filtering-paper,  and  mix.  Filter  again  into  a  large  flat 
dish,  and  float  each  sheet  of  paper  to  be  sensitised  for  2  minutes  on  the  surface  of  the 
liquid,  without  allowing  any  of  this  to  run  over  the  back  of  the  paper.  Hang  up  the 
sheets  in  a  dark  place  to  dry,  and  keep  from  light  and  dampness  until  used.  They  will 
retain  sensitiveness  for  a  long  time.  The  paper  being  ready,  the  copy  is  easily  made. 
Procure  either  a  heavy  sheet  of  plate  glass,  or  a  photographer's  printing  frame,  and  lay 
the  drawing  to  be  copied  with  the  face  against  the  glass ;  on  the  back  of  the  drawing, 
lay  the  prepared  side  of  the  sensitive  pajDcr,  place  upon  it  a  piece  of  thick  felt,  and 
replace  the  cover  of  the  printing  frame,  or  in  some  other  way  press  the  felt  and  papers 
firmly  against  the  glass.  Expose,  glass  side  up,  to  sunshine  or  difi"used  daylight,  for  a 
time,  varying,  with  the  intensity  of  the  light  and  the  thickness  of  the  paper  bearing  the 
original  drawing,  from  minutes  to  hours.  It  is  better  to  give  too  much  than  too  little 
exposure,  as  the  colour  of  a  dark  impression  can  be  reduced  by  long  washing,  whUe  a 
feeble  print  is  irremediably  spoiled.  By  leaving  a  bit  of  the  sensitive  paper  projecting 
from  under  the  glass,  the  progress  of  the  coloration  can  be  observed.  When  the  ex- 
posure has  continued  long  enough,  the  frame  is  opened  and  the  sensitive  sheet  is  with-  v 
drawn  and  thrown  into  a  pan  of  water,  to  be  replaced  immediately  by  another,  if  several 
copies  are  desired,  so  that  the  exposure  of  the  second  may  be  in  progress  while  the  first 
is  being  washed  and  fixed.  The  water  dissolves  out  the  excess  of  the  reagents  used  in 
the  preparation  of  the  paper,  and  after  several  washings  with  fresh  water  the  print 
loses  its  sensitiveness  and  becomes  permanent.    It  is  advantageous,  after  several  washings 


Mechanical  Drawing.  11 

witli  water,  to  pass  over  the  wet  surface  a  weak  solution  of  chlorine  or  of  hydrochloric 
acid,  3  or  4  parts  acid  to  100  of  water,  which  gives  brilliancy  and  solidity  to  tlie  blue 
tint,  and  prevents  it  Ironi  being  washed  out  by  long  soaking.  This  should  be  followed 
by  2  or  3  rinsings  witli  fresh  water,  and  the  print  may  then  be  hung  up  to  dry,  or  placed 
between  sheets  of  bkjtting-paper.  This  mode  of  reproduction,  whose  simplicity  lias  led 
to  its  adoption  in  many  offices,  has  the  inconvenience  of  giving  a  copy  in  white  lines  on 
blue  ground,  which  fatigues  the  eye  in  some  cases,  while  the  application  of  other  colours 
is  impracticable.  By  repeating  and  reversing  the  process,  copying  the  white  line  print 
first  obtained  on  another  sensitive  sheet,  a  positive  picture,  representing  the  black  lines 
of  the  original  by  blue  lines  on  white  ground,  can  be  obtained;  or  the  same  result  may 
be  reached  by  a  different  mode  of  treating  the  sensitive  paper.  Tliis  latter  may  also  be 
made  by  brushing  it  over  with  a  solution  of  ferric  oxalate  (10  gr.  to  the  oz.)  ;  the  ferric 
oxalate  is  prepared  by  saturating  a  hot  aqueous  solution  of  oxalic  acid  with  ferric  oxide. 
A  better  sensitising  solution  may  be  made  by  mixing  437  gr.  ammonium  oxalate,  386  gr. 
oxalic  acid,  and  6  oz.  water,  heating  to  boiling-point,  and  stirring  in  as  much  hydrated 
iron  peroxide  as  it  will  dissolve. 

(2)  Several  varieties  of  paper  called  "  cyanoferric,"  or  "  gommoferric,"  are  sold, 
which  have  the  property  of  giving  a  positive  image.  The  mode  of  preparation  is  nearly 
the  same  for  all:  3  solutions,  1  of  60  oz.  gum  arabic  in  300  of  water;  1  of  40  oz.  ammo- 
niacal  citrate  of  iron  in  80  of  water;  .1  of  25  oz.  iron  perchloride  in  50  of  water,  are 
allowed  to  settle  untd  clear,  then  decanted,  mixed,  and  poured  into  a  shallow  dish,  the 
sheets  being  floated  on  the  surface  as  before,  and  hung  up  to  dry.  The  solution  soon 
becomes  turbid,  and  must  be  used  immediately ;  but  the  paper  once  dry  is  not  subject  to 
change,  unless  exposed  to  light  cr  moisture.  The  reactions  involved  in  the  printing 
process  are  more  complex  than  in  the  first  process,  but  present  no  particular  difficulty. 
Under  the  influence  of  light  and  of  the  organic  acid  (citric),  the  iron  perchloride  is  re- 
duced to  protochloride,  and,  on  being  subjected  to  the  action  of  potassium  ferrocyauide, 
the  portions  not  reduced  by  the  action  of  the  light,  that  is,  the  lines  corresponding  to  the 
black  lines  of  the  original  drawing,  alone  exhibit  the  blue  coloration.  The  gum  plays 
also  an  important  part  in  the  process  by  becoming  less  soluble  in  the  parts  exposed  to 
light,  so  as  to  repel  in  those  portions  the  ferrocyanide  solution.  The  mode  of  printing 
is  exactly  the  same  as  before,  but  the  paper  is  more  sensitive,  and  the  exposure  varies 
from  a  few  seconds  in  sunshine  to  15  or  20  minutes  in  the  shade.  The  exact  period 
must  be  tested  by  exposing  at  the  same  time  a  slip  of  the  sensitive  paper  under  a  piece 
of  paper  similar  to  that  on  which  the  original  drawing  is  executed,  and  ruled  with  fine 
lines,  so  that  bits  can  be  torn  off  at  intervals,  and  tested  in  the  developing  bath  of 
iwtassium  ferrocyanide.  If  the  exposure  is  incomplete,  the  paper  will  become  blue  all 
over  in  the  ferrocyanide  bath  ;  if  it  has  been  too  prolonged,  uo  blue  whatever  will  make 
its  appearance,  but  the  paper  will  remain  white ;  if  it  is  just  long  enough,  the  lines 
alone  will  be  developed  in  blue  on  a  white  ground.  During  the  tests  of  the  trial  bits, 
the  printing  frame  should  be  covered  with  an  opaque  screen  to  prevent  the  exposure 
from  proceeding  further.  After  the  exact  point  is  reached,  the  print  is  removed  from 
the  frame  and  floated  for  a  few  moments  on  a  bath  of  saturated  solution  of  potassium 
ferrocyanide,  about  1  oz.  of  the  solid  crystals  to  4  of  water.  On  raising  it,  the  design 
will  be  seen  in  dark-blue  lines  on  white  ground.  It  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  liquid 
from  flowing  over  the  back  of  the  paper,  which  it  would  cover  with  a  blue  stain,  and  to 
prevent  this  the  edges  of  the  print  are  turned  up  all  round.  On  lifting  a  corner,  the 
progress  of  the  development  may  be  watched.  As  soon  as  the  lines  are  sufficiently  dark, 
or  blue  specks  begin  to  show  themselves  in  the  white  parts,  the  process  must  be  imme- 
diately arrested  by  placing  the  sheet  on  a  bath  of  pure  water.  If,  as  often  happens,  a 
blue  tint  then  begins  to  spread  all  over  the'  paper,  it  may  be  immersed  in  a  mixture  of 
3  parts  sulphuric  or  8  of  hydrochloric  acid,  to  100  of  water.  After  leaving  it  in  this 
acidulated  liquid  for  10  or  15  minutes,  the  design  will  seem  to  clear,  and  the  sheet  may 


12  Mechanical  Drawing. 

then  be  rinsed  in  a  large  basin  of  water,  or  under  a  faucet  furnished  with  a  sprinkling 
nozzle,  and  a  soft  brush  u«ed  to  clour  away  any  remaining  cloudd  of  blue ;  and  finally, 
the  paper  hung  up  to  dry.  Tl;e  ferrocyanide  bath  is  not  subject  to  change,  and  may 
be  used  to  the  last.  If  it  begins  to  crystallise  by  evaporation,  a  few  drops  of  water  may 
be  added.  The  specks  of  blue  which  are  formed  in  this  bath,  if  not  removed  by  tlic 
subsequent  washings,  may  be  taken  out  at  any  time  by  touching  them  with  a  weak 
solution  of  soda  or  potash  carbonate.     The  prints  may  be  coloured  in  the  usual  way. 

(8)  Blue  figures  on  a  white  ground  arc  changed  into  black  by  dipping  the  proof  in  a 
solution  of  i  oz.  common  potash  in  100  oz.  water,  when  the  blue  colour  gives  place  to  a 
sort  of  rusty  colour,  produced  by  iron  oxide.  The  proof  is  then  dipped  in  a  solution  of 
5  oz.  tannin  in  100  oz.  water.  The  iron  oxide  takes  up  the  tannin,  changing  to  a  deep 
black  colour ;  this  is  fixed  by  washing  in  pure  water. 

(4)  Joltrain's.  Black  lines  on  white  ground.  The  paper  is  immersed  in  the  following 
solution:— 25  oz.  gum,  3  oz.  sodium  chloride,  10  oz.  iron  perchloride  (45°  B.),  5  oz.  iron 
sulphate,  4  oz.  tartaric  acid,  47  oz.  water.  The  developing  bath  is  a  solution  of  red  or 
yellow  prussiute  of  potash,  neutral,  alkaline,  or  acid.  After  being  exposed,  the  positive 
is  dipped  in  this  bath,  and  the  parts  which  did  not  receive  the  light  take  a  dark-green 
colour  ;  the  other  parts  do  not  change.  It  is  then  washed  with  water  in  order  to  remove 
the  excess  of  prussiate,  and  dipped  in  a  bath  containing  acetic,  hydrochloric,  or  sulphuric 
acid,  when  all  the  substances  which  could  afi'ect  the  whiteness  of  the  paper  are  removed. 
The  lines  have  now  an  indigo-black  colour.     Wash  in  water,  and  dry. 

(5)  Copies  of  drawings  or  designs  in  black  and  white  may  be  produced  upon  paper 
and  linen  by  giving  the  surface  of  the  latter  2  coatings  of:  217  gr.  gum  arable,  70  gr. 
citric  acid,  135  gr.  iron  chloride,  J  pint  water.  The  prej^ared  material  is  printed  under 
the  drawing,  and  then  immersed  in  a  bath  of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash,  or  of  silver 
nitrate,  the  picture  thus  developed  being  afterwards  put  in  water  slightly  acidified  with 
sulphuric  or  hydrochloric  acid. 

(G)  Bcnneden  states  that  paper,  prepared  as  follows,  costs  but  ^  as  much  as  the 
ordinary  silver  chloride  paper,  is  as  well  adapted  to  the  multiplication  of  drawings,  and 
is  simpler  in  its  manipulation.  A  solution  of  potash  bichromate  and  albumen  or  gum, 
to  which  carbon,  or  some  pigment  of  any  desired  shade,  has  been  added,  is  brushed,  as 
uniformly  as  possible,  upon  well-sized  paper  by  lamplight,  and  the  paper  is  dried  in  the 
dark.  The  drawing,  executed  on  fine  transparent  paper  (or  an  engraving,  or  woodcut, 
&c.),  is  tlien  jdaccd  beneath  a  flat  glass  upon  the  prepared  paper,  and  exposed  to  the 
light  for  a  length  of  time  dependent  upon  the  intensity  of  the  light.  Tlio  drawing  is 
removed  from  the  paper  by  lamidight,  and  after  washing  the  latter  with  water,  a  negative 
of  the  drawing  remains,  since  the  portions  of  the  coating  acted  on  by  the  light  become 
insoluble  in  water.  Fjom  such  a  negative,  any  number  of  positives  can  be  taken  in  the 
same  way. 

(7)  Dieterich's  copying-paper.  The  manufacture  may  be  divided  into  2  parts,  viz. 
the  production  of  the  colour  and  its  application  to  the  paper.  For  blue  paper,  he  uses 
Paris  blue,  as  covering  better  than  any  other  mineral  colours.  10  lb.  of  this  colour  are 
coarsely  powdered,  and  mixed  with  20  lb.  ordinary  olive  oil;  |  lb.  glycerine  is  then 
added.  This  mixture  is,  for  a  week,  exposed  in  a  drying-room  to  a  temperature  of 
104°-122°  F.  (IC^-^O"  C.)  and  then  ground  as  fine  as  possible  in  a  paint-mill.  The 
glycerine  softens  the  liard  paint,  and  tends  to  make  it  more  easily  diffusible.  Melt 
i  lb.  yellow  wax  with  18|  lb.  ligroine,  and  add  to  this  7^  lb.  of  the  blue  mixture, 
mixing  slowly  at  a  temperature  of  SG°-104°  F.  (30°-40°  C).  The  mass  is  now  of  the 
consistence  of  honey.  It  is  applied  to  the  paper  with  a  coarse  brush,  and  afterward 
evenly  divided  and  polished  with  a  badgers'  hair  brush.  The  sheets  are  then  dried  on  a 
table  heated  by  steam.  This  is  done  in  a  few  minutes,  and  the  paper  is  then  ready  for 
the  market.  The  quantities  mentioned  will  be  sutficient  for  about  1000  sheets  of  3G  in. 
by  20,  being  a  day's  work  for  2  girls.     For  black  paper,  aniline  black  is  used  in  the  same 


Casting  and  Founding.  13 

proportion.  The  operation  must  bo  carried  on  in  well-vcntilatcd  rooms  protected  from 
tire,  on  account  of  the  combustibility  of  the  material  and  the  narcotic  eft'eeta  of  the 
ligroine.  The  paper  is  used  between  2  sheets  of  paper,  the  upper  receiving  tlio  original 
the  lower  the  copy. 

(8)  By  means  of  gelatine  sensitive  paper  any  ordinary  thick  cardboard  drawing  can 
be  copied  in  a  few  seconds,  either  by  diffused  daylight  or  gas-  or  lamplight.  The  copy 
will  be  an  exact  reproduction  of  the  original,  showing  the  letters  or  figures  non-reversed. 
If  it  is  desired  to  make  a  copy  in  the  daytime,  any  dark  closet  will  answer,  where  all 
white  light  is  excluded.  The  tools  required  are  an  ordinary  photograph  printin"-  frame 
and  a  red  lantern  or  lamp.  The  sensitive  gelatine  paper  is  cut  to  the  size  required,  laid 
■with  the  sensitive  side  upward  upon  tlie  face  of  the  drawing,  and  pressed  thereon  in  the 
usual  maimer,  by  springs  at  the  back  of  the  frame,  which  is  then  carried  to  the 
window  and  exposed  with  the  glass  side  outward  for  2  to  5  seconds  to  the  light,  the 
exposure  varying  according  to  tiie  thickness  of  tlie  drawing.  If  gas-  or  lamplight  is 
used  at  night,  20  to  30  minutes'  exposure  is  sufficient.  The  frame  is  returned  to  the 
•dark  closet,  the  exposed  sheet  is  removed  to  a  dark  box,  and  other  duplicates  of  the 
drawing  can  be  made  in  the  same  way.  It  is  thus  possible  to  make  10  to  20  copies  of 
one  thick  drawing  in  the  same  time  that  it  usually  takes  to  obtain  one  copy  of  a  trans- 
parent tracing  by  the  ordinary  blue  process.  The  treatment  of  the  exposed  sheets  is 
quite  simple  ;  all  that  is  necessary  is  to  provide  3  or  4  large  pans  or  a  large  sink  divided 
into  partitions.  The  development  of  the  exposed  sheets  can  be  carried  on  at  night  or  at 
any  convenient  time,  but  a  red  light  only  must  be  used.  The  paper  is  first  passed 
through  a  dish  or  pan  of  water,  and  then  immersed  in  a  solution,  face  upwards,  composed 
of  8  parts  of  a  saturated  solution  of  potash  oxalate  to  1  of  a  saturated  solution  of  iron 
sulphate,  enough  to  cover  the  fiice  of  the  paper.  The  latent  image  soon  appears,  and  a 
beautiful  copy  of  the  drawing  is  obtained,  black  where  the  original  was  white,  with  clear 
white  lines  to  represent  the  black  lines  of  the  drawing.  With  one  solution,  6  to  8  copies 
can  be  developed  right  after  the  other.  After  development,  the  jirint  is  dipped  in  a  dish 
of  clear  water  for  a  minute,  and  finally  immersed  for  3  minutes  in  the  fixing  solution, 
composed  of  1  part  of  soda  hyposulphite  dissolved  in  C  of  water.  It  is  then  removed  to  a 
last  dish  of  water  face  downward,  soaked  for  a  few  minutes,  and  hung  up  to  dry  ;  when 
<lry  it  is  ready  for  use. 

Some  very  useful  suggestions  will  be  found  in  a  little  volume  by  Tuxford  Ilallatt, 
entitled  '  Hints  on  Architectural  Draughtsmanship.' 

CASTING  AND  FOUNDING.— The  following  remarks  by  W.  H.  Cooper  in 
ihe  School  of  Mines  Quarterly,  New  York,  give  a  very  clear  outline  of  the  operations  of 
casting  and  founding : — 

We  are  indebted  to  the  fusibility  of  the  metals  for  the  power  of  giving  to  them,  with 
great  facility  and  perfection,  any  required  form,  by  pouring  them,  whilst  in  a  fluid  state, 
into  moulds  of  various  kinds,  of  which,  in  general,  the  castings  become  exact  counter- 
parts. Some  few  objects  are  cast  ia  open  moulds,  the  upper  surface  of  the  metal 
becoming  flat  under  the  influence  of  gravity,  as  in  the  casting  of  ingots,  flat  plates,  and 
other  similar  objects  ;  but  in  general,  the  metals  are  cast  in  close  moulds,  so  that  it 
becomes  necessary  to  provide  one  or  more  apertures  or  ingates  for  pouring  in  the  metal, 
and  for  allowing  the  escape  of  air.  Moulds  made  of  metal  must  be  sufficiently  hot  to 
avoid  chilling  or  solidifying  the  fluid  metal  before  it  has  time  to  adapt  itself  throughout 
to  every  part  of  the  mould.  And  when  made  of  earthy  materials,  although  moisture  is 
essential  to  their  construction,  little  or  none  should  remain  at  the  time  they  are  filled. 
Earthen  moulds  must  also  be  so  pervious  to  air  that  any  vapour  or  gases  formed  either 
at  the  moment  of  casting  or  during  the  solidification  of  the  metal  may  easily  escape. 
Otherwise,  if  the  gases  are  rapidly  formed,  there  is  danger  that  the  metal  will  be  blown 
from  the  mould  with  a  violent  explosion,  or,  when  more  slowly  formed  and  unable  to 
escape,  the  bubbles  of  gas  will  displace  the  fluid  metal  and  render  it  spongy  or  porous. 


14  Casting  and  Founding. 

The  castinj?  is  then  said  to  he  "  hlown."  It  not  infrequently  occurs  that  castings  which 
appear  good  and  sound  externally  are  filled  with  hidden  defects,  hecause,  the  surface 
being  first  cooled,  the  bubbles  of  air  will  attempt  to  break  their  way  through  the  central 
and  still  soft  jiaris  of  the  metal. 

The  perfection  of  castings  depends  much  on  the  skill  of  the  pattern-maker,  who 
should  thoroughly  understand  the  practice  of  the  moulder,  or  he  is  liable  to  make  the 
patterns  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  them  useless.  Straight-grained  deal,  pine,  and 
mahogany  are  the  best  woods  for  making  patterns,  as  they  remain  serviceable  longest. 
Screws  should  be  used  in  preference  to  nails,  as  alterations  may  be  more  easily  made, 
and  for  the  same  reason  dovetails,  tenons,  and  dowels  are  also  good.  Foundry  patterns 
should  always  be  made  a  little  tapering  in  tlie  parts  which  enter  most  deeply  into  the 
sand,  whenever  it  will  not  materially  injure  the  castings,  in  order  that  they  may  be 
more  easily  removed  after  moulding.  This  taper  amounts  to  Jg-  or  i  in.  per  ft.,  and 
sometimes  much  more.  When  foundry  patterns  are  exactly  parallel,  the  friction  of  the 
sand  against  their  sides  is  so  great  that  considerable  force  is  required  to  remove  them, 
and  the  sand  is  torn  down  unless  the  patterns  are  knocked  about  a  good  deal  in  the 
mould  to  enlarge  the  space  around  them.  This  rough  usage  frequently  injures  the 
patterns,  and  causes  the  castings  to  become  irregularly  larger  than  intended,  and 
defective  in  sliape,  from  the  mischief  sustained  by  the  moulds  and  patterns.  ' 

Sharp  internal  angles  should  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible,  as  they  leave  sharp 
edges  or  arrises  in  the  sand,  which  are  liable  to  be  broken  down  on  the  removal  of  the 
pattern,  or  washed  down  by  the  entry  of  the  metal  into  the  mould.  Either  the  angle  of 
the  mould  should  be  filled  with  wood,  wax,  or  putty,  or  the  sharp  edges  of  the  sand 
should  be  chamfered  off  with  a  knife  or  trowel.  Sharp  internal  angles  are  also  very 
injudicious  in  respect  to  the  strength  of  castings,  as  they  seem  to  denote  where  they 
will  be  likely  to  break.  Before  the  patterns  reach  the  founder's  hands,  all  the  glue 
remaining  on  their  surfaces  should  be  carefully  scraped  off,  or  it  will  adhere  to  and  break 
down  the  sand.  The  best  way  is  to  paint  or  varnish  wooden  patterns,  to  prevent  their 
absorbing  moisture  and  the  warping  of  the  surface  and  sticking  of  the  sand.  Whether 
painted  or  not,  they  deliver  better  from  the  mould  when  they  are  well  brushed  with 
blacklead. 

Foundry  patterns  are  also  made  in  metal.  These  are  excellent,  as  they  are  per- 
manent, and  when  very  small  are  less  liable  to  be  blown  away  by  the  bellows  used  for 
removing  the  loose  sand  and  dust  from  the  moulds.  To  prevent  iron  patterns  from 
rusting  and  to  make  them  deliver  more  easily,  they  should  be  allowed  to  become 
slightly  rusty,  and  then  warmed  and  beeswax  rubbed  over  them,  tlie  excess  removed, 
and  the  remainder  polished  after  cooling,  with  a  hard  brush.  Wax  is  also  used  by  the 
founder  for  stopping  up  any  little  holes  in  the  wooden  patterns.  Whiting  is  also  used 
for  this  purpose,  but  is  not  as  good.  Very  rough  patterns  are  seared  with  a  hot  iron. 
The  good  workman,  however,  leaves  no  necessity  for  these  corrections,  and  the  perfection 
of  the  pattern  is  well  repaid  by  the  superior  character  of  the  castings.  Metallic  patterns 
frequently  have  holes  tapped  in  them  for  receiving  handles,  which  screw  in,  to  facilitate 
their  removal  from  the  sand.  Large  wooden  patterns  should  also  have  iron  plates  let 
into  them,  into  which  handles  can  be  screwed.  Otherwise,  the  founder  is  obhged  to 
drive  pointed  wires  into  them,  and  thereby  injure  tlie  patterns. 

The  tools  used  in  making  the  moulds  are  few  and  simple— a  sieve,  shovel,  rammer, 
strike,  mallet,  a  knife,  and  2  or  3  loosening  wires  and  little  trowels,  which  it  is 
Tinnecessary  to  describe. 

The  principal  materials  for  making  foundry  moulds  are  very  fine  sand  and  loam. 
They  are  found  mixed  in  various  proportions,  so  that  the  proportion  proper  for  different 
uses  cannot  be  well  defined  ;  but  it  is  always  best  to  employ  the  least  quantity  of  loam 
that  will  suffice.  These  materials  are  seldom  used  in  the  raw  state  for  brass  casting, 
although  more  so  for  iron,  and  the  moulds  made  from  fresh  sand  arc  always  dried.    The 


Casting  and  Founding.  15 

ordinary  moulds  are  made  of  tho  old  damp  sand,  and  they  are  generally  poured  imme- 
diately, or  -while  they  are  green.  Sometimes  they  are  more  or  less  dried  upon  tho  face. 
The  old  working  sand  is  considerably  less  adhesive  than  the  new,  and  of  a  dark-brown 
colour.  This  arises  from  the  brick-dust,  flour,  and  charcoal-dust  used  in  tho  moulding 
becoming  mixed  with  the  general  stock.  Additions  of  fresh  sand  must  therefore  be 
occasionally  made,  so  that  when  slightly  moist  and  pressed  firmly  in  the  hand  it  may 
form  a  moderately  hard,  compact  lump. 

Red  brick-dust  is  generally  used  to  make  the  parting  of  the  mould,  or  to  jDrevent  the 
damp  sand  iu  the  separate  parts  of  the  flask  from  adhering  together.  The  face  of  tho 
mould  which  receives  the  metal  is  generally  dusted  with  meal,  or  waste  flour.  But  iu 
large  works,  powdered  chalk,  or  wood-  or  tan-ashes  are  used,  because  cheaper.  The 
moulds  for  the  finest  brass  castings  are  faced  either  with  charcoal,  loamstone,  rotten- 
stone,  or  mixtures  of  them.  The  moulds  are  frequently  inverted  and  dried  over  a  dull 
fire  of  cork  shavings,  or  when  dried  are  smoked  over  pitch  or  black  rosin  in  an  iron  ladle. 

The  cores  or  loose  internal  parts  of  the  moulds,  for  forming  holes  and  recesses,  are 
made  of  various  proportions  of  new  sand,  loam,  and  horse-dung.  They  all  require  to  be 
thoroughly  dried,  and  those  containing  horse-dung  must  be  well  burned  at  a  red  heat. 
This  consumes  the  straw,  and  makes  them  porous  and  of  a  brick-red  colour. 

In  making  the  various  moulds,  it  becomes  necessary  to  pursue  a  medium  course 
between  the  conditions  best  suited  to  the  formation  of  the  moulds  and  those  most 
suitable  for  the  filling  of  them  with  the  molten  metal  without  danger  of  accident. 
Thus,  within  certain  limits,  the  more  loam  and  moisture  the  sand  contains,  and  the 
more  closely  it  is  rammed,  the  better  will  be  the  impression  of  the  model ;  but  the  moist 
and  impervious  condition  of  the  mould  incurs  greater  risk  of  accident  both  from  the 
moisture  present  and  the  non-escape- of  the  air.  The  mould  should,  therefore,  be  made 
of  sand  which  is  as  dry  as  practicable,  to  render  the  mould  as  porous  as  possible. 
Where  much  loam  it  used,  the  moulds  must  be  thoroughly  dried  by  heat  before  casting 
the  metal. 

As  castings  contract  considerably  in  cooling,  the  moulds  for  large  and  slight  castings 
must  not  be  too  strongly  rammed  or  too  thoroughly  dried,  or  their  strength  may  exceed 
that  of  the  red-hot  metal  whilst  in  the  act  of  shrinking,  and  the  casting  be  broken  in 
consequence.  If  the  mould  is  the  weaker  of  the  two,  its  sides  will  simply  be  broken 
down  without  injury  to  the  casting. 

The  method  of  preparing  a  mould  is  as  follows :  The  sand  having  been  prepared, 
the  moulder  frees  the  patterns  from  all  glue  and  adhering  foreign  particles.  He  then 
selects  the  most  appropriate  "  flasks,"  which  are  frames,  or  boxes  without  top  or  bottom, 
made  of  wood,  for  containing  and  holding  the  sand.  The  models  are  then  examined  to 
ascertain  the  most  appropriate  way  of  inserting  them  into  the  sand.  The  bottom  flask  is 
then  placed  upon  a  board,  face  downwards.  A  small  portion  of  strong  facing-sand  is 
rubbed  through  a  sieve,  the  remainder  shovelled  in  and  driven  moderately  hard  into 
the  flask.  The  surface  is  then  struck  off  level  with  a  straight  metal  bar  or  scraper,  a 
little  loose  sand  sprinkled  on  tho  surface,  upon  which  another  board  is  placed  and 
rubbed  down  close.  The  2  boards  and  the  flask  between  them  are  then  turned  over 
together ;  the  top  board  is  removed,  and  fine  brick-dust  is  dusted  over  the  clean  surface 
of  moist  sand  from  a  linen  bag.  The  excess  of  brick-dust  is  removed  with  a  pair  of 
hand-bellows,  and  the  bottom  half  of  the  mould  is  then  ready  for  receiving  the  patterns. 
The  models  are  next  arranged  upon  the  face  of  the  sand,  so  as  to  leave  space  enough 
between  them  to  prevent  the  parts  breaking  into  each  other,  and  for  the  passages  by 
which  the  metal  is  to  be  introduced  and  the  air  allowed  to  escape.  Those  patterns 
which  are  cylindrical,  or  thick,  are  partly  sunk  into  the  sand  by  scraping  out  hollow 
recesses,  and  driving  the  models  in  with  a  mallet,  and  the  general  surface  of  the  sand 
repaired  with  a  knife,  trowel,  or  piece  of  sheet-steel.  The  level  of  the  sand  should 
coincide  with  that  of  the  greatest  diameter  or  section  of  the  model. 


IQ  Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze. 

After  the  sand  is  made  good  to  the  edges  of  the  patterns,  brick -dust  is  again  shaken 
over  it,  the  patterns  also  receiving  a  portion.  The  upper  part  of  the  fJask  is  then  fitted 
to  the  lower  by  pins  of  iron  fitting  in  metal  eyes ;  and  a  little  strong  sand  is  sifted  in. 
It  is  then  filled  up  with  the  ordinary  sand,  which  is  rammed  down  and  struck  off  flush 
with  the  edge  of  the  flask.  The  dry  powder  serves  to  keep  the  2  halves  from  sticking 
together. 

In  order  to  open  the  mould  for  the  extraction  of  the  patterns,  a  board  is  placed  on 
the  top  of  the  flask  and  struck  smartly  at  different  places  with  a  mallet.  The  upper 
part  of  the  flask  is  then  gently  lifted  perpendicularly  and  inverted  on  its  board.  Should 
it  happen  that  any  considerable  portion  of  the  mould  is  broken  down  in  one  piece,  the 
•cavity  is  moistened  and  the  mould  is  again  carefully  closed  and  lightly  struck.  On  the 
second  lifting,  the  defect  will  usually  be  remedied.  All  breaks  in  the  sand  are  carefully 
repaired  before  the  extraction  of  the  patterns. 

To  remove  the  models,  they  are  driven  slightly  sidewise  with  taps  of  a  mallet,  so  as 
to  loosen  them  by  enlarging  the  space  around  them.  The  patterns  are  then  lifted  out, 
and  any  sand  which  may  have  been  torn  down  must  be  carefully  replaced,  or  fresh  sand 
is  used  for  the  repairing.  Should  the  flask  only  contain  one  or  two  objects,  the  ingate 
or  runner  is  now  scooped  out  of  the  sand,  so  as  to  lead  from  the  pouring-hole  to  the 
object.  Where  several  objects  arc  in  the  same  flask,  a  large  central  channel,  with 
branches,  is  made.  The  entrance  of  the  pouring-hole  is  smoothed  and  compressed,  and 
all  the  loose  sand  blown  out  of  the  mould  with  hand-bellows. 

The  faces  of  botli  halves  of  the  mould  are  next  dusted  with  meal-dust  or  waste  flour, 
put  together,  and  the  boards  replaced — one  just  flush  with  the  side  of  the  flask  in  which 
the  pouring-hole  is  situated,  and  the  other  (on  the  side  from  which  the  metal  is  to  be 
poured)  is  put  about  2  in.  below,  and  secured  by  hand-screws.  The  mould  is  then  held 
mouth  downwards,  that  any  sand  loosened  in  the  screwing  down  may  fall  out.  It  is  now 
ready  to  be  filled. 

Where  the  bottom  half  of  the  flask  requires  to  be  much  cut  away  for  imbedding  the 
patterns,  it  is  usual,  when  the  second  half  is  completed,  to  destroy  the  first  or  "  false  " 
side,  which  has-been  hastily  made,  and  to  repeat  it  by  inverting  the  upper  flask  and 
proceeding  as  before. 

When  many  copies  of  the  same  patterns  are  required,  an  "  odd  side  "  is  prepared — 
that  is,  a  flask  is  chosen  which  has  one  upper  and  two  lower  portions.  One  of  the  latter 
is  carefully  arranged,  with  all  the  patterns  barely  half-way  imbedded  in  the  sand,  so  that 
when  the  top  is  filled,  and  both  are  turned  over,  all  of  the  patterns  are  left  in  the  new 
side.  A  second  lower  portion  is  then  made  for  receiving  the  metal  while  the  first  one  is 
kept  for  rearranging  the  patterns.  By  this  plan,  the  trouble  of  arranging  the  patterns 
for  every  separate  mould  is  avoided,  as  the  patterns  are  simply  replaced  in  the  odd  side 
and  the  routine  of  forming  the  two  working-sides  is  repeated.     (W.  II.  Cooper.) 

Brass  and  Bronze  Founding. — A  vast  number  of  articles,  chiefly  small  in  size 
and  of  a  more  or  less  artistic  character,  are  cast  in  brass,  bronze,  or  one  of  the  many 
modifications  of  these  well-known  alloys. 

Pure  copper  is  moulded  with  dilliculty,  because  it  is  often  filled  with  flaws  and  air- 
bubbles,  which  spoil  the  casting;  but  by  alloying  it  with  a  certain  quantity  of  zinc,  a 
metal  is  obtained  free  from  this  objection,  harder  and  more  easily  worked  in  the  lathe. 
Zinc  renders  tlie  colour  of  copper  more  pale  ;  and  when  it  exists  in  certain  proportions  in 
the  alloy,  it  conuuunicates  to  it  a  yellow  hue,  resembling  that  of  gold  ;  but  when  present 
in  large  quantity  the  colour  is  a  bright  yellow  ;  and,  lastly,  when  the  zinc  predominates, 
the  alloy  becomes  of  a  greyish  white.  Various  names  are  given  to  these  different  alloys. 
The  one  most  used  in  the  arts  is  brass,  or  yellow  copper,  composed  of  about  |  of  copper 
and  i  of  zinc.  Other  alloys  are  also  known  in  commerce,  by  the  names  of  tombac,  similor 
or  l^Iannheim  gohl,  pinchbeck  or  prince's  metal  (chrysocale),  &c. ;  they  contain  in 
addition  greater  or  less  quantities  of  tin.    Tombac,  used  for  ornamental  objects  which 


Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze.  17 

are  iutended  to  be  gilded,  contnins  10-14  per  cent,  of  zinc ;  the  composition  of  Dutch 
gold,  which  Ciin  be  hammeied  into  very  thin  sheets,  being  nearly  the  same.  Siniilor,  or 
Mannheim  gold,  contains  10-12  per  cent,  of  zinc  and  6-8  of  tin ;  and  pinchbeck  con- 
tains G-8  per  cent,  of  zinc  and  G  of  tin.  If  brass  be  heated  in  a  brasqued  crucible  in  a 
forge-fire,  the  zinc  is  nearly  wholly  driven  off.  Brass  is  made  by  melting  directly  copper 
and  zinc  ;  rosette  copper  being  used,  fused  in  a  crucible,  and  run  into  water  to  granulate 
it.  The  zinc  is  broken  into  small  pieces.  The  fusion  is  effected  in  earthen  crucibles 
which  can  contain  SO-IO  lb.  of  alloy,  the  metals  being  introduced  in  the  proportion  of 
I  of  copper  and  i  of  zinc,  to  which  scraps  of  brass  are  added.  .Small  quantities  of  lead 
and  tin  are  frequently  added  to  brass  to  make  the  alloy  harder  and  more  easily  worked  ; 
brass  which  contains  no  lead  soon  chokes  a  file,  which  defect  is  remedied  by  the  addition 
of  1  or  2  hundredths  of  lead. 

Copper  and  tin  mix  in  various  proportions,  and  form  alloys  which  differ  vastly  in 
appearance  and  physical  properties,  as  tin  imparts  a  great  degree  of  hardness  to  copper. 
Before  the  ancients  became  acquainted  with  iron  and  steel,  they  made  their  arms  and 
cutting  instruments  of  bronze,  composed  of  copper  and  tin.  Copper  and  tin,  however, 
combine  with  difficulty,  and  their  union  is  never  very  perfect.  By  heating  their  alloys 
gradually  and  slowly  to  the  fusing  point,  a  large  portion  of  the  tin  will  separate  by 
eliquation,  which  effect  also  occurs  when  the  melted  alloys  solidify  slowly,  causing 
circumstances  of  serious  embarrassment  in  casting  large  pieces.  Different  names  are 
given  to  the  alloys  of  copper  and  tin,  according  to  their  composition  and  uses:  they  are 
called  bronze  or  brass,  cannon-metal,  bell-metal,  telescope-speculum  metal,  &c.  All  these 
alloys  have  one  remarkable  property:  they  become  hard  and  frequently  brittle,  when 
slowly  cooled,  while  they  are,  on  the  contrary,  malleable  when  they  are  plunged  into 
cold  water,  after  having  been  heated  to  redness.  Tempering  produces,  therefore,  in  these 
alloys  an  effect  precisely  opposite  to  that  produced  on  steel.  When  alloys  of  copper  and 
tin  are  melted  in  the  air,  the  tin  oxidizes  more  rapidly  than  the  copper,  and  pure  copper 
may  be  separated  by  continuing  the  roasting  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time. 

Furnaces. — Furnaces  for  melting  brass  or  bronze  may  be  built  of  common  brick  and 
lined  with  fire-brick ;  but  the  best  are  made  with  a  boiler-plate  caisson,  20-30  in.  diam. 
and  30-40  in.  high,  usually  set  down  in  a  pit,  with  the  top  only  10  or  12  in.  above  the 
floor  of  the  foundry.  The  ash-pit,  or  opening  around  the  furnace,  is  covered  by  a  loose 
wooden  grating,  that  admits  of  the  ashes  being  removed.  The  iron  caisson  is  lined  with 
fire-brick,  the  same  as  a  cupola,  the  lining  being  usually  6  in.  or  more  thick.  The  inside 
diameter  of  the  furnace  should  not  exceed  the  outside  diameter  of  the  crucible  by  more 
than  4  or  5  in.,  as  greater  space  will  require  greater  expenditure  of  fuel.  These  furnaces 
are  liable  to  burn  hollow  around  where  the  crucible  rests  ;  to  avoid  waste  of  fuel,  they 
should  be  kept  straiglitened  up  with  fire-clay  and  sand.  Sometimes  these  furnaces  are 
built  square  inside,  but  they  are  inferior  to  the  circular  form  and  consume  more  fuel ;  3  or 
4  such  furnaces  are  commonly  arranged  in  sets  giving  a  graduated  scale  of  sizes,  to  «uit 
the  needs  of  large  or  smaller  castings.  When  the  quantity  of  metal  used  is  large,  a  blast 
is  generally  employed.  The  common  brass  furnace  usually  depends  on  a  natural  drau 
and  connects  by  a  flue  with  a  chimney  stack  at  the  back ;  3  or  4  commonly  share  a 
single  stack,  each  having  a  separate  flue  and  damper.  When  the  chimney  does  not  give 
sufficient  draught,  the  ash-pit  may  be  tightly  closed,  and  a  mild  blast  turned  into  the  pit, 
to  find  its  way  up  through  the  grates.  The  fuel  may  be  hard  coal  or  coke,  broken  inta 
lumps  about  the  size  of  hens'  eggs ;  coke  is  preferable  as  heating  more  rapidly,  and  thus 
lessening  the  oxidation  of  metal,  but  gas-coke  from  cannel  coal  is  not  admissible. 

The  ordinary  cupola  furnace  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.  It  consists  of  a  circular  chamber 
a  built  of  fire-brick,  rising  in  the  form  of  a  dome,  in  the  top  of  which  is  a  circular 
opening,  carrying  a  cast-iron  ring  6,  through  which  the  pots  and  fuel  are  introduced.  At 
the  bottom  is  a  bed-plate  c,  which  is  a  circular  plate  of  cast-iron  having  one  large  hole 
d  in  the  centre  (for  the  withdrawal  of  ashes  and  clinkers),  and  12  emalleronee  e  arrangetl 

c 


+ 


18 


Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze. 


symmetrically  ftroiind  it.  Below  the  bed -pi ate  is  the  ash-pit  /  leading  to  an  arched 
air  passage  g,  which  supplies  air  to  the  ash-pit.  Tapering  cast-iron  nozzles,  6  in.  high, 
3  in.  diameter  at  the  bottom,  1 J  in.  at  the  top,  and  about  J  in.  thick,  are  placed  over  the 
12  email  holes  e.  The  space  between  the  top  of  the  bed-plate  and  the  top  of  the 
nozzles  is  built  up  with  fire-brick  and  fire-clay  until  it  forms  a  surface  perfectly  level 
with  the  top  of  Ihe  small  nozzles,  leaving  the  central  hole  free.  These  nozzles  do  the  duty 


1. 


1 


of  a  fire-grate,  by  admitting  the  air  that  supports  combustion.  The  whole  construction 
is  enclosed  in  a  solid  mass  of  brickwork,  and  an  iron  bar  h  is  built  in  over  the  air-way 
in  front  of  the  bed-plate,  and  resting  on  the  walls  forming  the  sides  of  the  air-way,  to 
give  support.  The  dimensions  of  the  furnace  shown  are  3  ft.  6  in.  diameter,  and 
3  ft.  6  in.  height  from  furnace  bed  to  crown  of  arch. 

The  ordinary  molting  furnace  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  fire-place  a  is  lined  throughout 
with  fire-brick,  as  well  as  the  opening  d  into  the  flue  and  a  portion  of  the  flue  e  itself; 
h  is  the  ash-pit;  c,  register-door  of  ash-pit,  by  which  the  draught  is  partially  regulated; 
/,  fire-brick  cover  for  the  furnace ;  g,  fire-bars.  It  is  built  all  round  with  common  brick  ; 
and  as  many  as  G  may  use  Ihe  same  stack. 

Fig.  3  illustrates  tlie  circular  melting  furnace,  consisting  of  an  iron  plate  a  pierced, 
in  the  centre  by  a  circular  hole  of  the  size  of  the  interior  of  the  furnace,  and  crossed  by. 


Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze. 


19 


tlie  fire-bnrs  ;  ?>  is  a  sheet-iron  drum  riveted  together,  forming  the  shell  of  the  furnace, 
and  resting  on  the  bed-plate  ;  it  is  first  Ihied  on  the  inside  with  4i  in.  of  ordinary  brick, 
and  next  with  9  in.  of  fire-brick ;  c,  fire-place  ;  d,  flue  leading  to  stack ;  e,  iron  grating 


for  admitting  air  beneath  the  furnace;/,  ash-pit;  g,  4  small  brickwork  pillars,  about 
IS  in.  high,  supporting  the  bed-plate ;  h,  fire-brick  cover  to   furnace.     The  draught  is 
regulated  by  a  damper  in  the  line  or  on  the  stack.     The  latter  is  an  iron  plate  large 
enough  to  entirely  cover  the  top  of  the  stack, 
hinged  at  one  edge,  and  open  or   closed  by  a 
lever. 

A  rcverberatory  furnace  is  illustrated  in 
Pig.  -1 :  a,  fire-place ;  b,  ash-pit ;  c,  bridge  ;  d, 
melting  furnace ;  e,  fire-door ;  /,  flue  leading  to 
stack;  g,  door  for  feeding  in  and  ladling  out 
metal.  The  draught  is  regulated  by  the  fire- 
door  and  the  damper  on  the  top  of  the  stack. 

Crucibles. — All  the  metals  and  alloys,  with 
the  exception  of  iron  and  the  very  fusible  metals, 
are  melted  in  crucibles,  of  which  there  are 
several  diiferent  kinds.  The  jirincipal  ones  in  use 
are  the  Hessian  pots,  the  English  brown  or  clay 
pots,  the  Cornish  and  the  Wedgwood  crucibles — 
all  extensively  used  for  melting  alloys  of  brass, 
hell-metal,  gun-metal,  &c. ;  but  they  are  very 
brittle,  and  seldom  stand  more  than  one  heat,  yet 
are  generally  sold  cheap,  and  some  founders 
prefer  to  use  a  crucible  only  once,  for  crucibles 
often  crack  or  burn  through  on  the  second  heat. 
The  best  crucibles  for  all  kinds  of  alloys  are  made  of  graphite  (miscalled  plumbago 
and  blacldead).  These  are  sold  higher  than  any  of  the  clay  crucibles,  but  they  are 
more  refractory,  and  may  be  used  for  3  or  more  successive  heata  without  any  danger 

o2 


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•'■["' ■•■"■r-"v'7r;:T"  r'  r:  t^j~ 


20  Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze. 

of  cracking  or  burning  through.  They  are  not  so  oi3cn  and  porous  as  the  clay 
crucibles,  ami  do  not  absorb  so  much  of  the  metal,  and  for  tliis  reason  they  are 
to  be  preferred  for  melting  valuable  metals.  "When  about  to  use  a  crucible,  it  should 
be  heated  gradually  by  putting  it  in  the  furnace  when  the  iiro  is  started,  or  by 
settiag  it  on  the  top  of  the  tyle  or  covering  of  the  furnace,  with  the  moutli  down  ; 
it  should  be  heated  in  this  way  until  it  is  almost  too  hot  to  hold  in  the  hands. 
Some  founders  stand  a  fire-brick  on  end  in  the  bottom  of  the  furnace  to  set  the  crucible- 
on.  This  prevents  the  crucible  from  settling  with  the  fuel  as  it  is  burnt  away.  This 
way  of  supporting  the  crucible  is  a  good  idea  when  tho  furnace  has  a  poor  draught 
and  the  metal  is  melted  slowly  and  it  is  necessary  to  replenish  tho  fuel  before  the  metal 
can  be  melted;  but  in  furnaces  -where  the  metal  is  melted  quickly,  and  it  is  not 
necessary  to  replenish  the  fuel  in  the  middle  of  the  heat,  the  crucible  should  be 
allowed  to  settle  with  the  fuel,  as  the  heat  will  then  bo  more  concentrated  upon 
it.  After  the  metal  has  been  poured  from  the  crucible  into  the  mould  or  ingot^ 
the  crucible  should  always  be  returned  to  the  furnace,  and  allowed  to  cool  off  with  tho 
furnace  to  prevent  it  from  cracking.  In  forming  alloys  of  brass,  &c.,  a  lid  for  the 
crucible  is  seldom  used,  but  a  covering  of  charcoal  or  some  kind  ot  flux  is  generally  laid 
on  the  metal.  The  metal  to  be  melted  in  the  crucible  is  generally  packed  in  before 
the  crucible  is  put  into  the  furnace ;  and  when  it  is  desirable  to  add  to  the  metal  after 
some  has  been  fused,  it  is  put  in  with  the  tongs,  if  in  large  pieces  ;  but  when  the  metal 
to  be  added  is  in  small  pieces,  it  is  put  into  the  crucible  through  a  long  funnel-shaped, 
pipe.  The  small  end  of  this  pipe  is  used  for  putting  metals  into  the  crucible,  <and  the 
large  end  is  used  for  covering  the  crucible  to  prevent  the  small  pieces  of  fuel  from 
falling  in. 

Moulding. — Brass  moulding  is  carried  on  by  means  of  earthen  or  sand  moulds. 
The  formation  of  sand  moulds  is  by  no  means  so  simple  an  affair  as  it  would  first  appear, 
for  it  requires  long  practical  experience  to  overcome  tho  disadvantages  attendant  upon 
the  material  used.  The  moulds  must  be  sufficiently  strong  to  withstand  the  action  of 
the  fluid  metal  perfectly,  and,  at  the  same  time,  must  bo  so  far  pervious  to  the  air  as  to 
permit  of  the  egress  of  the  gases  formed  by  the  action  of  the  metal  on  the  sand.  If 
the  material  were  perfectly  air-light,  then  damage  would  ensue  from  the  pressure  arising 
out  of  the  rapid  generation  of  gases,  which  would  spoil  the  effect  of  the  casting,  and 
probably  do  serious  injury  to  the  operator.  If  the  gases  are  locked  up  within  the  mould, 
the  general  result  is  what  moulders  term  a  "blown  "  casting;  that  is,  its  surface  becomes 
filled  with  bubbles,  rendering  its  texture  porous  and  weak,  besides  injuring  its  appearance. 

For  a  number  of  the  more  fusible  metals,  plaster  of  Paris  is  used.  This  material, 
however,  will  not  answer  for  the  more  refractory  ones,  as  the  heat  causes  it  to  crumble 
away  and  lose  its  shape.  Sand,  mixed  with  clay  or  loam,  possesses  advantages  not  to  be 
found  in  gypsum,  and  is  consequently  used  in  place  of  it  for  brass  and  other  alloys. 
In  the  formation  of  brass  moulds,  old  damp  sand  is  principally  used  in  preference  to  tho 
fresh  material,  being  much  less  adhesive,  and  allowing  the  patterns  to  leave  the  moulds, 
easier  and  cleaner.  Meal-dust  or  flour  is  used  for  facing  the  moulds  of  small  articles, 
but  for  larger  works,  powdered  chalk,  wood  ashes,  and  so  on  are  used,  as  being  more 
economical.  If  particularly  fine  work  is  required,  a  facing  of  charcoal  or  rottenstone  is 
applied.  Another  plan  for  giving  a  fiue  surface  is  to  dry  the  moulds  over  a  slow  fire 
of  cork  shavings,  or  other  carbonaceous  substance,  which  deposits  a  fine  thin  coating  of 
carbon.  This  is  done  when  good  fine  facing-sand  is  not  to  be  obtained.  As  regards  the 
proportions  of  sand  and  loam  used  in  the  formation  of  tho  moulds,  it  is  to  be  remarked 
that  the  greater  the  quantity  of  the  former  material,  the  more  easily  will  the  gases  escape, 
and  the  less  ILkelilKwd  is  there  of  a  failure  of  tho  casting  ;  on  tho  other  hand  if  the 
latter  substance  predominates,  the  impression  of  the  pattern  will  be  better,  but  a  far 
greater  liability  of  injury  to  the  casting  will  be  incurred  from  the  impermeable  nature  of 
the  moulding  material.     This,  however,  may  be  got  over  without  the  slighest  risk,  by 


I 


Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze.  21 

•well  di-j-ingthe  mould  prior  to  casting,  as  would  have  to  be  done  were  the  mould  entirely 
of  Itiam. 

Where  easily  fusible  metal  is  used,  metallic  moulds  are  sometimes  adopted.  Thus, 
where  great  quantities  of  one  particular  species  of  casting  are  required,  the  metallic 
mould  is  cheaper,  easier  of  management,  and  possesses  the  advantage  of  producing  any 
number  of  exactly  similar  copies.  The  simplest  example  is  the  casting  of  bullets. 
These  are  cast  in  moulds  constructed  like  scissors,  or  pliers,  the  jaws  or  nipping  portions 
being  hollowed  out  homispherically,  so  that  when  closed  a  complete  hollow  sphere  is 
formed,  having  a  small  aperture  leading  into  the  centre  of  the  division  line,  by  which  the 
molten  lead  is  poured  in.  Pewter  pots,  inkstands,  printing  types,  and  various  other 
articles,  composed  of  the  easily  fusible  metals,  or  their  compounds,  are  moulded  on 
the  same  principle.  The  pewterer  generally  uses  brass  moulds  :  they  are  heated  previous 
to  pouring  in  the  metal.  In  order  to  cause  the  casting  to  leave  the  mould  easier,  as  well 
as  to  give  a  finer  face  to  the  article,  the  mould  is  brushed  thinly  over  with  red  ochre 
and  white  of  an  egg ;  in  some  cases  a  tliin  film  of  oil  is  used  instead.  Many  of  the 
moulds  for  this  purpose  are  extremely  complex,  and,  being  made  in  several  pieces,  they 
require  great  care  in  fitting. 

A  few  observations  on  the  method  of  filling  the  moulds.  The  experienced  find 
that  the  proper  time  for  pouring  the  metal  is  indicated  by  the  wasting  of  the  zinc,  which 
gives  olT  a  lambent  flame  from  the  surface  of  the  melted  metal.  The  moment  this  is 
observed,  the  crucible  is  removed  from  the  fire,  in  order  to  avoid  incurring  a  great  waste 
of  this  volatile  substance.  The  metal  is  then  immediately  poured.  The  best  tem- 
perature for  pouring  is  that  at  which  it  will  take  the  sharpest  impression  and  yet  cool 
quickly.  If  the  metal  is  very  hot,  and  remains  long  in  contact  with  the  mould,  what  is 
called  "sand-burning"  takes  place,  and  the  face  of  the  casting  is  injured.  The 
founder,  then,  must  rely  on  his  own  judgment  as  to  what  is  the  lowest  heat  at  which 
good,  sharp  impressions  will  be  produced.  As  a  rule,  the  smallest  and  thinnest  castings 
must  be  cast  the  first  in  a  pouring,  as  the  metal  cools  quickest  in  such  cases,  while  the 
reverse  holds  good  with  regard  to  larger  ones. 

Complex  objects,  when  inflammable,  aro  occasionally  moulded  in  brass,  and  some 
other  of  the  fusible  metals,  by  an  extremely  ingenious  process ;  rendering  what  other- 
wise would  be  a  difficult  problem  a  comparatively  easy  matter.  The  mould,  which  it 
must  be  understood  is  to  be  composed  of  some  inflammable  material,  is  to  be  placed  in 
the  sand-flask,  and  the  moulding  sand  is  put  in  gradually  until  the  box  is  filled  up. 
Tyheu  dry,  the  whole  is  placed  in  an  oven  sufliciently  hot  to  reduce  the  mould  to  ashes, 
which  are  easily  removed  from  their  hollow,  when  the  metal  may  be  poured  in.  In 
"this  way  small  animals,  birds,  or  vegetables  may  be  cast  with  the  greatest  facility.  The 
animal  is  to  be  placed  in  the  empty  moulding  box,  being  held  in  the  exact  position 
required  by  suitable  wires  or  strings,  which  may  be  burnt  or  removed  previous  to 
pouring  in  the  metal. 

Another  mode,  which  appears  to  be  founded  on  the  same  principle,  answers  perfectly 
"well  when  the  original  model  is  moulded  in  wax.  The  model  is  placed  in  the  moulding 
box  in  the  manner  detailed  in  the  last  process,  having  an  additional  piece  of  wax  to 
represent  the  runner  for  the  metal.  Tlie  composition  here  used  for  moulding  is  similar 
to  that  employed  by  statue  founders  in  forming  the  cores  for  statues,  busts,  and  so  on, 
namely,  2  parts  brickdust  to  1  of  plaster  of  Paris.  This  is  mixed  with  water,  and 
poured  in  so  as  to  surround  the  model  well.  The  whole  is  then  slowly  dried,  and  when 
the  mould  is  sufficiently  hardened  to  withstand  the  effects  of  the  molten  wax,  it  is 
warmed,  in  order  to  liquefy  and  pour  it  out.  When  clear  of  the  wax,  the  mould  is  dried 
and  bmried  in  sand,  in  order  to  sustain  it  against  the  action  of  the  fluid  metal. 

Large  bells  are  usually  cast  in  loam  moulds,  being  "swept"  up,  according  to  the 
founder's  phraseology,  by  means  of  wooden  or  metal  patterns  whose  contour  is  an  exact 
representation  of  the  inner  and  outer  surfaces  of  the  intended  bell.     Sometimes,  indeed, 


22  Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze. 

the  ■wliole  exterior  of  the  bell  is  moulded  in  was,  which  serves  as  a  model  to  form  the 
impression  in  the  sand,  the  wax  being  melted  out  previous  to  peuring  in  the  metal. 
This  plan  is  rarely  pursued,  and  is  only  feasible  when  the  casting  is  small.  The  in- 
scriptions, ornaments,  scrolls,  and  so  on,  usually  found  on  bells,  are  put  on  tlie  clay  mould 
separately,  being  moulded  in  wax  or  clay,  and  stuck  on  while  soft.  The  same  i>\an  is 
pursued  with  regard  to  the  ears,  or  supporting  lugs,  by  which  the  bell  is  hung. 

Moulds  faced  with  common  flour  turn  out  castings  beautifully  smooth  and  bright; 
the  sand  parts  easily  from  the  surfaces,  and,  as  a  rule,  can  be  readily  removed  by  the 
application  of  a  hard  brush.  For  large  brass  castings,  quicklime  is  successfully  used  in 
some  places ;  it  is  simply  dusted  on  the  face  of  the  mould  and  smoothed  down  in  the 
usual  way. 

Sometimes,  even  when  the  brass  mixtures  are  good,  there  will  be  much  trouble 
with  blowing,  both  in  dry  and  green  moulds.  This  may  be  due  to  want  of  porosity  in 
the  sand  or  to  iusufSeient  heat  of  metal.  A  first-class  sand  is  that  from  the  Mansfield 
quarries,  near  Nottingham.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  stir  the  metal  with  a  hazel  rod  juit 
before  pouring. 

The  ordinary  method  of  casting  in  sand  moulds  applied  in  successive  pieces,  as  in 
plaster  of  Paris  casting,  is  not  so  much  in  use  in  Italy  as  what  is  called  the  "  forma 
perduta  "  mode  ;  meaning  that  the  object  is  destroyed  or  "  lost "  every  time.  Casting 
from  metallic  or  other  incombustible  objects  is  therefore  impossible  by  this  method. 
The  object  must  be  of  wax,  or  something  that  will  melt  or  burn  out,  the  mould 
having  been  dried  and  baked.  By  this  way  very  little  chasing  is  required,  but  the 
artist  has  to  finish  his  wax  object  (cast  in  a  plaster  mould)  each  time.  The  advantage 
of  this  method  is  that  you  get  the  artist's  finishing  of  his  own  work  instead  of  the 
chaser's,  who,  though  he  ought  to  be,  is  by  no  means  always  an  artist.  He  can  copy 
mechanically,  but  the  work  always  loses  terribly  in  expression  and  finish. 

The  following  process  is  recommended  by  Abbass  for  j)roducing  metallic  castings  of 
flowers,  leaves,  insects,  &c.  The  object — a  dead  beetle,  for  example — is  first  arranged 
in  a  natural  position,  and  the  feet  are  connected  with  an  oval  rim  of  wax.  It  is  then 
fixed  in  the  centre  of  a  paper  or  wooden  box  by  means  of  pieces  of  fine  wire,  so  that  it 
is  perfectly  free,  and  thicker  wires  are  run  from  the  sides  of  the  box  to  the  object, 
which  subsequently  serve  to  form  air-channels  in  the  mould  by  their  removal.  A  wooden 
stick,  tapering  towards  the  bottom,  is  placed  upon  the  back  of  the  insect  to  produce  a 
runner  for  casting.  The  box  is  then  filled  up  with  a  paste  of  |  plaster  of  Paris  and  | 
brickdust,  made  up  with  a  solution  of  alum  and  sal-ammoniac.  It  is  also  well  first  to 
brush  the  object  with  this  paste  to  prevent  the  formation  of  air-bubbles.  After  the 
mould  thus  formed  has  set,  the  object  is  removed  from  the  interior  by  first  reducing  it  to 
ashes.  It  is  therefore  dried  slowly,  and  finally  heated  gradually  to  a  red  heat,  and  then 
allowed  to  cool  slowly  to  prevent  the  formation  of  flaws  or  cracks.  The  ashes  are  removed 
by  pouring  mercury  into  the  cold  mould  and  shaking  it  thoroughly  before  pouring  it 
out,  repeating  this  operation  several  times.  The  thicker  wires  are  then  drawn  out, 
and  the  mould  needs  simply  to  be  thoroughly  heated  before  it  is  filled  with  metal, 
in  order  that  tlie  latter  may  flow  into  all  portions  of  it.  After  it  has  become  cold,  it  is 
softened  and  carefully  broken  away  from  the  casting. 

Casting. — When  brass  is  ready  to  be  poured,  the  zinc  on  the  surface  begins  to  waste 
with  a  lambent  flame.  When  this  condition  is  observed,  the  large  cokes  are  iii-st 
removed  from  the  mouth  of  the  pot,  and  a  long  pair  of  crucible  tongs  are  thrust  down 
beside  the  same  to  embrace  it  securely,  after  which  a  coupler  is  dropped  upon  the 
handles  of  tlie  tongs ;  the  pot  is  now  lifted  out  with  both  hands  and  carried  to  the 
skimming  place,  where  the  loose  dross  is  skimmed  off  with  an  iron  rod,  and  the  pot  is 
rested  upon  the  spill-trough,  against  or  upon  which  the  flasks  are  arranged. 

The  temperature  at  which  the  metal  is  poured  must  bo  proportioned  to  the 
magnitude  of  the  work ;  thus,  large,  struggling,  and  thin  castings  require  the  metal  to 


\ 


Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze.  23 

be  very  hot,  otherwise  it  will  be  chilled  from  coming  in  contact  with  tho  extended 
surface  of  sand  before  having  entirely  filled  the  mould  ;  thick  massive  castings,  if  filled 
with  such  hot  metal,  would  be  sandburnt,  as  the  long  continuance  of  the  licat  would 
destroy  the  face  of  the  mould  before  the  metal  would  be  solidified.  The  lino  of  policy 
seems  therefore  to  be,  to  pour  the  metals  at  that  period  when  they  shall  bo  suiticiently 
fluid  to  fill  the  moulcls  perfectly,  and  produce  distinct  and  sharp  impressions,  but  that 
the  metal  shall  become  externally  congealed  as  soon  as  possible  afterwards. 

For  slight  moulds,  the  carbonaceous  facings,  whether  meal-dust,  charcoal,  or  soot, 
are  good,  as  these  substances  are  bad  conductors  of  heat,  and  rather  aid  than  otherwise 
by  their  ignition ;  it  is  also  proper  to  air  these  moulds  for  thin  works,  or  slightly  warm 
them  before  a  grate  containing  a  coke  fire.  But  in  massive  works  these  precautions 
are  less  required ;  and  the  facing  of  common  brickdust,  which  is  incombustible  and 
more  binding,  succeeds  better. 

The  founder  therefore  fills  the  moulds  having  the  slightest  works  first,  and 
gradually  proceeds  to  the  heaviest ;  if  needful,  he  will  wait  a  little  to  cool  the  metal,  or 
will  effect  the  same  purpose  by  stirring  it  with  one  of  the  ridges  or  waste  runners, 
which  thereby  becomes  partially  melted.  He  judges  of  the  temperature  of  tho  melted 
brass  principally  by  the  eye,  as,  when  out  of  the  furnace,  and  the  very  hot  surface  emits 
a  brilliant  bluish-white  flame,  and  gives  off  clouds  of  white  oxide  of  zinc,  a 
considerable  portion  of  which  floats  in  the  air  like  snow,  the  light  decreases  with  the 
temperature,  and  but  little  zinc  is  then  fumed  away. 

Gun-metal  and  pot-metal  do  not  flare  away  in  the  manner  of  brass,  the  tin  and  lead 
being  far  less  volatile  than  zinc ;  neither  should  they  be  poured  so  hot  or  fluid  as 
yellow  brass,  or  they  will  become  sandburnt  in  a  greater  degree,  or,  rather,  the  tin 
and  lead  will  strike  to  the  surface.  Gun-metal  and  the  much-used  alloys  of  copper, 
tin,  and  zinc  are  sometimes  mixed  at  the  time  of  pouring;  the  alloy  of  lead  and 
copper  is  never  so  treated,  but  always  contains  old  metal,  and  copper  is  seldom  cast 
alone,  but  a  trifling  portion  of  zinc  is  added  to  it,  otherwise  the  work  becomes  nearly 
full  of  little  air-bubbles  throughout  its  surface. 

AVhen  the  founder  is  in  doubt  as  to  the  quality  of  the  metal,  from  its  containing 
old  metal  of  unknown  character,  or  if  he  desires  to  be  very  exact,  he  will  either  pour 
a  sample  from  the  pot  into  an  ingot-mould,  or  extract  a  little  with  a  long  rod  terminating 
in  a  spoon  heated  to  redness.  The  lump  is  cooled,  and  tried  with  a  file,  saw,  hammer, 
or  drill,  to  learn  its  quality.  The  engraved  cylinders  for  calico-printing  arc  required 
to  be  of  pure  copper,  and  their  unsoundness,  when  cast  in  the  usual  way,  was  found  to 
be  £0  serious  an  evil  that  it  gave  rise  to  casting  the  metal  under  pressure. 

Some  jjersons  judge  of  the  heat  proper  for  pouring  by  applying  the  skimmer  to  the 
surface  of  the  metal,  which,  when  very  hot,'has  a  motion  like  that  of  boiling  water  ; 
this  dies  away  and  becomes  more  languid  as  the  metal  cools.  Many  works  are  spoiled 
from  being  poured  too  hot,  and  the  management  of  the  heat  is  much  more  difficult  when 
the  quantity  of  metal  is  small.  In  pouring  the  metal,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
back  the  dross  from  the  liiJ  of  the  melting-pot.  A  crucible  containing  the  general 
quantity  of  40  lb.  or  50  lb.  of  metal  can  be  very  conveniently  managed  by  one  individual, 
but  for  larger  quantities,  sometimes  amounting  to  1  cwt.,  an  assistant  aids  in  supporting 
the  crucible  by  catching  hold  of  the  shoulder  of  the  tongs  with  a  grunter,  an  irdn  rod 
bent  like  a  hook. 

Whilst  the  mould  is  being  filled,  there  is  a  rushing  or  hissing  sound  from  the  flow  of 
metal  and  escape  of  air ;  the  effect  is  less  violent  where  there  are  2  or  more  passages, 
as  in  heavy  pieces,  and  then  the  jet  can  be  kept  entirely  full,  which  is  desirable. 
Immediately  after  the  mould  is  filled,  there  are  generally  small  but  harmless  explosions 
of  the  gases,  which  escape  through  the  seams  of  the  mould ;  they  ignite  from  the 
runners,  and  burn  quietly ;  but  when  the  metal  blows,  from  tho  after-escape  of  any 
confined  air,  it  makes  a  gurgling,  bubbling  noise,  like  the  boiling  of  water,  but  much 


24  Casting  and  Foundixg — Brass  and  Bronze. 

louder,  and  it  will  sometimes  throw  the  fluid  metal  out  of  the  runner  in  3  or  4  separate 
spurts :  this  effect,  which  mostly  tjjoils  the  castings,  is  much  the  more  likely  to  occur 
•with  cored  works,  and  with  such  as  are  rammed  in  less  judiciously  hard,  without 
being,  like  the  moulds  for  fine  castings,  subsequently  well  dried.  The  moulds  are 
generally  openeil  before  the  castings  are  cold,  and  the  founder's  duty  is  ended  when  he 
has  sawn  off  the  ingates  or  ridges,  and  filed  away  the  ragged  edges  where  the  metal 
has  entered  the  seams  of  the  mould  ;  small  works  are  additionally  cleaned  in  a  rumble, 
or  revolving  cask,  where  they  soon  scrub  each  other  clean.  Nearly  all  small  brass 
works  are  poured  vertically,  and  the  runners  must  be  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the 
castings,  that  they  may  serve  to  fill  the  mould  quickly,  and  supply  at  the  top  a  mass  of 
still  fluid  metal,  to  serve  as  a  head  or  pressure  for  compressing  that  which  in  beneath,  to 
increase  the  density  and  soundness  of  the  casting.  Most  large  works  in  brass,  and  tiie 
greater  part  of  those  in  iron,  are  moulded  and  poured  horizontally. 

The  casting  of  figures  is  the  most  complex  and  difl3cult  branch  of  the  founder's  art. 
An  example  of  this  is  found  in  the  moulding  of  their  ornaments  in  relief.  The 
ornament,  whatever  it  may  be — a  monumental  bas-relief,  for  instance— is  first  modelled 
in  relief,  in  clay  or  wax,  upon  a  flat  surface.  A  sand-flask  is  then  placed  upon  the 
board  over  the  model,  and  well  rammed  with  sand,  which  thus  takes  the  impress  of  the 
model  on  its  lower  surface.  A  second  flask  is  now  laid  on  the  sunken  impression,  and 
also  filled  with  sand,  in  order  to  take  the  relief  impression  from  it.  This  is  generally 
termed  the  cope  or  back  mould.  The  thickness  of  the  intended  cast  is  then  determined 
by  placing  an  edging  of  clay  around  the  lower  flask,  upon  which  edging  the  upper  one 
rests,  thus  keeping  the  two  surfaces  at  the  precise  distance  from  each  other  that  it  is 
intended  the  thickness  of  the  casting  shall  be.  In  this  process,  the  metal  is  economized 
to  the  greatest  possible  extent,  as  the  interior  surface,  or  back  of  the  casting,  is  an  exact 
representation  of  the  relief  of  the  subject,  and  the  whole  is  thus  made  as  thin  in  every 
part  as  the  strength  of  the  metal  permits.  Several  modifications  of  the  process  just 
described  are  also  made  use  of,  to  suit  the  particular  circumstances  of  the  ease.  What 
has  been  said,  however,  is  a  detail  of  the  principle  pursued  in  all  matters  of  a  similar 
nature. 

Cores. — Following  are  instructions  for  a  composition  for  cores  that  may  be  required 
for  difficult  jobs,  where  it  would  be  extremely  expensive  to  make  a  core-box  for  the 
same :  Make  a  pattern  (of  any  material  that  will  stand  moulding  from)  like  the  core 
required.  Take  a  mould  from  the  same  in  the  sand,  in  the  ordinary  way,  place 
strengthening  wires  from  point  to  point,  centrally ;  gate  and  close  your  flask.  Then 
make  a  composition  of  2  parts  brickdust  and  1  of  plaster  of  Paris  ;  mix  with  water, 
and  cast.  Take  it  out  when  set,  dry  it,  ami  place  it  in  your  mould  warm,  so  that  there 
may  he  no  cold  air  in  it. 

Mahing  Bronze  Figures.  -It  is  a  singular  fact  that  melted  gold,  silver,  copper,  and 
iron,  if  jjourcd  hot  into  a  mould,  will  take  an  impression  of  all  the  details  of  the 
pattern  from  which  the  mould  was  made,  only  if  the  mould  is  made  of  sand.  Zinc 
can  be  moulded  in  copper  moulds,  and  that  is  the  principal  cause  of  the  low  price  of 
spelter  or  zinc  statuettes,  known  in  the  trade  as  imitation  or  French  bronze.  The  real 
bronze  is  an  alloy  of  copper,  zinc,  and  tin,  the  2  latter  metals  forming  a  very  small  part 
of  the  combination,  the  object  of  which  is  the  production  of  a  metal  harder  than  the 
pure  copper  would  be,  and  consequently  more  capable  of  standing  the  action  of  time, 
and  also  less  brittle  and  soft  than  zinc  alone  would  be.  Let  us  follow  a  statuette 
througli  the  different  processes  under  which  it  has  to  pass  from  the  time  it  leaves  the 
hands  of  the  artist  who  has  modelled  it  to  that  when  it  reaches  the  shop  where  it  is  to 
be  sold. 

The  original  statuette  is  generally  finished  in  plaster.  The  manufacturer's  first 
ooeration  is  to  have  it  cut  in  such  pieces  as  will  best  suit  the  moulder,  the  mounter, 
and  the  chaser,  for  very  few  statuettes  are  cast  all  in  one  piece.    Arms  and  leo-s  are 


Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze.  25 

generally  put  on  after  the  body  is  finished.  The  next  operation  is  to  reproduce  the 
different  parts  of  the  figure  in  metal.  For  this  the  moulder  takes  it  in  hand  to  prepare 
the  moulil.  He  begins  by  selecting  a  rectangular  iron  frame,  technically  termed  a 
flask,  large  enough  for  the  figure  to  lie  in  easily.  To  this  frame,  -which  is  2  to  6  in, 
deep,  another  similar  frame  can  be  fastened  by  bolts  and  eyes  arranged  on  the  outside 
of  it,  so  that  several  of  these  frames  superposed  form  a  sort  of  box.  The  workman 
places  the  plaster  statuette,  which  is  now  his  "pattern,"  on  a  bed  of  soft  moulding-sand 
inside  the  first  iron  frame.  The  sand  used  for  mould  making  is  of  a  peculiar  nature,  its 
principal  quality  being  due  to  the  presence  of  magnesia.  One  locality  is  celebrated  for 
affording  the  best  sand — that  is  Fontenay-aux-Roses,  a  few  miles  from  Paris,  in  France. 
This  sand,  when  slightly  damp,  sticks  together  very  easily,  and  is  well  fitted  to  take  the 
impression  of  the  pattern. 

Once  the  pattern  is  embedded  in  the  sand,  the  workman  takes  a  small  lump  of 
sand,  which  he  presses  against  the  sides  of  the  figure,  covering  a  certain  portion  of  it. 
Next  to  this  piece  he  presses  another,  using  a  small  wooden  mallet  to  ensure  the  perfect 
adhesion  of  the  sand  to  the  pattern.  Each  one  of  these  pieces  of  sand  is  trimmed  ofl", 
and  a  light  layer  of  potato-flour  is  dusted  both  over  the  pattern  and  the  different  parts  of 
the  mould,  to  prevent  them  from  adhering  together.  In  course  of  time,  the  entire  part  of 
the  pattern  left  above  the  first  bed  of  sand,  on  which  it  has  been  placed,  will  be  covered 
with  these  pieces  of  sand,  which  are  beaten  hard  enough  to  keep  together.  Looae  sand 
is  now  thrown  over  this  elementary  brickwork  of  sand,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  and  a 
second  iron  frame  is  bolted  to  the  first  one  to  hold  the  sand  together,  which,  when  beaten 
down,  will  form  a  case  holding  the  elementary  sand  jjieccs  of  the  mould  in  place.  The 
workman  now  turns  his  mould  over,  removes  the  loose  sand  which  formed  the  original 
bed  of  the  pattern,  and  replaces  it  by  beaten  pieces,  just  as  he  had  done  on  the  upper 
side. 

It  can  now  easily  be  conceived  that  if  the  mould  is  opened  the  plaster  pattern  can 
be  removed,  and  that  if  all  the  pieces  of  sand  are  replaced  as  they  were,  there  will  be 
a  hollow  space  inside  the  mould,  which  will  be  exactly  the  space  previously  occupied  by 
the  pattern.  If  we  pour  melted  metal  into  this  space,  it  will  fill  it  exactly,  and  conse- 
quently, when  solidified  by  cooling,  reproduce  exactly  the  plaster  pattern.  For  small 
pieces,  this  will  answer  very  well ;  but  large  pieces  must  bo  hollow.  If  they  were  cast 
solid,  the  metal  in  cooling,  would  contract,  and  the  surface  would  present  cracks  and 
holes  difficult  to  fill.  To  make  a  casting  hollow  it  is  necessary  to  suspend  inside  the 
mould  an  inner  mould  or  "  core,"  leaving  between  it  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  first 
mould  a  regular  space,  which  is  that  which  will  be  filled  by  the  metal  when  it  is  poured 
in.  This  core  is  made  of  sand,  and  suspended  in  the  mould  by  cross  wires  or  iron  rods, 
according  to  the  importance  of  the  piece.  A  method  often  used  in  preparing  a  mould, 
named  by  the  French  cire  perdue,  will  help  to  illustrate  this.  The  artist  first  takes  a 
rough  clay  image  of  the  figure  he  wants  to  produce.  This  will  bo  the  core  of  the 
mould ;  he  covers  it  with  a  coating  of  modelling-wax  of  equal  thickness,  and  on  this 
wax  he  finishes  the  modelling  of  his  figure.  The  moulder  now  makes  his  sand 
mould  over  the  wax,  and,  when  it  is  completed  by  baking  the  mould  in  a  suitable 
furnace,  the  wax  runs  out,  leaving  exactly  the  space  to  be  filled  up  by  the  metal. 
The  celebrated  statue  of  Perseus,  by  Benvenuto  Cellini,  was  cast  in  this  way,  and  the 
method  is  very  frequently  employed  by  the  Japanese  and  Chinese.  Sometimes  flowers, 
animals,  or  baskets  are  embedded  in  the  mould,  and,  after  the  baking,  the  ashes  to 
which  they  have  been  reduced  are  either  washed  or  blown  out  to  make  room  for  tlie 
metal.  This  can  easily  be  done  through  the  jets  or  passages  left  for  the  metal  to  enter 
the  mould,  and  through  the  vent-holes  provided  for  the  escape  of  air  and  gases. 

When  the  mould  has  cooled,  it  is  broken  to  remove  the  casting  it  contains;  and 
here  is  the  reason  why  real  bronze  is  so  much  more  expensive  than  the  spelter 
imitation.     For  each  bronze  a  new  sand  mould  must  be  made,  while  the  zinc  or  siielter 


26  Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze. 

can  be  poured  in  metallic  moulds,  which  will  last  for  ever.  In  this  way  the  pieces  are 
produced  with  but  little  more  labour  than  that  required  to  manufacture  leaden  bullets. 
These  pieces,  of  course,  do  not  receive  the  same  expensive  finish  as  the  real  bronze. 
When  the  casting  is  taken  out  of  the  mould,  it  goes  to  the  mounter,  who  trims  it  off, 
files  the  base  "  true/'  prepares  the  sockets  which  are  to  receive  the  arms  or  other  pieces 
to  be  mounted,  and  hands  the  piece  to  tlie  chaser.  The  work  of  this  artisan  consists  in 
removing  from  the  surface  of  the  metal  such  inequalities  as  tlie  sand  mould  may  have 
left,  and  in  finishing  the  surface  of  the  metal  as  best  suits  the  piece.  The  amount  of 
work  a  skilful  chaser  can  lay  out  on  a  piece  is  unlimited.  In  some  cases  the  very  tex- 
ture of  the  skin  is  reproduced  on  the  surface  of  the  metal.  This  mode  of  chasing, 
called  in  French  cliair^,  and  in  English  "skin-finish,"  is,  of  course,  only  found  on  work 
of  the  best  class.  Sometimes  pieces  are  finished  with  slight  cross-touches,  similar  to  the 
cross-hatching  of  engraving.  This  style  of  finish,  which  is  much  esteemed  by  connois- 
seurs, is  named  "  cross-ritSed,"  or  riboute.  After  the  chaser  has  finished  his  work,  the 
piece  returns  to  the  mounter,  who  definitively  secures  the  elements  of  the  piece  in  their 
places. 

The  next  process  it  that  of  bronzing.  The  colour  known  as  "  bronze  "  is  that  which 
a  piece  of  that  metal  would  take  through  the  natural  process  of  atmospheric  oxidation, 
if  it  were  exposed  to  a  dry  atmosphere  at  an  even  temperature.  But  the  manufacturer, 
not  being  able  to  wait  for  the  slow  action  of  nature,  calls  chemistry  to  his  aid,  and  by 
different  processes  produces  on  the  surface  of  the  piece  a  metallic  oxide  of  copper,  which, 
according  to  taste  or  fashion,  varies  from  black  to  red,  which  are  the  2  extreme  colours 
of  copper  oxide.  The  discovery  of  old  bronzes,  buried  for  centuries  in  damp  earth,  and 
covered  with  verdigris,  suggested  the  colour  known  as  vert  antique,  which  is  easily  pro- 
duced on  new  metal  by  the  action  of  acetic  or  sulphuric  acid.  In  the  15th  century, 
the  Florentine  artisans  produced  a  beautiful  colour  on  their  bronzes  by  smoking  them 
over  a  fire  of  greasy  rags  and  straw.  This  colour,  which  is  very  like  that  of  mahogany, 
is  still  known  as  Florentine  or  smoked  bronze.  Bronze  can  also  be  plated  with  gold 
and  silver,  nickel  and  platinum,  like  every  other  metal. 

On  this  subject,  Gornaud  says  that  the  manufacturer  of  art  bronzes  begins  by  giving 
the  style  and  general  proportions  to  the  artist,  who  is  his  first  and  most  important 
assistant.  The  artist  takes  the  clay,  the  model,  the  style,  and  arranges  it  into  its  varied 
forms ;  soon  the  architecture  is  designed,  the  figures  become  detached,  the  ornaments 
harmonize,  and  the  idea  embodied  in  the  outline  becomes  clear.  The  manufacturer, 
before  giving  his  model  to  the  founder,  should  indicate  with  a  pencil  the  parts  which 
ought  to  be  thickest,  lest  some  be  found  too  light,  without,  however,  altering  the  form  ; 
he  should  also  mark  the  parts  to  be  cut  in  the  mould  to  facilitate  putting  together.  Care 
must  be  taken  to  rub  with  hard  modelling  wax  all  the  projecting  parts  which  serve  to 
join  the  pieces,  so  that  the  turner  may  not  want  matter.  He  must  carefully  verify  all 
the  pieces  separately,  and  cover  with  wax  the  angles  and  ends  of  the  leaves — in  a  word 
the  weak  parts.  Generally  the  model  is  cast  in  half-red  bronze,  in  the  following  pro- 
portions (the  body  of  it  is  harder,  and  less  easy  to  work)  : — 

Copper      91-60  per  cent. 

Zinc 5-33 

Tin '.     '::  ■   1-70        „ 

Lead 1-37        „ 

Objects  destined  to  be  gilded  require  a  little  more  zinc  than  those  of  plain  bronze.  The 
models  just  described  serve  to  make  the  moulds  in  moulding  sand,  the  moulds  being 
afterwards  baked  in  a  stove  heated  to  572°  F.  (300°  C).  They  are  fastened  horizontally 
with  binding  screws,  in  order  to  run  in  the  bronze ;  the  temperature,  when  cast,  varies 
from  2732°  to  3272°  F.  (1500°  to  1800°  C). 

The  Japanese  word  corresponding  to  the  English  "  bronze  "  is  karaJcane,  which  means 


Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze.  27 

"  Chinese  metal "  ;  -whereas  the  brass  alloys  are  called  sliin-cliu.  The  spelter  nsed  for 
the  latter  is  imported.  The  industry  of  bronze-casting  is  of  very  ancient  origin;  at 
first  foreign  metal,  imjwrted  either  from  China  or  Corea,  must  have  been  used,  as 
Japanese  copper  has  only  been  produced  since  the  beginning  of  the  Sth  century ;  by 
that  time,  however,  the  industry  of  bronze-casting  had  already  reached  a  certain  state 
of  perfection.  This  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  priest  Giyoki,  -who  lived  about 
this  time,  proposed  the  erection  of  a  monster  bronze  statue  of  Buddlia,  -which  was 
carried  into  effect.  There  -were  formerly  3  of  these  statues  in  Japan,  each  about  50  ft.  in 
height.  Other  specimens  of  large  bronze-castings  are  the  famous  bells  of  Nara,  Kiyoto, 
Nikko,  Shiba  in  Tokio,.and  others,  which  have  an  average  height  of  15  ft.  andaremoro 
than  10  ft.  in  diameter.  Statues  of  all  sizes,  bells,  vases,  water-basins,  candlesticks, 
incense-burners,  lanterns,  &c.,  have  been  manufactured  in  large  quantities  for  temples 
and  their  approaches.  Portrait- statues,  like  the  monuments  erected  in  foreign  countries 
to  honour  the  memory  of  celebrated  men,  have  never  been  made  in  Japan.  As  articles 
for  household  uses,  may  be  mentioned  fire-pots,  water-pots,  flower-vases  and  basins  in 
wliich  miniature  gardens  are  made,  perfume-burners,  pencil-cases,  small  water-pots 
of  fanciful  shapes  for  writing-boxes,  paper-weights,  and  small  figures  representing 
divinities.  These  bronze-castings  are  either  made  in  the  simple  and  severe  style  of  the 
old  celebrated  Chinese  bronzes,  or  else  are  specimens  of  the  peculiar  character  of 
Japanese  art,  which  chooses  it  subjects  from  natural  life,  either  combining  them  with 
lively  scenes  shewing  a  great  deal  of  humour,  together  with  the  most  minute  copying 
of  nature,  or  else  using  them  to  produce  some  artistical  effect.  The  bronze  is  cast  in 
clay  moulds  formed  upon  models  made  of  a  mixture  of  wax  and  resin,  which  is  melted 
out  from  the  finished  mould  previous  to  pouring  the  metal  in.  The  artist  who  makes 
the  model  generally  does  the  casting  himself,  and  in  most  cases  the  worksliops  consist 
only  of  the  master's  family  and  2  or  3  assistants.  The  melting  furnaces  are  of  exceed- 
ingly small  dimensions,  and  generally  made  of  an  iron  kettle  lined  with  clay.  After 
casting,  the  pattern  is  carefully  corrected  and  worked  out  by  chiselling,  but  the  best 
bronze-casters  prepare  the  model,  the  mould,  and  the  alloy  in  such  a  way  as  to  pro- 
duce castings  which  need  no  further  correcting  or  finishing.  In  some  cases  also  the 
whole  pattern  is  produced  merely  with  the  chisel  working  upon  a  smooth  surface ;  this, 
for  instance,  is  frequently  done  in  the  provinces  of  Kaga  and  Yechiu,  which  are  very 
important  centres  of  the  bronze  industry.  The  bronzing  of  the  pieces  is  done  in  many 
different  ways,  each  manufacturer  having  his  own  particular  process,  which  he 
modifies  according  to  the  composition  of  the  alloy  and  the  colour  he  wishes  to  produce. 
The  chemicals  used  for  this  purpose  are  very  few  in  number,  and  limited  to  vinegar, 
copper  sulphate,  and  verdigris  as  the  principal  substances  ;  other  materials,  used  less 
frequently,  consist  of  iron  sulphate,  red  oxide  of  iron,  and  lacquer.  It  may  be  added, 
as  a  peculiarity,  that  an  infusion  of  Eryantlms  tiiictorius  is  also  made  use  of  in  the 
bronzing  process. 

The  ornamentation  of  bronze  castings  is  not  only  produced  by  relief  patterns  moulded 
or  chiselled,  but  also  by  inlaying  the  objects  with  gold,  silver,  or  with  a  different  alloy. 
This  kind  of  workmanship  is  called  zogan,  and  is  principally  carried  on  in  the  provinces 
of  Knga  and  Yechiu.  The  process  by  which  the  inlaid  work  is  effected  differs  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  material  on  which  it  is  produced.  Sometimes  the  design  is 
hollowed  out  to  a  certain  depth  with  a  graver  or  chisel,  and  the  ornamenting  metal, 
silver,  gold,  &c.,  generally  in  the  shape  of  threads,  is  laid  into  the  hollow  spaces 
and  hammered  over,  should  the  alloy  be  soft  eneugh ;  the  edges  of  these  grooves 
are  first  slightly  driven  up,  so  that  when  the  silver  or  gold  has  been  laid  in,  they  can 
be  easily  hammered  down  again,  so  as  to  prevent  the  inlaid  metal  from  getting  loose.  Or 
else  the  surface  is  merely  covered  in  the  required  places  with  a  narrow  network  of  lines 
by  means  of  filing,  and  the  thin  gold  or  silver  leaf  fastened  on  to  tlus  rough  surface  by 
hammering.    This  last  process  is  the  one  used  mostly  for  inlaid  ii-on-work.    It  is  also 


28  Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze.  _ 

said  that  the  design  is  often  produced  by  a  process  very  similar  to  that  of  the  so-called 
niello ;  only  instead  of  the  black  sulphuretted  silver  and  copper,  a  more  easily  fusible 
alloy  is  used.  Inlaid  work  of  the  above  kind  is  principally  made  in  Kaga  and  Yechiu, 
at  Kanasawa  and  Takaoko,  where  the  alloy  used  for  the  bronze-casting  is  mostly 
composed  of  copper,  tin,  zinc,  and  lead.  In  addition  to  the  castings,  the  repousse'  work 
should  be  mentioned,  by  which  mostly  small  metallic  ornaments  for  swords,  tobacco-  ^ 
pouches,  Ac,  and  also  larger  pieces,  such  as  tea-pots,  scent-burners,  vases,  &c.,  | 
are  produced;  the  inlaying  of  this  kind  of  ware  is  sometunes  of  extraordinary 
delicacy  and  beauty.  The  dark-blue  colour  shown  by  a  great  number  of  smaller 
pieces  is  that  of  the  shalcudo,  composed  of  copper,  and  3  and  4  per  cent,  of  gold. 
Finally,  attention  should  be  called  to  the  so-called  mohu-me,  a  word  which  might  be 
rendered  by  "  veins  of  the  wood.'  The  metal-work  designated  by  this  name  presents  a 
sort  of  damask  pattern  composed  of  variously-coloured  metals,  chiefly  white  silver,  red 
copper,  and  a  dark-blue  alloy.  Pieces  of  this  very  difHcult  sort  of  workmanship  are 
produced  by  overlaying  and  soldering  together  a  certain  number  of  plates  of  the  said  metals 
or  alloys,  by  hammering,  kneading,  resoldering,  filling  up  the  hollow  spaces  with  new 
metal,  and  repeating  these  operations  many  times  ;  finally,  when  stretched  out  into  a  thin 
sheet,  this  composition  shows  the  aforesaid  pattern  all  composed  of  veins  of  the  difierent 
metals  that  Lave  been  made  use  of. 

Cktsting  en  cire  perdue. — A  very  interesting  report  on  bronze-casting  in  Belgium, 
by  Sir  J.  Savile  Lumley,  has  recently  been  issued,  from  which  the  following  remarks 
are  abstracted. 

The  bronze  castings  made  under  the  First  Empire  were  from  moulds  made  on  plaster 
models  by  an  ingenious  method  known  by  the  name  of  ''  moulage  a  la  Fran^aise,"  which 
is  now  employed  in  all  French  bronze  foundries  ;  it  has  the  advantage  of  being  economical, 
especially  for  large  works,  and  is  generally  used  in  all  the  foundries  of  the  north  of 
Europe  ;  it  resembles  in  some  respects  the  system  practised  in  iron  foundries,  and  is  now 
employed  even  in  Italy  in  preference  to  the  wax  process. 

It  must  also  be  remarked  that  casting  "  en  cire  perdue  "  is  not  suitable  for  every  style 
of  sculpture  ;  works,  for  instance,  requiring  a  smooth  surface  can,  and  indeed  ought  to  be, 
cast  by  the  ordinary  French  system,  which  produces  metal  of  a  closer  grain  and  more 
polished  surface,  requiring,  however,  the  use  of  the  chasing  tool  over  the  whole  surface 
to  efiace  the  marks  left  by  the  joints  of  the  piece-mould,  and  the  entire  removal  of  what 
is  called  "  la  peau  de  la  fonte,"  the  casting  skin  or  "  epidermis  "  of  the  bronze  as  it 
comes  from  the  mould,  and  which,  in  the  wax  process,  constitutes  its  peculiar  charm, 
reproducing  as  it  does  a  perfect  facsimile  of  the  original  work  as  it  left  the  artist's  hands. 

The  ordinary  method  of  casting  is  more  suitable  to  tlie  bronze  articles  of  commerce 
which  require  reproduction,  as  well  as  for  bronzes  intended  to  be  gilt  or  silvered  and 
burnished.  The  wax  process,  on  the  contrary,  is  adapted  to  unique  artistic  works  not 
intended  for  reproduction  ;  the  casting  skin,  however,  so  dear  to  the  sculptor,  diminishes 
fco  a  certain  extent  the  beauty  of  the  artificial  "  patina,"  or  bronzing,  which  is  always 
more  brilliant  on  bronzes  that  have  been  worked  over  with  the  file  and  the  graving  tool. 
The  objection  manifested  by  motlem  bronze  founders  to  adopting  the  wax  process  has 
hitherto  been  tliat  in  case  of  failure  in  the  casting,  the  model  is  completely  lost ;  but 
by  a  m'-'thod  adopted  by  the  Brussels  Bronze  Co.,  failure  in  casting  confines  the  loss 
to  the  casting  itself,  and  leaves  the  original  model  intact  and  available  for  a  second 
attempt.  Following  is  a  technical  description  of  the  operations  carried  out  by  them  for 
bronze-casting  en  cire  perdue. 

Supposing  the  work  to  be  reproduced  to  be  the  portrait  bust  of  a  man  with  curly  locks 
and  a  long  ilowing  beard,  such  a  head  would  not  be  easy  to  cast  by  the  ordinary  process, 
owing  to  the  difficulty  of  conveying  the  liquid  bronze  into  the  cavities  of  the  curls  and 
the  interstices  of  the  beard,  but  tliis  is  easily  overcome  when  the  bust  is  cast  by  the  wax 
process.    The  different  operations  to  be  carried  out  are  as  follows :  (1)  The  production  of' 


Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze. 


29 


the  model  in  plaster  or  terra-cotta  by  the  artist  sculptor.  (2)  Its  reproduction  in  wax  by 
the  founder.  (3)  The  repairing  and  retouching  of  the  wax  bust  by  the  artist  sculptor. 
(4)  The  preparation  for  casting  the  bust  before  forming  the  mould  and  cope.  (5)  The 
formation  of  the  mould.  (6)  Firing.  (7)  Casting.  (8)  Finishing  and  decorating  the 
bronze  bust.  Fig.  5  illustrates  the  arrangement  of  the  runners,  vents,  and  drains  :  a 
are  the  6  runners  by  which  the  molten  bronze  is  conveyed  into  the  mould ;   b,  vents  for 


tiie  escape  of  air  and  gases ;  c,  drains  for  carrying  off  the  melted  wax  ;  d,  vents  for  the 
escape  of  air  from  the  cores  within  the  bodies  of  the  horse  and  man.  All  except  d  are 
originally  of  wax  like  the  group  itself;  but  when  the  mould  is  fired,  the  wax  disappears, 
and  the  hollows  left  by  the  melted  wax  are  converted  into  bronze  and  have  to  be  sawn 
off. 

The  model. — The  bust  produced  by  the  sculptor,  which  may  be  in  terra-cotta  or 
plaster,  finished  as  far  as  the  artist  thinks  advisable,  is  handed  over  to  the  founder. 

Keproduction  in  wax.  This  requires  3  distinct  operations  :  A.  The  formation  of  a 
piece-mould.     B.  The  reproduction  of  the  bust  in  wax.    C.  Running  the  core. 

A.    Formation  of  a  piece-mould. — After   having  examined  the  bust  so  as  to   be 


30  Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze. 

thoroughly  acquainted  "With  its  difBculties,  the  workman  proceeds  to  cut  off  with  a  twisted 
wire  the  projecting  portions  of  the  beard,  and  the  hair,  which,  from  the  cavities  of  the 
locks  and  curls,  would  present  difficulties  for  casting.  The  parts  thus  removed  are 
afterwards  easily  replaced.  The  bust  is  now  reduced  to  a  very  simple  instead  of  the 
complicated  form  it  at  first  presented.  The  plaster  mould  is  then  made  in  the  ordinary 
way :  the  bust  being  laid  on  a  table,  face  upwards,  is  fixed  in  that  iwsition  by  lumps  of 
modelling  clay  so  that  one-half  of  the  thickness  of  the  bust  is  completely  covered,  the 
remaining  lialf  presenting  the  appearance  of  a  figure  floating  on  its  back  in  water.  The 
workman  tlien  begins  to  make  the  pieces  of  the  mould :  taking  the  liquid  plaster,  which 
is  of  the  consistency  of  thick  cream,  he  forms  a  cube  2  in.  high,  and  the  same  length 
and  width,  which  he  squares  as  soon  as  the  plaster  begins  to  harden ;  with  this  cube  of 
plaster  he  covers  a  first  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  bust;  close  to  this  first  cube  a 
second  is  formed,  and  so  on  until  the  whole  bust  is  covered  with  an  irregular  mosaic  of 
plaster  cubes,  care  being  taken  to  prevent  them  'from  adhering  to  each  other  or  to  the 
bust  by  the  application  of  a  strong  solution  of  soap.  The  surface  of  these  cubes,  after 
being  well  wetted  with  this  solution,  is  covered  over  with  a  very  thick  coating  of  plaster, 
which  is  called  the  cope,  the  place  of  each  cube  having  been  previously  marked ;  the 
first  half  of  the  piece-mould  is  now  complete.  The  moulder  then  turns  the  bust  with 
the  face  down  on  to  the  table,  fixing  it  as  before,  and  proceeds  to  cover  the  back  in  the 
same  way  with  cubes  of  plaster,  so  that  when  this  second  half  is  also  covered  with  a 
thick  plaster  cope,  a  complete  mould  is  formed  in  2  halves.  The  great  art  of  the  moulder 
is  to  make  the  piece-moulds  at  the  same  time  simjile  and  solid,  and  fitting  so  closely 
together  as  to  leave  the  least  possible  trace  of  the  joints  on  the  plaster  cast  produced 
from  it ;  care  must  also  be  taken  that  in  handling  the  mould  none  of  the  small  pieces 
should  detach  themselves  from  it.  The  mould  being  completed,  it  is  opened,  that  is  to  say, 
the  2  plaster  coj^es  are  separated,  the  bust  which  is  intact  is  taken  out,  leaving  a  complete 
mould  in  which  other  busts  can  be  cast  just  as  bullets  are  cast  in  a  bullet-mould.  The 
next  operation  is  the  reproduction  of  a  bust  in  wax,  precisely  like  the  original  in 
jilastcr. 

B.  Eeproduction  in  wax. — One-half  of  the  piece-mould  is  jDlaced  on  the  table,  that 
is  to  say,  one  of  the  copes,  with  all  its  pieces,  and  the  mould  is  wetted  with  water  in  order 
to  prevent  the  wax  from  adhering  to  it ;  the  workman  then,  with  his  thumb,  presses  wax 
into  all  the  hollows  of  the  mould :  this  is  an  operation  of  considerable  delicacy.  The  wax. 
which  must  be  very  pure  and  malleable,  is  aifeeted  by  the  weather,  working  more  easily 
in  siuumer  than  in  winter  ;  the  most  suitable  quality  for  average  temperature  is  composed 
of  I  lb.  of  yellow  wax,  C-2  lb.  of  mutton  fat,  0-1  lb.  of  white  pitch,  melted  together  and 
coloured  a  deep  red  with  alkanet.  The  wax  pressed  into  the  mould  should  be  -jV  in. 
thick.  When  all  the  hollows  of  the  fii'st  cope  have  had  wax  of  the  requisite  thickness 
pressed  into  them,  the  same  process  is  applied  to  the  second  cope ;  the  two  copes,  on  being 
united,  form  a  complete  mould  ;  Ihey  are  then  tied  together  with  strong  cords,  and  the 
joints  of  ihe  copes  are  smeared  with  clay  so  that  the  mould  should  be  watertight.  In 
the  meantime  another  description  of  wax  of  harder  consistency,  composed  of  1  lb.  of 
yellow  wax,  1  lb.  of  resin,  and  ^  lb,  of  Venetian  turpentine,  has  been  melted  in  a  cnuldrou 
and  allowed  to  stand  on  the  fire  until  the  froth  has  subsided.  The  wax,  being  ready,  is 
left  to  cool  to  140°  or  158°  F,  (60°  or  70°  C),  when  it  is  poured  into  the  mould,  which 
it  fills,  and  is  allowed  to  remain  there  for  40  seconds ;  the  liquid  wax  is  then  poured  out 
of  the  mould  into  a  bucket  prepared  to  receive  it.  On  examining  the  interior  it  will  be 
found  that  the  soft  wax  which  was  pressed  into  the  mould  has  received  throughout  a 
coating  of  strong  wax  J  to  i-  in.  in  thickness,  making  an  entire  thickness  of  about  J  in.,' 
which  will  be  tlic  thickness  of  the  bronze  when  cast. 

C.  Formation  of  the  core.— The  core  is  the  substance  with  which  is  filled  the  hollow 
left  in  tlie  mould  after  the  liquid  wax  is  poured  out  of  it;  if  the  liust  were  cast  in  bronze 
without  a  core,  it  would  come  out  solid  and  weighing  10  or  15  times  heavier  than  is. 


Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze.  31 

necessary,  and  the  casting  itself  would  be  faulty,  owing  to  the  great  shrinkage  produced 
by  such  a  mass  of  molten  metal,  wliich  would  also  have  the  efiect  of  vitrifying  the 
earths  forming  the  mould.  The  core  is,  in  fact,  indispensable  in  the  reproduction  of 
artistic  bronzes.  The  core  in  use  at  the  Brussels  Compagnie  des  Bronzes  is  formed  of  a 
mixture  consisting  of  2  parts  of  fine  plaster  of  Paris,  and  3  parts  of  a  pulverized  earth 
composed  of  quartz  sand,  thin  argillaceous  clay  with  traces  of  iron  oxide,  carbonate  of 
lime,  magnesia,  and  potash,  mixed  together  with  pure  water,  forming  a  liquid  paste 
which  is  called  "potin,"  and  which,  like  plaster  of  Paris,  hardens  very  rapidly. 

Having  calculated  the  capacity  of  the  hollow  left  by  the  wax,  a  quantity  of  "  potin," 
sufficient  to  fill  it,  is  prepared  and  poured  into  the  hollow,  leaving  enough  of  the  mixture 
to  form  a  pedestal  projecting  about  4  in.  from  the  bottom  of  the  bust  The  core,  having 
been  thus  poured  iuto  the  hollow,  is  left  to  harden. 

Before  proceeding  further  it  is  necessary  to  describe  the  means  by  which  an  escape  is 
provided  for  the  air  or  gases  of  the  core,  which,  if  not  set  free,  might  destrov  twist,  or 
otherwise  injure  the  bronze. 

This  is  effected  by  what  is  called,  in  the  language  of  the  foundry,  a  "  lanthorn  "  or 
chimney,  by  which  the  core  of  every  work  in  bronze  must  communicate  with  the  external 
air.  The  core  being  composed  of  porous  matter,  it  is  easy  to  understand  that  when  the 
molten  metal  enters  the  channel  prepared  for  it,  the  core  being  completely  isolated  and 
superheated,  the  gas  within  it  is  violently  dilated,  and  would  force  a  passage  through  the 
fused  metal  if  a  vent  were  not  prepared  for  it.  If,  owing  to  an  accident  or  faulty 
arrangement,  the  lanthorn  should  not  act,  the  bronze  figure  containing  the  core  would  be 
inevitably  bulged  and  distorted,  and  would  have  other  defects  which  would  considerably 
diminish  the  value  of  the  work. 

In  the  case  of  the  bust  already  described,  when  the  piece-mould  is  emptied  of  tho 
liquid  wax  that  has  been  poured  into  it,  and  just  as  the  "  potin  "  which  is  to  form  the 
core  is  about  to  be  jjoured  in,  a  round  stick,  about  |  in.  in  diameter,  having  a  pin  or  iron 
point  at  the  end,  after  being  well  oiled,  must  be  fixed  into  the  centre  of  the  hollow  of  the 
bust,  so  that  the  pin  should  project  through  the  wax  of  tlie  top  of  the  head.  The  stick 
must  be  held  in  this  position  while  the  "  potin  "  is  poured  in  round  tlie  stick,  and  when 
the  "  potin  "  begins  to  harden,  which  it  will  do  in  a  few  minutes,  the  stick  is  twisted  out, 
leaving,  of  course,  a  hollow  the  size  of  the  stick  traversing  the  bust  from  the  base  to  the 
head.  After  the  artist-sculptor  has  retouched  the  wax  bust,  the  mark  left  by  the  point 
of  the  stick  is  sought,  and  sufficient  wax  is  removed  round  it  to  23ermit  of  a  small  iron 
tube  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  hole  left  by  the  stick  being  forced  2  or  3  in.  deep 
into  the  head,  leaving,  however,  a  portion  projecting  from  the  head  and  beyond  the 
block-mould  when  it  is  formed  over  the  wax  bust. 

Any  crack  that  may  appear  between  the  tube  and  the  hole  is  carefully  closed,  and 
the  wax  is  retouched  where  the  tube  projects  from  the  head.  If  the  tube  were  not  forced 
sufficiently  into  the  head,  or  if  the  joint  were  not  properly  closed,  the  molten  bronze 
would  find  a  passage  and  fill  up  the  chimney  left  for  the  escape  of  air  from  the  core — 
an  accident  which  would  give  rise  to  efi'ects  like  those  above  referred  to.  In  complicated 
pieces  the  proper  formation  of  the  lanthorn  is  of  the  greatest  importance ;  it  is  often 
difficult  to  arrange,  and  requires  considerable  experience  to  make  and  place  it  properly. 
The  precise  proportions  of  the  earths  of  which  the  "  potin  "  is  composed  is  the  only  part 
of  the  process  concerning  which  any  reserve  is  'shown. 

The  mould  is  then  placed  on  the  table,  the  cords  are  unfastened,  the  clay  closing  the 
joints  of  the  2  copes  is  removed,  and  by  inserting  a  wedge  between  the  2  copes  the  upper 
cope  is  carefully  lifted  ofi".  The  workman  then  removes  one  by  one  all  the  little  pieces 
forming  the  mould,  exposing  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  bust  in  wax.  When  all  the 
pieces  are  removed  from  the  front,  the  bust  is  placed  upright  on  its  base  of  "  potin"  and 
the  cope  covering  the  back  is  then  removed  in  the  same  way,  together  with  the  pieces 
forming  the  mould.    These  pieces  are  then  carefully  returned  to  the  cope  each  in  its 


32  Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze. 

place,  and  the  mould  when  put  together  again  is  ready  to  be  used  for  another  was  bust 
when  reijuired. 

The  bust  now  appears  in  wax  reproducing  exactly  the  original  bust  in  clay,  with  the 
exception  of  the  seams  from  the  joints  of  the  mould,  which  are  then  removed  by  the 
artist-sculptor  himself.  Although  wax  is  neither  as  easy  nor  as  pleasant  a  material  to 
work  iu  as  modelling-clay,  a  very  short  time  suffices  to  enable  the  sculptor  to  manipulate 
it  with  facility,  and  an  opportunity  is  afforded  him  of  giving  the  finishing  touches  to  his 
work  with  still  greater  delicacy  than  in  clay. 

It  is  at  this  period  that  the  beard  and  curls  of  the  hair  which  were  removed  before 

I      making  the  mould,  and  which  have  been  separately  reproduced  in  wax  by  the  same 

process,  arc  fixed  in  their  respective  positions  by  iron  points  which  are  driven  through 

the  wax  into  the  solid  core  and  hold  the  pieces  firmly  in  their  places;  the  artist  then 

going  over  the  joints  with  a  modelling  tool  renders  them  invisible. 

Tietouching  the  wax  bust.— The  great  advantage  of  reproducing  the  bust  in  wax  is 
that  it  enables  the  artist  to  work  upon  it  so  that  the  wax  bust  is  not  only  equal  to  the 
original  in  plaster  or  terra-cotta,  but  may  become  even  superior  to  it,  for  the  artist  on 
seeing  his  work  in  a  material  of  another  colour,  and  after  a  certain  time,  may  discover 
certain  faults  which  he  can  correct  in  the  wax,  or  if  he  thinks  it  necessary  he  can  make 
6uch  alterations  as  he  may  consider  advisable. 

Preparing  the  bust  before  making  tlie  casting  mould  or  cope. — The  bust  in  wax, 
having  been  looked  over  and  corrected  by  the  artist,  is  now  placed  in  the  hands  of  the 
founder,  who  begins  by  building  a  layer  of  fire-bricks  of  the  size  required  for  the  object 
that  is  to  be  cast;  this  layer,  for  a  bust,  may  be  3  ft.  by  2  ft.  4,  iu.  and  9  iu.  in  height 
above  the  floor  of  the  atelier.  "When  ready  the  wax  bust  is  placed  upon  it  on  its  pedestal 
of  "potin,"  and  firmly  fixed  to  the  brick  layer  or  base.  The  next  operation  is  one  of 
considerable  delicacy,  namely,  the  placing  of  the  runners  or  channels  to  enable  the 
liquid  bronze  to  flow  through  and  fill  up  the  vacant  space  left  by  the  melted  wax,  and 
the  vents,  which  are  other  channels  for  the  escape  of  the  air  and  gas  driven  out  of  the 
hollow  by  the  force  of  the  liquid  metal. 

For  a  bust  the  placing  of  these  channels  is  not  difficult,  but  when  a  complicated  work 
— a  group  or  a  large  bas-relief — has  to  be  prepared  for  casting,  the  proper  position  of 
these  channels  requires  considerable  study,  for  if  one  of  them  should  be  badly  placed  it 
would  compromise  the  success  of  the  casting. 

In  order  to  make  a  runner  for  the  bust  in  question,  a  stick  of  wax  is  used  2  ft.  long 
with  a  diameter  of  If  in.,  one  end  of  which  is  cut  or  flattened  into  the  shape  of  the 
mouthpiece  of  a  whistle  ;  the  other  end  is  considerably  thickened  by  the  addition  of  wax 
until  it  has  the  form  of  a  funnel;  it  is  then  bent  into  the  form  of  a  double  siphon  with 
the  2  parallel  branches  considerably  lengthened.  Having  thus  prepared  the  runner,  in 
order  to  fix  it,  3  or  4  tliin  iron  pins  are  driven,  in  a  straight  line,  at  a  distance  from  each 
other  of  ^  in.,  into  one  shoulder  of  the  bust,  from  which  they  are  allowed  to  project 
about  1  or  1 2  in. ;  upon  these  is  pressed  the  flattened  end  of  the  runner,  and  the  joint 
whore  it  touches  the  shoulder  is  then  closed  with  wax,  which  is  melted  with  a  heated 
tool,  tlms  increasing  the  solidity  of  the  joints.  The  vent,  which  is  fastened  in  the  same 
way  on  the  other  shoulder,  is  a  simple  straight  stick  of  wax,  thinner  than  that  of  the 
runner,  also  with  the  flattened  end  touching  the  shoulder. 

If  from  any  cause  the  runner  and  the  vent  are  not  firm  in  their  positions,  another 
iron  pin  is  driven  into  the  top  of  the  head  of  the  bust,  and  the  runner  and  vent  are 
fastened  to  it  with  packthread. 

The  founder  has  now  before  him  the  bust,  surmounted  by  the  runner  and  the  vent 
rising  from  the  shoulders  to  the  summit  of  the  head,  like  little  chimneys,  to  the  height 
of  G-8  in. ;  he  then  proceeds  to  drive  a  number  of  iron  pins  all  over  the  surface  of  the 
bust,  through  the  wax,  into  tlie  core,  the  object  of  which  is  to  maintain  the  core  in  its 
place ;  these  pins  must  project  one-half  their  length  from  the  surface  of  the  bust. 


Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze.  33 

Formation  of  the  casting  mould  or  cope. — The  bust  thus  prepared  is  placed  on  the 
brick  layer  in  the  place  in  which  it  is  to  be  fired  ;  it  is  tlien  surrounded  Ijy  a  wooden 
case,  having  the  form  of  a  4-sided  truncated  pyramid.  This  case,  -which  must  bo 
suiRciently  large  to  leave  a  space  of  6-8  in.  between  it  and  the  greatest  projection  of  the 
bust,  is  made  of  frames  placed  one  upon  the  other,  i)  in.  in  height,  the  whole,  when 
placed  together,  having  the  form  of  a  pyramid;  the  first  frame,  namely  that  whicli  rests 
on  the  brick  layer,  being  naturally  the  largest.  The  case  being  ready,  the  cube  measure 
of  its  capacity  is  calculated,  and  the  upper  frames  are  removed,  leaving  only  the  lower 
one  resting  on  the  brick  layer.  The  mould  is  made  of  precisely  the  same  material  as 
that  forming  the  core  of  the  wax  bust ;  the  requisite  quantity  is  prepared  as  well  as  the 
proper  number  of  measures  of  water  required  for  mixing  the  "  potin."  As  the  operation 
of  filling  the  frames  must  proceed  rapidly,  and,  once  begim,  cannot  be  stopped,  care  must 
be  taken  to  have  a  sufficient  supply  of  the  material  at  hand.  For  the  formation  of  the 
cope  of  a  large-sized  bust,  3  men  are  required  for  mixing  the  "  potin,"  2  for  pouring  it 
into  the  frames,  and  2  for  throwing  the  mixture  on  to  the  bust,  which  is  done  with 
painters'  brushes,  and  in  such  a  way  as  to  thoroughly  fill  up  all  the  cavities  of  tlie 
sculpture. 

The  3  mixers  have  each  before  them  a  vat  or  bucket  containing  one  measure  of  water, 
into  which  they  pour  rapidly  the  dry  "  potin,"  which  is  in  the  form  of  fine  sand  or 
powder,  and  this  not  all  at  once,  but  gradually,  by  allowing  it  to  fall  through  their 
fingers;  when  the  "jiotin"  is  all  in  the  water,  the  men  work  it  into  a  jiaste  with  their 
hands.  As  soon  as  it  is  ready,  the  other  men  pour  one  after  the  other  the  contents  of 
the  3  vats  or  buckets  into  the  lower  frame  of  the  wooden  case;  in  the  meantime  tiie 
mixers  are  preparing  fresh  vats  of  "  potin."  As  soon  as  the  first  frame  is  nearly  filled, 
the  second  frame  is  placed  above  it,  the  joints  being  closed  with  "potin"  that  has 
become  almost  hard,  and  it  is  filled  in  the  same  way ;  at  the  same  time  the  other  2  men, 
armed  with  brushes,  have  been  sprinkling  the  bust  with  the  mixture  so  as  to  fill  up 
completely  all  the  cavities  of  the  wax  bust;  if  this  is  not  done  with  great  care  and 
exactitude,  any  cavity  that  is  not  filled  with  "  potin  "  will  retain  a  certain  quantity  of 
air,  and  when  cast  the  cavity  will  be  entirely  filled  up  with  a  solid  mass  of  bronze  which 
would  require  to  be  removed  by  the  chaser  at  a  considerable  expense,  or  it  may  happen 
that  the  fault  is  one  impossible  to  remedy.  When  all  the  frames  have  been  placed  one 
upon  the  other  and  filled  with  "  potin,"  the  operation  is  completed,  care  having  been 
taken  to  fill  the  upper  frame  only  to  the  level  of  the  tojj  of  the  runner  and  the  vent,  so  as 
not  to  cover  them. 

A  third  channel,  required  for  draining  off  the  melted  wax,  is  formed  in  the  same  way 
as  the  other  two,  a  stick  of  wax  1^  in.  in  diameter  being  placed  at  the  base  of  the  bust 
on  the  slant,  so  as  to  facilitate  the  issue  of  the  liquid  wax,  the  stick  of  wax  being 
fastened  by  one  end  to  the  wax  of  the  bust,  while  the  other  end  touches  the  wood 
which  forms  the  case.  The  "  jjotiu  "  having  been  allowed  to  harden,  which  it  does  very 
rapidly,  the  wooden  frames  are  removed,  and  the  cope  appears  in  the  form  of  a  block  of 
stone,  on  the  upper  surface  of  which  is  seen,  on  the  right  the  wax  of  the  runner,  and  on 
the  left  that  of  the  vent,  and  at  the  base  that  of  the  drain. 

Firing. — The  block  is  now  ready  for  firing.  A  furnace  of  fire-bricks  is  built  round  it, 
2  chimneys  being  placed  on  the  runner,  and  the  vent  communicating  with  the  outer 
air,  and  round  this  furnace  a  second  is  built,  in  which  a  coke  fire  is  lighted.  The  fire 
should  be  moderate  at  first,  gradually  increasing  until  the  mass  is  baked  throughout,  so 
that  it  is  completely  red-hot  to  the  very  centre.  After  baking  for  6  hours,  the  block  is 
sufficiently  heated  to  cause  the  wax  to  melt ;  this  then  escapes  through  the  drain,  which 
is  in  connection  with  an  iron  tube  passing  through  the  2  furnaces,  and  communicating 
with  a  vat  into  which  the  wax  flows.  When  the  wax  has  ceased  to  flow,  the  opening 
from  the  drain  must  be  carefully  closed,  in  order  to  prevent  any  air  from  reaching  the 
interior,  which  would  be  injurious  to  the  process. 

D 


34  Casting  and  Founding — Brass  and  Bronze. 

After  30  hours*  firing,  puffs  of  blue  smoke  arc  seen  issuing  from  the  chimneys.  This 
shows  that  the  heat  ia  sufficiently  intense  to  cause  the  evaporation  of  any  wax  that  may 
liuvfi  remained  in  the  block.  After  GO  or  70  hours  the  smoke  changes  from  blue  to  a 
reddish  hue;  this  shows  tliat  the  wax  is  completely  destroyed.  The  smoke  is  succeeded 
by  a  slight  watery  vapour,  and  the  fire  is  increased  until  all  moisture  has  disappeared. 
This  is  ascertained  by  placing  a  cold  steel  plate  over  the  orifice,  upon  which  the  slightest 
vapour  shows  itself  in  the  form  of  a  veil  or  dewlike  drops.  If  at  this  moment  it  were 
l)0ssible  to  look  into  the  centre  of  the  block,  it  would  be  found  to  be  of  a  deep  red.  When 
all  symptoms  of  moisture  luivc  disapi^eared,  the  fire  is  covered  up,  no  further  fuel  is  added, 
and  the  fire  goes  out  gradually.  ■ 

The  exteiiial  furnace  is  pulled  do%Yn  as  soon  as  the  bricks  have  cooled  sufficiently  to" 
enable  the  woikmen  to  do  so  without  burning  themselves ;  and  in  order  to  hasten  the 
cooling  of  the  block  some  of  the  bricks  forming  the  cover  of  the  interior  furnace  are 
also  removed.  Later  this  is  also  demolished,  and  the  moulding  block  is  allowed  to  cool. 
In  a  -word,  it  is  necessary  to  proceed  gradually  for  the  purpose  of  cooling  as  well  as  for 
that  of  firing,  sudden  changes  of  temperature  being  fatal,  and  the  success  of  the  operation 
depending  in  great  part  on  the  regularity  of  the  jirocess. 

The  firing  being  now  finished,  the  block  has  the  same  appearance  as  before,  only 
in  renioving  the  chimneys  the  runner  and  the  vent  are  found  to  be  replaced  by  holes 
or  channels,  while  another  hole  will  be  found  at  the  base  in  the  place  of  the  wax  drain. 
Tiie  wax  ia  melting  has  formed  these  channels,  and  has  left  a  hollow  space  throughout 
the  block  between  the  core  and  the  mould.  Keference  has  been  made  above  to  the 
use  of  iron  pins  pressed  into  the  wax  bust.  As  long  as  the  core,  the  wax,  and  the 
mould  Iiad  not  been  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  fire  they  formed  a  solid  mass,  but 
with  the  melting  of  the  wax  the  core  has  become  isolated,  and,  as  it  is  formed  of 
exceedingly  friable  earth,  the  least  motion  might  throw  it  down  and  break  it ;  this 
inconvenience  is  avoided  by  the  employment  of  the  pins  above  referred  to,  which, 
jienetratiiig  through  the  wax,  on  the  one  hand  into  the  core  and  on  the  other  into  the 
mould,  render  the  core  immovable  even  after  the  disappearance  of  the  wax. 

The  casting  in  bronze. — This  is  the  last  operation.  The  block  having  become 
sufficiently  cool,  it  is  surrounded  with  iron  frames  placed  one  above  the  other ;  the  space 
between  tlie  block  and  the  frames  is  filled  by  pressing  into  it  ordinary  moulding  earth. 
This  operation  requires  the  greatest  care;  its  object  is  to  prevent  the  block  from 
bur.-^ting  when  the  liquid  bronze  is  poured  into  it  by  the  pressure  of  the  gas  and  the 
expansion  of  the  air  while  the  fused  metal  is  flowing  through  the  mould,  a  comparatively 
small  quanfity  of  metal  in  fusion  being  capable  of  producing  effects  of  incredible  force 
whicli  it  is  difficult  to  account  for. 

Tlie  block  being  perfectly  iron-bound,  a  basin  of  iron  covered  with  baked  clay  and 
I'ierced  witli  a  conical  funnel  is  placed  over  the  runner  and  closed  with  an  iron  stopper, 
from  Avhich  projects  a  long  stem.  The  hole  of  the  basin  communicates  directly  with 
that  of  the  runner ;  the  opening  of  the  vent  is  left  fi-ee,  but  in  front  of  it  a  small  basin 
is  hollowed  out  of  the  block.     Everything  is  now  ready  for  the  casting. 

If  the  bust  is  calculated  to  weigh  50  lb.,  SO  lb.  of  bronze  are  put  into  tlie  melting- 
pot  in  order  to  be  certain  of  having  enough  metal,  and  it  is  necessary  to  allow  for  the 
runner,  tlie  veiit,  and  the  drain.  The  bronze  which  has  hitherto  given  the  best  results 
is  composyd  as  follows  : — 70  lb.  rod  copper,  28  lb.  zinc,  2  lb.  tin. 

Tlie  bronze  being  sufficiently  melted,  the  crucibles  are  lifted  out  of  the  furnace 
and  are  eini)tied  into  the  basin  above  referred  to  ;  a  workman  at  the  word  of  command 
takes  out  the  iron  stopper,  the  molten  bronze  flows  into  the  runner,  penetrates  into  the 
mould,  fills  up  all  the  hollows,  and  returns  to  its  level,  the  surplus  metal  flowing  out 
at  the  vent  into  tiie  basin  that  has  been  hollowed  out  of  the  block  to  receive  it, 
preceded  by  the  air  and  gas  driven  out  by  the  entry  of  the  metal. 

If  the  oper.diou  lias  been  made  without  producing  noise,  the  casting  may  be  cott- 


Casting  and  Founding — Iron,  35 

sidered  to  have  been  successful,  but  notwithstanding  all  the  care  taken  to  attain  success, 
some  fault  may  have  occurred.  The  natural  curioaity  to  learn  tlio  result  may  soon  be 
satisfied,  for  in  J  hour  the  metal  will  have  cooled  sufficiently  to  allow  the  block  tobe 
broken  up. 

The  workmen  begin  by  lifting  off  the  iron  frames,  and  then,  removing  the  earth 
that  was  pressed  round  it,  commence  to  break  up  the  block  with  iron  picks,  proceeding 
with  precaution,  and  as  soon  as  any  portion  of  the  bronze  shows  itsulf  the  picks  are 
laid  aside  for  smaller  and  lighter  tools,  with  which  the  "  potin  "  that  surrounds  and 
conceals  the  work  is  at  length  removed,  the  bust  gradually  appears,  and  it  is  possible 
to  judge  whether  the  casting  has  been  successful ;  the  bust  itself,  however,  is  covered 
with  a  white  crust  from  the  "potin"  still  adhering  to  it,  and  which  only  partially 
detaches  itself.     To  get  rid  of  this  crust  entirely  is  a  work  of  some  time. 

The  runner,  the  vent,  and  the  drain,  which  have  been  transformed  by  the  casting 
into  solid  bronze,  are  now  sawn  off,  the  core  inside  the  bust  is  broken  up,  and  the 
bust  is  emptied ;  it  is  then  placed  for  several  hours  in  a  bath  of  water  and  sulphuric 
acid,  and  when  taken  out  is  vigorously  scrubbed  with  hard  brushes,  rinsed  in  clean  water, 
and  allowed  to  dry.  The  bust  is  now  handed  over  to  the  chasers,  who  efface  the  traces 
left  by  the  runners  and  vents,  remove  any  portions  of  metal  that  may  fill  up  the  cavities 
into  which  the  "  potin  "  has  not  penetrated,  stop  up  with  bronze  the  little  holes  left  by 
the  iron  pins,  and  in  fact  place  the  work  in  a  perfect  state,  leaving,  however,  untouched 
the  epidermis  of  the  bronze,  for  in  this  consists  the  merit  and  value  of  the  "cire 
perdue  "  process,  which  renders  so  completely  every  touch  of  the  artist  that  it  seems  as 
if  he  had  kneaded  and  worked  the  bronze  with  his  fingers. 

The  bust,  now  completed,  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  bronze  decorators,  who  give 
it  a  "  patiua  "  in  imitation  of  that  produced  by  oxidation ;  the  colour  generally  preferred 
for  portrait  busts  is  tlie  brown  tone  of  the  Florentine  bronzes.  This  artificial  "  patina" 
can  be  produced  in  a  great  variety  of  tones,  light  or  dark,  but  in  every  case  it  is 
preferable  that  a  well-modelled  work  should  have  a  dead  unpolished  surface.  The 
decoration  of  a  bronze  work  is  a  question  of  taste  or  fashion  for  which  there  is  no  rule, 
though  no  doubt  for  many  the  success  of  a  work  depends  very  often  on  its  decoration. 

Iron  Founding. — The  following  observations,  while  bearing  more  or  less  on 
casting  generally,  refer  more  particularly  to  the  art  of  the  ironfoundcr. 

The  first  consideration  is  the  pattern  from  which  the  moulding  is  to  be  made, 
the  planning  of  which  necessitates  a  knowledge  of  shrinkage  and  cooling  strains  in 
heated  metal.  Founding  oi:)erations  are  divided  into  2  classes,  known  technically  as 
green  sand  moulding  and  loam  or  dry  sand  moulding:  the  first,  when  patterns  or 
duplicates  are  used  to  form  the  moulds ;  the  second,  when  the  moulds  are  built  by  hand 
without  the  aid  of  complete  patterns.  Founding  involves  a  knowledge  of  mixing  and 
melting  metals  such  as  are  used  in  machine  construction,  the  preparing  and  setting  of 
cores  for  the  internal  displacement  of  the  metal,  cooling  and  shrinking  strains,  chills, 
and  many  other  things  that  are  more  or  less  special,  and  can  only  be  learned  and  under- 
stood from  actual  observation  and  practice. 

Patterns. — The  subjoined  remarks  on  the  conditions  to  be  considered  in  pattern- 
making  are  condensed  from  Eichards'  valuable  manual  on  '  "Workshop  Manipulation,' 
which  is  more  than  once  referred  to  as  an  indispensable  companion  for  the  intelligent 
worker  in  metals.    He  enumerates  the  following  points : — 

(1)  Durability,  choice  of  plan  and  cost.  Consider  the  amount  of  use  that  the  patterns 
are  likely  to  serve,  whether  they  are  for  standard  or  special  machines,  and  the  quality 
of  the  castings  so  far  as  affected  by  the  patterns.  A  first-class  pattern,  framed  to 
withstand  moisture  and  rapping,  may  cost  twice  as  much  as  another  that  has  the  same 
outline,  yet  the  cheaper  pattern  may  answer  almost  as  well  to  form  a  few  moulds. 

(2)  Manner  of  moulding,  and  expense,  so  far  as  determined  by  tlio  patterns.  These 
last  may  be  parted  so  as  to  be  "  rammed  up  "  on  fallow  boards  or  a  level  floor,  or  the 

D  2 


36  Casting  and  Founding — Iron. 

patterns  may  be  solid,  and  have  to  be  bedded,  as  it  is  termed ;  pieces  on  tiie  top  may 
be  made  loose,  or  fastened  on  so  as  to  "cope  oft";"  patterns  may  be  well  linisbed  so 
as  to  draw  clean,  or  rough  so  that  a  mould  may  require  a  great  deal  of  time  to  dress  up 
after  a  pattern  is  removed. 

(3)  Tlie  soundness  of  such  parts  as  are  to  be  planed,  bored,  and  turned  in  finishing. 
Determined  mainly  by  how  the  patterns  are  arranged,  by  which  is  the  top  and  which 
the  bottom  or  drag  side,  the  manner  of  drawing,  and  provisions  for  avoiding  dirt  and  slag. 
(■i)  Cores,  where  used,  how  vented,  how  supported  in  the  mould,  and  how  made. 
Cores  of  irregular  form  are  often  more  expensive  than  external  moulds,  including  the 
patterns ;  the  expense  of  patterns  is  often  greatly  reduced,  but  is  sometimes  increased, 
by  the  use  of  cores,  which  may  be  employed  to  cheapen  patterns,  add  to  their  durability, 
or  ensure  sound  castings. 

(.^)  Shrinkage.  This  is  tlie  allowance  that  has  to  be  made  for  the  contraction  of 
castings  in  cooling,  i.  e.  the  ditference  between  the  sizes  of  the  pattern  and  the  casting — 
a  simple  matter  apparently,  which  may  be  provided  for  in  allowing  a  certain  amount  of 
shrinkage  in  all  directions;  but  when  the  inequalities  of  shrinkage  both  as  to  time  and 
degree  are  taken  into  account,  the  allowance  to  be  made  becomes  a  problem  of  no  little 
complication. 

((J)  Inherent,  or  cooling  strains.  They  may  either  spring  and  warp  castings,  or 
weaken  them  by  maintained  tension  in  certain  parts — a  condition  that  often  requires  a; 
disposition  of  the  metal  quite  ditferent  from  what  working  strains  demand. 

(7)  Draught.  The  bevel  or  inclination  on  tlie  sides  of  patterns,  to  allow  them  to  be 
withdrawn  from  the  moulds  without  dragging  or  breaking  the  sand. 

For  most  ordinary  purposes,  patterns  are  made  of  wood ;  but  in  very  heavy  parts  of 
machinery,  such  as  pulleys  and  gear  wheels,  iron  patterns  are  preferable.  As  there 
must  be  always  a  proportion  of  loose  sand  and  "  scrutf "  in  a  casting,  it  is  important  to 
arrange  the  pattern  so  that  this  part  shall  come  in  the  least  disadvantageous  position. 
Thus  the  top  of  a  mould  or  "  cope  "  contains  the  dirt,  while  the  bottom  or  "  drag  side  " 
is  generally  clean  and  sound :  the  rule  is  to  arrange  patterns  so  that  the  surfaces  to- 
be  finished  will  come  on  the  drag  side.  Expedients  to  avoid  dirt  in  such  castings  as 
are  to  be  finished  all  over,  or  on  2  sides,  are  various.  Careful  moulding  and  washing, 
to  remove  loose  sand,  is  the  first  requisite ;  sinking  heads,  that  rise  above  the  moulds-, 
are  commonly  employed  when  castings  are  of  a  form  which  allows  the  dirt  to  collect  at 
one  point.  The  quality  of  castings  is  governed  by  many  other  conditions,  such  as  the 
manner  of  "gating"  or  flowing  the  metal  into  the  moulds,  the  temperature  and  quality 
of  the  iron,  the  temperature  and  character  of  the  mould. 

Cores  are  employed  mainly  for  the  displacement  of  metal  in  moulds ;  they  may 
be  of  green  sand,  and  made  to  surround  the  exterior  of  a  piece,  as  well  as  to  make 
perforations  or  to  form  recesses  within  it.  The  term  "core,"  in  its  technical  sense, 
means  dried  moulds,  as  distinguished  from  green  sand :  thus,  wheels  or  other  castings 
are  said  to  be  "  cast  in  cores  "  when  the  moulds  are  made  in  pieces  and  dried.  Sup- 
porting and  venting  cores,  and  their  expansion,  are  conditions  to  which  especial  attention 
is  needed.  When  a  core  is  surrounded  with  hot  metal,  it  gives  ofl",  because  of  moisture 
and  the  burning  of  the  "  wash,"  a  large  amount  of  gas  which  must  liave  free  means  of 
escape.  In  the  arrangement  of  cores,  therefore,  attention  must  be  had  to  some  means  of 
venting,  which  is  generally  attained  by  allowing  them  to  project  through  the  sides  of 
the  mould  and  communicate  with  the  air  outside.  The  venting  of  moulds  is  even  more 
important  than  venting  cores,  because  core  vents  only  carry  oif  gas  generated  within 
the  core  itself,  while  the  gas  from  its  exterior  surface,  and  from  the  whole  mould,  has 
to  find  means  of  escaping  rapidly  from  the  flasks  when  the  hot  metal  enters.  If  it  were 
not  for  tiie  porous  nature  of  sand  moulds,  they  would  be  blown  to  pieces  as  soon  as  the 
hot  metal  entered  them ;  both  because  of  the  mechanical  expansion  of  the  gas,  and  often 
from  explosion  by  combustion.     But  for  securing  vent  for  gas,  moulds  could  be  made 


Casting  and  Founding — Iron.  37 

from  plastic  material,  so  as  to  produce  fine  castings  .with  clear  sharp  outlines.  Tho 
means  of  supporting  cores  consist  of  "  prints "  and  "  anchors."  Prints  are  extensions 
of  the  cores,  which  project  through  the  casting  and  into  the  sides  of  the  mould,  to  bo 
held  by  the  sand  or  flask.  They  have  duplicates  on  the  patterns,  called  "  core  prints," 
whicli  should  be  of  a  diflerent  colour  from  the  patterns.  The  amount  of  surface 
required  to  support  cores  is  dependent  upon  their  cubic  contents,  because  the  main 
force  required  is  to  hold  them  down,  and  not  to  bear  their  weight :  tho  floating  force  of  a 
core  is  as  the  difltrence  between  its  weight  and  that  of  a  solid  mass  of  metal  of  tho  same 
size.  When  it  is  impossible,  from  the  nature  of  castings,  to  have  prints  large  enough 
to  support  the  cores,  this  is  efl"ected  by  anchors, — pieces  of  iron  that  stand  like  braces 
between  the  cores  and  the  flasks  or  pieces  of  iron  imbedded  in  the  sand  to  receive  the 
strain  of  the  anchors.  Cores  expand  when  heated,  and  require  an  allowance  in  their 
dimensions  the  reverse  from  patterns,  especially  when  the  cores  are  made  upon  iron 
frames.  For  cylindrical  cores  less  than  6  in.  diam.,  or  less  than  2  ft.  long,  expansion 
need  not  be  taken  into  account  by  pattern-makers,  but  for  large  cores  careful  calculation 
is  required. 

Shrinkage,  or  the  contraction  of  castings  in  cooling,  is  provided  for  by  adding  -^  in. 
to  i  in.  to  each  foot  in  the  dimensions  of  patterns.  This  is  accomplished  by  employing  a 
shrink  rule  in  laying  down  pattern-drawings  from  the  figured  dimensions  of  the  finished 
work.  Inlierent  or  cooling  strains  is  a  much  more  intricate  subject.  They  may  weaken 
castings,  or  cause  them  to  break  while  cooling,  or  sometimes  even  after  they  are  finished; 
and  must  bo  carefully  guarded  against,  both  in  the  preparation  of  designs  and  the 
•arrangements  of  patterns,  especially  for  wheels  and  pulleys  with  spokes,  and  for  struts 
or  braces  with  both  ends  fixed.  The  main  difiiculty  resulting  is  that  of  castings  being 
warped  and  sprung  by  the  action  of  unequal  strains,  caused  by  one  part  cooling  or 
"  setting  "  sooner  than  another.  This  may  be  the  result  of  unequal  conducting  power  in 
■difi"erent  parts  of  a  mould  or  cores,  or  it  may  arise  from  the  varying  dimensions  of  the 
castings,  which  contain  and  give  oiF  heat  in  the  same  ratio  as  their  thickness.  As  a 
rule,  the  drag  or  bottom  side  of  a  casting  cools  first,  especially  if  a  mould  rests  on  the 
ground,  and  there  is  not  much  sand  between  the  casting  and  the  earth  ;  this  is  a  common 
-cause  of  unequal  cooling,  especially  in  large  flat  pieces.  Air  being  a  bad  conductor  of 
heat,  and  the  sand  usually  thin  on  the  cope  or  top  side,  the  result  is  that  the  top  of 
mould  remains  quite  hot,  while  at  the  bottom  the  earth,  being  a  good  conductor,  carries 
of  the  heat  and  cools  that  side  first,  so  that  the  iron  "sets  "  first  on  the  bottom,  after- 
■wards  cooling  and  contracting  on  the  top. 

The  draught,  or  the  taper  required  to  allow  patterns  to  be  drawn  readily,  is  another 
indefinite  condition  in  pattern-making :  may  be  -J„  in.  to  each  foot  of  depth,  or  1  in.,  or 
ihere  may  bo  no  draught  whatever.  Patterns  that  are  deep,  and  for  costings  that 
require  to  be  parallel  or  square  when  finished,  are  made  with  the  least  possible  amount 
of  draught ;  a  pattern  in  a  plain  form,  that  aflbrds  facilities  for  lifting  or  drawing,  may 
be  drawn  without  taper  if  its  sides  are  smooth  and  well  finished;  pieces  that  are  shallow 
and  moulded  often  should,  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  have  as  much  tnper  as  possible ; 
and  as  the  quantity  of  draught  can  be  as  the  depth  of  a  pattern,  we  frequently  see  them 
made  with  a  taper  that  exceeds  1  in.  to  the  foot  of  depth. 

Tools. — Tliese  include  crucibles  or  furnaces  for  melting  the  metal ;  pots  for  carrying 
it  to  the  moulds ;  moulding  flasks  and  implements  for  packing  them ;  clamps  for  holding 
the  moulds. 

Crucibles  vary  in  size,  shape,  and  composition,  according  to  their  destined  uses.  The 
so-called  "  plumbago"  crucibles,  made  of  graphite,  are  dearest  but  most  durable.  The 
cheaper  kinds  are  made  of  pipeclay.  They  are  charged  with  the  metal  to  be  melted,  and 
placed  in  a  sufficiently  strong  fire,  such  as  that  obtainable  on  a  smith's  forge.  For  con- 
siderable quantities  of  metal,  the  crucible  is  dispensed  with,  and  the  melting  is  conducted 
in  a  blast  furnace. 


38 


Casting  and  Founding — Iron. 


The  ironfonnJers'  pot  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  G,  and  consists  of  an  iron  pot  supported 
by  a  handle  which  is  single  at  one  end  and  double  at  the  other.  In  very  small 
operations  this  may  be  replaced  by  an  iron  ladle. 

Very  small  articles  can  bo  cast  in  moulds  made  of  stone,  brick,  or  iron,  the  interior 
surfaces  being  first  coated  with  a  "  facing"  of  soot,  by  holding  over  a  smoky  flame,  to 
prevent  adhesion  of  the  metal  -svheu  poured  in.     But  for  general  casting  operations, 
recourse  is  had  to  sand  packed 
into  "  flasks  "  or  "  boxes  "  sur- 
rounding the  pattern.    The  flask 
resembles  a  box,  without  top  or 
bottom,  and  made  in  2  sections,     g  ~ 

so  that  the  top  half  may  be  lifted 
away  from  tlie  bottom  half,  or 
joined  to  it  by  bolts  to  form  the 

whole.  Fig.  7  illustrates  the  upper  "  side  "  of  a  flask,  in  which  a  is  a  handle,  h  are  the 
holes  by  which  the  metal  is  poured  in,  and  c  are  lugs  carrying  pins  which  pass  through 
corresponding  holes  in  similar  lugs  on  the  bottom  side.  The  pattern  being  jjlaced  in  a 
flask  of  suitable  size,  the  space  intervening  on  all  sides  between  the  pattern  and  the 


1. 


flask  is  packe<l  in  with  sand,  which,  to  be  of  suitable  quality,  must  retain  a  ball  shape 
on  being  squeezed  in  Ihe  hand,  and  exhibit  an  impression  of  the  lines  and  inequalities 
of  the  skin  surface  that  pressed  it.  The  finest  quality  of  sand  is  placed  next  the  pattern, 
and  the  surface  of  tlie  latter  is  dusted  with  dry  "parting  sand,"  to  prevent  adhesion. 
The  packing  of  the  sand  is  performed  by  the  aid  of  a  moulding-trowel  (Fig.  8),  which 


9. 


consists  of  a  thin  steel  blade  in  a  wooden  handle  ;  a  moulding-wire  (Fig.  9),  useful  or 
smoothing  corners  and  removing  dirt  from  the  mould ;  and  a  stamper  (Fig.  10),  or 
pestle  of  hard  wood  or  iron.  Runner  sticks  of  smooth  tapering  form  are  inserted  in  the 
holes  b  of  the  flask,  to  make  feeding  ways  for  the  metal.     When  the  impress  of  the 


Casting  and  Founding — Iron.  39 

pattern  has  bccu  properly  taken  in  the  mould,  tbo  pattern  ia  removed,  and  the  top  and 
bottom  sides  of  the  flask  are  joined,  enclosed  on  tbo  open  sides  by  thick  boards,  and 
transferred  to  a  clamp  (2  boards  joined  by  adjustable  screws)  to  prevent  its  giving  way 
under  the  sudden  and  considerable  pressure  produced  by  the  weight  of  metal  poured  in, 
and  expansive  tendency  of  the  gases  generated. 

Casting  in  Sand. — The  foregoing  preparations  having  liecn  comiiletcd,  the  metal  may 
be  poured  in.  But  first,  to  prevent  the  metal  being  chilled  by  contact  with  the  saud, 
the  inside  of  the  mould  is  painted  over  with  a  blacking  made  of  charred  oak,  which 
evolves  gases  under  the  action  of  the  hot  iron,  and  prevents  too  close  a  contact  between 
the  metal  and  sand.  The  sand  is  also  pierced  with  holes  to  allow  of  the  escape  of  the 
air,  and  of  gases  evolved  when  the  metal  is  poured  in.  If  these  arc  allowed  to  force 
their  way  through  the  metal,  they  will  cause  it  to  be  unsoimd  and  full  of  flaws.  The 
passages  through  which  the  molten  iron  is  poured  into  the  mould  should  bo  so  arranged 
that  the  metal  runs  together  from  different  parts  at  the  same  time.  If  one  portion  get.s 
partially  cool  before  the  adjacent  metal  flows  against  it,  there  will  be  a  clear  division 
when  they  meet ;  the  iron  will  not  bo  run  into  one  mass,  but  will  form  what  is  called 
a  cold  shut.  The  above  is  the  simplest  form  of  the  process.  When  a  casting  is  to  Lo 
hollow,  a  pattern  of  its  inner  surface,  called  a  "core,"  is  formed  in  sand,  or  other  material, 
so  that  the  metal  may  flow  round  it.  This  leads  to  arrangements  in  the  pattern  whicli 
are  somewhat  complicated.  The  core  for  a  pipe  consists  of  a  hollow  metal  tube,  having 
its  surface  full  of  holes.  This  is  wound  round  with  straw  bands,  and  the  whole  is 
covered  with  loam  turned  and  smoothed  to  the  form  of  the  inside  of  the  pipe.  The 
strength  of  a  casting  is  increased  if  it  be  run  with  a  "  head  "  or  superincumbent  column 
of  metal,  which  by  its  weight  compresses  the  metal  below,  making  it  more  compact, 
and  free  from  bubbles,  scoria,  &c.  These  rise  into  the  head,  which  is  afterwards  cut 
off.  For  the  same  reason,  pipes  and  columns  are  generally  cast  vertically,  that  is  when 
the  mould  is  standing  on  end.  Tliis  position  has  another  advantage,  which  ia  that  the 
metal  ia  more  likely  to  be  of  uniform  density  and  thickness  all  round  than  if  the  pipe 
or  column  is  run  in  a  horizontal  position.  In  the  latter  case,  the  core  ia  very  apt  to  bo 
a  little  out  of  the  centre,  so  as  to  cause  the  tube  to  be  of  unequal  thickness.  In  casting 
a  large  number  of  pipes  of  the  same  size,  iron  patterns  are  used,  as  they  are  mo:e 
durable  than  wooden  ones,  and  draw  cleaner  from  the  sand.  Socket  pipes  should  bo 
cast  with  their  sockets  downwards,  the  spigot  end  being  made  longer  than  required  for 
the  finished  pipe,  so  that  the  scorioe,  bubbles,  &c.,  rising  into  it  may  be  cut  off.  Pipes 
of  very  small  diameters  are  generally  cast  in  an  inclined  position. 

Casting  in  Loam. — Large  pipes  and  cylinders  are  cast  in  a  somewhat  different  way. 
A  hollow  vertical  core  of  somewhat  less  diameter  than  the  interior  of  the  proposed 
cylinder  is  formed  either  in  metal  or  brickwork.  The  outer  surface  of  this  is  plastered 
with  a  thick  coating  of  loam  (which  we  may  call  A),  smoothed  and  scraped  to  the  exact 
internal  diameter  of  the  cylinder  (by  means  of  a  rotating  vertical  template  of  wood),  and 
covered  with  "  parting  mixture."  Over  this  is  spread  a  layer  of  loam  (B)  thicker  than 
the  proposed  casting ;  the  outer  surface  of  B  is  struck  with  the  template  to  the  form  of 
the  exterior  of  the  proposed  casting,  and  dusted  with  parting  mixture.  This  surface  is 
covered  with  a  third  thick  covering  of  loam  (C),  backed  up  with  brickwork,  forming  a 
"cope"  built  upon  a  ring  resting  on  the  floor,  so  that  it  can  be  removed.  The  outer 
brick  cope  is  then  temporarily  lifted  away  upon  the  ring.  The  coating  (B)  is  cleared 
out,  and  the  cope  is  replaced  so  that  the  distance  between  its  inner  surface  and  the  outer 
surface  of  A  is  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  casting.  Tlie  metal  is  then  run  in  between 
C  and  A.  "When  cool,  C  and  A  can  be  broken  up,  and  the  casting  extracted.  The  core, 
&c.,  have  to  be  well  dried  in  ovens  before  the  metal  is  run.  B  is  often  dispensed  with, 
and  the  inner  surface  of  C  struck  with  the  template. 

Form  of  Castings. — The  shape  given  to  castings  should  be  very  carefully  considered. 
All  changes  of  form  should  be  gradual.   Sharp  corners  or  angles  are  a  source  of  weakness 


40  Casting  and  Founding— Iron. 

This  is  attributed  to  the  manner  in  which  the  crystals  composing  the  iron  arrange 
themselves  in  cooling.  They  place  themselves  at  right  angles  to  the  surfaces  forming 
tlie  corner,  so  that  between  the  two  sets  of  crystals  tliere  is  a  diagonal  line  of  weakness. 
All  angles,  therefore,  both  external  and  internal,  should  be  rounded  off.  There  should 
be  no  great  or  abrupt  differences  in  the  bulk  of  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  same  casting, 
or  the  smaller  portions  will  cool  and  contract  more  quickly  than  the  larger  parts.  When 
the  different  parts  of  the  casting  cool  at  different  times,  each  acts  ui^on  the  other.  The 
parts  which  cool  first  resist  the  contraction  of  the  others,  while  those  which  contract  last 
compress  the  portions  already  cool.  Thus  the  casting  is  under  stress  before  it  is  called 
upon  to  bear  any  load.  The  amount  of  this  stress  cannot  be  calculated,  and  it  is  there- 
fore a  source  of  danger  in  using  the  casting.  In  some  cases  it  is  so  great  as  to  fracture 
the  casting  before  it  is  loaded  at  all.  Tlie  internal  stress,  produced  by  unequal  cooling 
in  the  difterent  parts  of  a  casting,  sometimes  causes  it  to  break  up  spontaneously  several 
days  after  it  has  been  run.  Castings  should  be  covered  up  and  allowed  to  cool  as  slowly 
as  possible;  they  should  remain  in  the  sand  until  cool.  If  they  are  removed  from  the 
mould  in  a  red-hot  state,  the  metal  is  liable  to  injury  from  too  rapid  and  irregular 
cooling.  The  unequal  cooling  and  consequent  injury,  caused  by  great  and  sudden 
differences  in  the  thickness  of  parts  of  a  casting,  are  sometimes  avoided  by  uncovering 
the  thick  parts  so  that  they  may  cool  more  quickly,  or  by  cooling  them  with  water.  It 
is  generally  thought  that  molten  cast-iron  expands  slightly  just  at  the  moment  when  it 
becomes  solid,  which  causes  it  to  force  itself  tightly  into  all  the  corners  of  the  mould, 
and  take  a  sharp  impression.  This,  however,  has  been  disputed.  Superior  castings 
shouhl  never  be  run  direct  from  the  furnace.  The  iron  should  be  remelted  in  a  cupola. 
This  is  called  "  second  melting ; "  it  greatly  improves  the  iron,  and  gives  an  opportunity 
for  mixing  different  descriptions  which  improve  one  another.  Castings  required  to  be 
turned  or  bored,  and  found  to  be  too  hard,  are  softened  by  being  heated  for  several  hours 
in  sand,  or  in  a  mixture  of  coal-dust  and  bone-ash,  and  then  allowed  to  cool  glowly. 

Examination  of  Casings. — In  examining  castings,  with  a  view  to  ascertaining  their 
quality  and  soundness,  several  points  should  be  attended  to.  The  edges  should  be  struck 
witli  a  light  hammer.  If  the  blow  make  a  slight  impression,  the  iron  is  probably  of 
good  quality,  provided  it  be  uniform  throughout.  If  fragments  Hy  off  and  no  sensible 
indentation  bo  made,  the  iron  is  hard  and  brittle.  Air  bubbles  are  a  common  and 
dangerous  source  of  weakness.  They  should  be  searched  for  by  tapping  the  surface  of 
the  casting  all  over  with  the  hammer.  Bubbles,  or  flaws,  filled  in  with  sand  from  the 
mould,  or  pm-posely  stopijed  with  loam,  cause  a  dulness  in  the  sound  which  leads  to 
their  detection.  The  metal  of  a  casting  should  be  free  from  scoriaj,  bubbles,  core  nails, 
or  flaws  of  any  kind.  The  exterior  surface  should  be  smooth  and  clear.  The  edges  of 
the  casting  should  be  sharp  and  perfect.  An  uneven  or  wavy  surRice  indicates  unequal 
shrinkage,  caused  by  want  of  uniformity  in  the  texture  of  the  iron.  The  surface  of  a 
fracture  examined  before  it  has  become  rusty  should  present  a  fine-grained  texture,  of  an 
uniform  bluish-grey  colour  and  high  metallic  lustre.  Cast-iron  pipes  sliould  be  straight, 
true  in  section,  square  on  the  ends  and  in  the  sockets,  the  metal  of  equal  thickness 
throughout.  They  should  be  proved  under  a  hydraulic  pressure  of  4  or  5  times  the 
working  head.  The  sockets  of  small  pipes  should  be  especially  examined,  to  see  if  they 
are  free  from  honeycomb.  The  core  nails  are  sometimes  left  in  and  hammered  up. 
They  are,  however,  objectionable,  as  they  render  the  pipe  liable  to  break  at  the  points 
where  tliey  occur. 

As  there  ia  an  endless  variety  of  patterns  from  which  moulds  arc  made,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  divide  them  into  light  and  lieavy  work.  Stove  castings  are  very  light.  In 
tlie  moulding  of  such  work,  much  depends  upon  the  quality  of  sand  used ;  the  moulders' 
lieap  should  be  Composed  of  no  more  than  ^  loam,  the  other  i  bein"-  a  very  open  sand. 
This  makes  a  good  strong  mixture,  which  will  not  allow  the  sharp  corners  and  fine 
ornamental  work  to  be  washed  away  when  the  molten  iron  is  poured  into  the  mould,     la 


Casting  and  Founding — Iron.  41 

ramming  such  work,  the  moulder  should  be  careful  that  the  sand  on  top  and  bottom  of 
lais  pattern  is  not  rammed  hard  ;  but  the  sides  or  edges  should  be  well  rammed,  in  onier 
that  the  casting  may  not  strain  from  having  a  soft  parting.  Great  care  should  be  taken 
to  see  that  the  bottom  board  is  well  bedded  on  the  flask,  after  which  it  should  be 
removed  and  the  vent  wire  used  freely.  The  venting  of  the  work  is  often  but  partially 
done,  on  account  of  the  point  of  the  vent  wire  coming  into  contact  with  the  pattern  ;  and 
when  the  iron  enters  the  mould,  it  finds  its  way  into  said  vents,  fills  them  up,  and  thus, 
in  a  measure,  prevents  the  escape  of  the  gas  that  arises  from  the  iron  coming  in  contact 
with  the  charcoal,  graphite,  or  soapstone  with  which  the  mould  has  been  dusted  to  pre- 
vent the  sand  from  adhering  to  the  casting.  The  bottom  board  should  then  be  carefully 
replaced  on  the  flask,  and  dogged  down  so  that  in  the  act  of  turning  it  over  it  cannot 
move,  which  would  cover  the  vents  over  with  sand.  The  top  part  of  the  flask  (or  cope, 
as  it  is  termed)  needs  the  same  care  in  ramming  over  the  pattern  as  the  bottom,  and 
should  be  well  vented.  If  the  mould  has  any  high  projections  in  the  cope,  they  should 
be  well  vented ;  for  it  is  at  these  elevated  points  that  a  large  portion  of  the  gas  accumu- 
lates and  needs  a  quick  exit,  in  order  to  make  sharp  corners  on  the  casting  and  prevent 
blowing.  The  strainings  of  castings  in  this  branch  of  the  trade  is  greatly  due  to  an 
insufiicicnt  amount  of  weight  being  placed  on  the  flask,  or  the  parts  not  being  properly 
dogged  together,  as  well  as  to  the  rapidity  with  which  the  iron  is  poured  into  the  mould, 
together  with  the  height  of  the  runner.  Cutting  short  the  supply  of  iron  as  soon  as  the 
runner  is  full,  and  a  careful  watching  of  the  work  to  be  poured,  will  in  most  cases 
remedy  the  trouble  of  the  casting  being  tliickcr  than  the  pattern. 

As  to  the  warping  of  the  plates,  much  dejjends  upon  the  quality  of  iron  used  and  the 
judgment  of  the  pattern-maker.  It  can  often  be  prevented,  in  a  measure,  by  the  moulder, 
in  making  the  runner  from  the  round  sprue  no  thicker  than  the  piece  to  be  cast ;  and  as 
soon  as  the  metal  is  poured,  by  digging  away  in  front  of  the  sprue  and  breaking  it  loose 
from  the  casting.  Where  a  flat  sprue  is  used,  tliis  breaking  off"  should  invariably  be  done 
as  soon  as  the  runner  is  cool  enough.  Being  wedge-shaped,  with  the  small  end  of  the 
wedge  downwards,  it  lifts  a  portion  of  the  casting  in  shrinking,  and  thus  causes  it  to  be 
out  of  shape. 

In  heavy  work,  care  and  judgment  are  needed,  and  it  requires  a  man's  lifetime  to 
become  proficient.  In  ramming  work  that  is  to  bo  poured  on  its  end,  having  a  height  of 
3  or  4  ft.,  there  is  no  risk  in  well  packing  the  sand,  for  f  its  height,  around  the  pattern  ; 
and  as  you  near  the  top,  ram  it  as  you  would  a  pattern  no  more  than  1  ft.  in  thickness. 
The  sand  in  all  such  work  should  be  very  open  or  porous,  in  order  to  prevent  scabbing. 
As  there  is  so  large  a  quantity  of  iron  used,  much  steam  and  gas  are  generated  in  the 
mould ;  and  as  there  is  no  other  way  of  escape  for  them  but  through  the  vents,  there 
should  be  no  fault  in  this  particular  part  of  the  mould.  In  the  pouring  of  such  work,  it 
is  best  to  run  it  from  the  bottom.  If  a  runner  is  used,  do  not  raise  the  risers  to  correspond 
in  height  with  the  runner,  as  by  so  doing  you  increase  the  amount  of  strain  on  the  mould  ; 
but  form  a  little  basin  around  the  risers  by  ramming  out  the  sprue  holes  with  the  finger, 
juid  on  the  side  nearest  the  outer  edge  of  the  flask  form  a  lip  for  the  surplus  ii'on  in  the 
runner  to  run  over  on  to  the  floor.  When  heavy  work  is  bedded  in  the  floor,  too  much 
care  cannot  be  taken  in  preventing  the  dampness  of  the  ground  beneath  from  striking 
through  into  the  mould.  The  sand  that  is  thrown  out  of  the  pit,  if  it  has  been  of  long 
standing,  should  not  be  used  for  the  moulding  of  that  piece  ;  for  it  is  too  cold  and  damp 
and  sliould  be  thrown  on  one  side,  and  allowed  to  stand,  that  it  may  dry  and  warm  up. 
The  2  or  3  ladlefuls  of  iron  that  remain  in  tiie  furnace  after  tlie  work  on  the  floor  has 
been  poured,  can  be  run  into  pigs  in  tliis  sand,  which  will  greatly  help  to  fit  it  for 
immediate  use.  In  the  venting  of  heavy  work,  the  small  vents  should  terminate  iu  a 
number  of  large  ones,  which  should  have  an  opening  on  both  sides  of  the  mould  : 
then  a  draught  would  be  formed  to  carry  off  the  gas  which  is  continually  growing  as  tho 
workman  is  in  the  act  of  pouring  the  iron  into  the  mould. 


42 


Casting  and  Founding — Iron. 


All  men  connected  with  this  branch  of  the  trade  have  heard  that  sharjj  report  which 
immediately  follows  the  pouring  of  a  large  piece,  and  which  is  caused  by  the  confined 
gas  in  the  lower  end  of  a  large  vent,  there  being  no  draught  to  drive  it  oat.  Where 
facing  is  used,  much  more  care  is  needed  in  venting.  In  the  making  of  large  pulleys 
and  gear-wheels,  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  in  this  particular.  Not  so  much 
depends  uj^on  the  ramming  of  such  work  as  upon  the  venting  for  the  proper  exit  of  the 
gas  from  the  sand  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  mould  ;  for  if  the  mould  has  been 
rammed  harder  than  there  was  any  necessity  fur,  and  the  venting  has  been  properly 
looked  after,  there  is  not  much  danger  of  the  casting  being  a  poor  one.  Such  work 
should  invariably  be  run  from  the  hub  or  centre,  with  sufiicient  risers,  arranged  as 
above  described.  This  branch  of  the  trade  is  called  green-sand  work,  and  it  involves  a 
large  part  of  the  art  of  ramming. 

Shrinlcage  of  Iron  Castings. — The  chief  trouble  with  iron  castings  is  their  liability  to 
have  internal  strains  put  upon  them  in  cooling,  in  consequence  of  their  shrinking.  The 
amount  of  this  shrinkage  varies  with  the  quality  of  the  metal,  and  with  the  size  of  the 
casting  and  its  comparative  thickness.  Thus  locomotive  cylinders  shrink  only  about 
-jL  in.  per  ft.  (1-192  =  -0052),  while  heavy  pipe  castings  and  girders  shrink  -j^j  in.  per 
ft.  (1-120  =  -0083),  or  even  i  in.  per  ft.  (1-06  =  -0101).  While  small  wheels  shrink 
only  Jg-  in.  per  ft.  (1-300  —  -0033),  large  and  heavy  ones  contract  Jjj  in.  per  ft. 
(1-120  =  '0083).  The  "  shrink-rule  "  is  emijloyed  by  pattern-makers  to  relieve  them 
of  the  labour  of  calculating  these  excesses,  the  scales  being  graduated  to  inches,  &c., 
which  are  "  0052,  •  0083,  &c.,  too  long.  Now,  if  thick  metal  proportionately  shrinks 
more  than  thin,  we  must  expect  any  casting  not  absolutely  symmetrical  in  every  direc- 
tion to  change  its  form  or  proportion.  A  cubic  or  spheric  mould  yields  a  cube  or  a 
sphere  as  a  casting;  but  a  mould,  say  of  the  proportions  of  100  X  5  x  1,  shrinking 
differently  according  to  dimensions,  gives  a  casting  not  only  less  in  size  but  in  somewhat 
different  proportion.  In  many  cases  we  still  find  them  strained  and  twisted.  Those 
parts  which  cool  first  get  their  final  proportions,  and  the  later  cooling  portions  strain  the 
earlier,  the  resistance  of  which  to  defor- 
mation puts  strains  on  those  cooling. 
This  initial  strain  may  of  itself  break 
the  casting,  and,  if  not,  will  weaken  it. 
Castings  of  excessive  or  varying  thick- 
ness, and  of  complicated  form,  are  most 
in  danger  from  internal  strain.  This 
strain  is  gradually  lessened  in  time  by 
the  molecules  "  giving."  In  a  casting 
Buch  as  a  (Fig.  11),  say  a  thick  press 
cylinder,  the  outer  layers  solidify  and 
shrink  first,  and  as  the  inner  laj'crs 
contract  after  the  outer  ones  have  "  set,'' 
there  is  compression  of  the  outer  layers 
and  tension  of  the  inner.  Such  a 
cylinder  will,  if  subjected  to  internal 
pressure,  be  weak,  because  there  is 
already  in  the  inner  layers  a  force 
tending  to  csi^and  them.  The  cylinder 
would  bo  stronger  if  these  layers  were  braced  to  resist  extension,  or,  in  other  words, 
were  already  in  compression.  If  we  cool  the  interior  first,  by  artificial  means,  while 
delaying  tJie  cooling  of  the  exterior  layers,  we  have  these  layers  braced  to  receive 
gradual  or  sudden  pressure,  and  this  is  especially  desirable  in  cannon.  In  a  panel 
like  b,  with  a  thin  but  rigid  flange,  the  diagonals  slirink  more  slowly  than  the  rim, 
and  a  crack  is  likely  to  appear.     A  casting  like  that  ia  c  would  solidify  on  the  thin 


Casting  and  Founding — Iron.  43 

side  first,  and  when  the  thick  side  shrank,  it  wonld  curve  the  bar  and  compress  the 
thick  part,  and  put  the  thiu  in  tension.  Wheel  and  pulley  castings  d  are  especially 
troublesome.  The  latter  have  a  thin  rigid  rim,  which  cools  before  •the  arms,  and  when 
the  latter  cool  they  are  very  apt  to  break  by  tension.  If  the  arms  set  jirst,  tliey  aro 
apt  to  break  the  rim,  as  they  make  a  rigid  abutment  which  resists  the  rim-contraction, 
bending  the  rim  and  breaking  it  from  within  outwards.  In  the  cooling  of  casting!--, 
the  particles  range  themselves  in  crystals  perpendicular  to  the  cooling  surface ;  hence 
we  may  expect  to  find  weak  points  at  sharp  corners,  as  in  e.  The  remedy  for  this  is  to 
round  off  all  angles. 

Chilling  Iron  Castings. — The  service  part  of  a  casting  that  is  wanted  to  retain  a 
certain  shape,*  size,  and  smoothness,  and  to  withstand  constant  wear  and  tear,  can  in 
most  cases  be  chilled,  when  cast,  by  forming  the  shape  of  iron  instead  of  sand.  The 
iron  mould  or  chill,  when  made  of  cast-iron,  should  bo  of  the  best  strong  iron,  having 
very  little  contraction,  as  the  sudden  heating  of  the  surfaces  by  the  melted  iron  is  liable 
to  crack  it,  so  that  in  a  short  time  the  face  will  be  full  of  small  cracks  or  raised  blisters. 
When  melted  grey  iron  is  poured  around  or  against  the  surface  of  solid  iron,  it  is  chilled 
i  in.  to  1  in.  in  depth,  depending  on  the  hardness  and  closeness  of  the  iron  the  mould  is 
poured  with.  In  order  to  chill  this  u-on  as  deep  as  1 J  in.  and  upward,  tliere  must  be 
some  cast  steel  melted  in  the  cupola.  The  proportion  will  depend  on  the  quality  of 
the  iron  and  steel  used.  Steel  borings  can  be  put  into  the  ladles,  and  the  hot  iron  let 
mix  with  them  ;  but  "the  best  plan  is  to  have  some  old  steel  castings  or  pieces  of 
steel  rails,  and  melt  them  in  the  cupola,  and  when  the  ii-on  is  in  the  ladle,  mix  or 
stir  the  metal  with  a  large  rod.  AVith  strong,  close  iron,  about  1  part  steel  to  5  of 
iron  will  cause  a  chill  of  H  in.  Iron  for  making  chilled  castings  should  be  strong, 
as  chilling  iron  impairs  its  strength.  An  iron  that  contracts  very  little  in  cooling  is 
of  the  greatest  importance  in  keeping  chilled  castings  from  checking  or  cracking. 
The  following  may  explain  the  cause  of  chilled  casting  being  bad. 
Melted  iron,  when  poured  inside  a  chill,  similar  to  a  roll  or  car-wheel  chill,  cools 
and  forms  a  shell  in  a  very  short  time,  the  thickness  of  which  will  depend  on  the  hardness 
and  temperature  of  the  iron.  It  is  during  tlie  course  of  the  first  2  or  3  minutes  that 
the  checking  or  cracking  takes  place;  for  as  soon  as  melted  iron  commences  to  cool 
or  freeze,  it  starts  to  contract  more  or  less,  and  as  the  shell  thus  formed  becomes  cool,  or 
half-molten,  it  contracts  and  leaves  the  surface  of  the  chill,  so  that  the  contracting  shell 
stands,  or  holds  in  the  pressure  of  the  liquid  iron  inside.  Should  the  mould  not  be 
dead  level,  the  inside  liquid  metal  will  have  the  most  pressure  at  the  lowest  point  of  the 
shell,  and  will  cause  this  part  to  burst  open.  A  check  or  crack  never  starts  at  the  top 
part  of  a  mould,  but  always  at  the  bottom,  and  if  you  look  closely  at  one  of  these  cracks 
you  will  see  it  is  the  largest  at  the  bottom,  and  running  up  to  nothing.  In  some  cases 
you  can  see  where  the  inside  liquid  iron  has  flowed  out,  and  partly  filled  up  the  crack. 

So  far  as  mixing  the  iron  is  concerned,  it  will  stand  a  deal  of  variation,  and  it  is 
a  poor  excuse  for  a  moulder  to  put  the  blame  on  the  melter  for  3  or  4  bad  wheels  out 
of  a  heat  of  16,  If  he  would  make  a  straight  edge  that  would  reach  across  the  top 
and  come  down  on  to  the  turned  level  face  of  the  chill,  and  then  level  his  flasks  instead 
of  dumping  them  in  any  shape,  the  melter  would  not  get  blamed  so  much  as  he  does 
for  cracked  wheels. 

In  making  chilled  rolls,  the  temperature  of  the  iron  is  as  important  a  point  as  it  is  in  the 
manufacture  of  car-wheels.  The  iron  should  be  poured  as  dull  as  possible,  for  the  duller 
the  iron  the  quicker  and  thicker  is  the  outside  shell  formed,  thereby  offering  a  stronger 
j  resistance  to  the  pressure  of  the  inside  liquid  iron.  Of  course,  the  moulder  must  use 
j  his  judgment  in  cooling  off  the  iron,  for  if  too  dull,  the  face  of  the  chilled  part  will 
I  be  cold  shut,  and  look  dirty.  The  rolls  should  be  poured  quickly  at  the  neck,  and  the 
1  gates  cut,  so  as  to  whirl  the  iron  and  keep  all  dirt  in  the  centre  and  away  from  the 
I  face  of  the   chill.     When  the  mould  is  full,  do  not  put  in  the  feeding-rod  until  tlie 


44  Casting  and  Founding — Iron. 

neck  13  about  to  freeze  up.  When  you  do  put  it  in,  do  not  ram  it  down  suddenly 
so  as  to  cause  a  pressure  on  the  contracting  shell,  wliich  would  be  liable  to  crack  it. 
When  feeding,  work  the  rod  slowly.  It  is  better  to  make  the  chills  as  hot  as  possible 
by  heating  them  in  the  oven,  as  the  iron  will  lie  closer  and  make  a  smoother  casting 
against  a  hot  chill  than  when  poured  against  a  cold  one.  By  having  the  mould  dead 
level,  the  pressure  will  be  equal  all  around.  Whenever  there  is  a  check  or  crack,  you 
may  depend  that  it  is  caused  by  unequal  pressure  of  the  confined  liquid  metal  against 
the  contracting  shell. 

FORGING  AND  FINISHING.— These  terms  are  defined  by  Eichards,  in 
his  '  Workshop  Manipulation,'  in  the  following  words :  "  Forging  relates  to  shaping 
metal  by  compression  or  blows  when  it  is  in  a  heated  or  softened  condition ;  as  a 
process  it  is  an  intermediate  one  between  casting  and  what  may  be  called  the  cold 
processes.  Forging  also  relates  to  welding  or  joining  pieces  together  by  sudden 
heating  that  melts  the  surface  only,  and  then  by  forcing  the  pieces  together  while  in 
this  softened  or  semi-fused  state.  Forging  includes,  in  ordinary  practice,  the  preparation 
of  cutting  tools,  and  tempering  them  to  various  degrees  of  hardness  as  the  nature  of 
the  work  for  which  they  are  intended  may  require ;  also  the  construction  of  furnaces 
for  heating  tlie  material,  and  mechanical  devices  for  handling  it  when  hot,  with  the 
various  operations  for  shaping.  Finishing  and  fitting  relate  to  giving  true  and  accurate 
dimensions  to  the  parts  of  machinery  that  come  in  contact  with  each  other  and  are 
joined  together  or  move  upon  each  other,  and  consist  in  cutting  away  the  surplus  material 
■which  has  to  be  left  in  founding  and  forging  because  of  the  heated  and  expanded 
condition  in  which  the  material  is  treated  in  these  last  processes.  In  finishing,  material 
is  operated  upon  at  its  normal  temperature,  in  which  condition  it  can  be  handled, 
gauged,  or  measured,  and  will  retain  its  shape  after  it  is  fitted.  Finishing  compre- 
hends all  operations  of  cutting  and  abrading,  such  as  turning,  -boring,  planing,  and 
grinding,  also  the  handling  of  material ;  it  is  considered  the  leading  department  in 
shop  manipulation,  because  it  is  the  one  where  the  work  constructed  is  organized  and 
brought  together.  The  fitting  shop  is  also  that  department  to  which  drawings 
especially  apply,  and  other  preparatory  operations  are  usually  made  subservient  to  the 
fitting  processes.  A  peculiarity  of  forging  is  that  it  is  a  kind  of  hand  process,  where 
the  judgment  must  continually  direct  the  operations,  one  blow  determining  the  next, 
and  while  pieces  forged  may  be  duplicates,  there  is  a  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  manner 
■of  producing  them.  Pieces  may  be  shaped  at  a  white  welding  heat  or  at  a  low  red 
heat,  by  one  or  two  strong  blows  or  by  a  dozen  lighter  blows,  the  whole  being  governed 
by  the  circumstances  of  the  work  as  it  progresses.  A  smith  mny  not  throughout  a 
whole  day  repeat  an  operation  precisely  iu  the  same  manner,  nor  can  he,  at  the  beginning 
of  an  operation,  tell  the  length  of  time  required  to  execute  it,  nor  even  the  precise 
manner  in  which  he  will  perform  it.  Such  conditions  are  peculiar,  and  apply  to  forging 
alone." 

The  technical  phrases  employed  in  forging  are  thus  explained  by  Cameron 
Knight : — 

To  "  make  up  a  stock."— The  "  stock "  is  that  mass  of  coal  or  coke  which  is 
situated  between  the  fire  and  the  cast-iron  plate,  through  the  opening  in  which  the 
wind  or  blast  is  forced.  The  size  and  shape  of  this  stock  depend  upon  the  dimensions 
and  shape  of  the  work  to  be  produced.  To  make  up  a  stock  is  to  place  the  coal  in 
proper  position  around  the  taper-ended  rod,  which  is  named  a  "  plug."  The  taper  end 
of  the  plug  is  push(-d  into  the  opening  from  which  comes  the  blast;  the  other  end  of 
the  plug  is  then  laid  across  the  hearth  or  fireplace,  after  which  the  wet  small  coal  is 
thoroughly  battered  over  the  plug  while  it  remains  in  the  opening,  and  the  coal  piled 
up  till  the  required  height  and  width  of  the  stock  is  reached  ;  after  which  the  plug  is 
taken  out  und  tlie  fire  made,  the  blast  in  the  meantime  freely  traversing  the  opening 
made  in  the  stock  by  the  plug. 


Forging  and  Finishing.  45 

Fire-irons. — These  consist  of  a  poker  with  small  hook  at  one  end,  a  slice,  and  rake. 
The  poker  with  small  h(jok  is  used  for  clearinpc  away  the  clinker  from  the  blast-hole, 
also  for  holding  small  pieces  of  work  in  the  fire.  The  slice  is  a  small  Hat  shovel  or 
spade,  and  is  used  for  battering  the  coal  while  making  up  a  stock.  The  slice  is  also 
used  for  adding  coal  to  the  fire  when  only  a  small  quantity  is  required  at  one  time. 
The  rake  consists  of  a  rod  of  iron  or  steel  with  a  handle  at  one  end,  and  at  the  other  a 
right-angle  bend  of  flat  iron,  and  is  used  to  adjust  the  coal  or  coke  into  proper  position 
while  the  piece  to  bo  forged  is  in  the  fire. 

Eod. — This  term  is  usually  applied  to  a  long  slender  piece  of  iron,  wdiose  section 
is  circular. 

Bar. — Bar  signifies  a  rod  or  length  of  iron  whose  section  is  square,  or  otherwise 
angular,  instead  of  circular. 

Plate. —  This  term  is  applied  to  any  piece  of  iron  whose  length  and  breadth  vciy 
much  exceed  its  thickness.     Thin  plates  of  iron  are  termed  '•  sheets." 

To  "  take  a  heat." — This  signifies  to  allow  the  iron  to  remain  in  the  fire  until  the 
required  heat  is  obtained.  To  "  take  a  welding  heat "  is  to  allow  the  iron  to  remain  in 
the  fire  till  hot  enough  to  melt  or  partially  melt. 

To  "  finish  at  one  heat "  is  to  do  all  the  required  forging  to  the  piece  of  work  in  hand 
by  heating  once  only. 

To  "  draw  down." — Drawing  down  signifies  reducing  a  thick  bar  or  rod  of  iron  to  any 
required  diameter.  There  are  several  methods  of  drawing  down :  by  a  single  hammer 
in  the  hand  of  one  man ;  by  a  pair  of  hammers  in  the  hands  of  2  men  ;  5  or  G  hammers 
may  be  also  used  by  5  or  6  men.  Drawing  down  is  also  effected  by  steam-hammers, 
air-hammers,  and  rolling-mills. 

To  "  draw  away." — This  term  signifies  the  same  as  to  draw  down. 

To  "  upset." — This  operation  is  the  reverse  of  drawing  down,  and  consists  in  making 
a  thin  bar  or  rod  into  a  thick  one ;  or  it  may  consist  in  thickening  a  portion  only,  such 
as  the  middle  or  end,  or  both  ends.  The  operation  is  performed  by  heating  the  iron  to 
a  yellow  heat,  or  what  is  named  a  white  heat,  and  placing  one  end  upon  tiie  anvil,  or 
upon  the  ground,  and  striking  the  other  end  with  3  or  4  hammers,  as  required.  Iron 
may  be  also  upset,  while  in  the  horizontal  position,  by  pendulum  hammers  and  by 
the  steam-striker,  which  will  deliver  blows  at  any  angle  from  horizontal  to  vertical. 

Scarfing. — This  operation  includes  2  processes — upsetting  and  bevelling.  Scarfing 
is  resorted  to  for  the  purpose  of  properly  welding  or  joining  2  pieces  of  iron  together. 
When  the  pieces  are  rods  or  bars,  it  is  necessary  to  upset  the  2  ends  to  be  welded,  so 
that  tlie  hammering  which  unites  the  pieces  shall  not  reduce  the  iron  below  the 
required  dimensions.  After  being  upset,  the  2  ends  are  bevelled  by  a  fuller  or  by 
the  hammer. 

Butt-weld. — When  a  red  or  bar  is  welded  to  another  bar  or  plate,  so  tiiat  the  joint 
shall  be  at  right  angles  to  the  bar,  it  is  termed  a  butt-weld. 

Tongue-joint.— This  joint  is  made  by  cutting  open  the  end  of  a  bar  to  be  welded 
to  another,  whose  end  is  tapered  to  fit  the  opening,  aud  then  welding  the  2  bars  together. 

To  "  punch"  is  to  make  a  hole,  either  square  or  round,  in  a  piece  of  iron  by  means 
of  square  or  round  taper  tools,  named  punches,  which  are  driven  through  the  iron  by 
hand-hammers  or  by  steam-hammers. 

To  "drift  out"  is  to  enlarge  a  hole  by  means  of  a  taper  round  or  square  tool, 
named  a  drift. 

The  hammerman  is  the  assistant  to  the  smith,  and  uses  the  heavy  hammer,  named 
the  sledge,  when  heavy  blows  are  required. 

The  Tuyere  or  Tweer. — This  is  a  pipe  through  which  the  blast  of  air  proceeds  to 
the  stock,  and  thence  to  the  fire.  The  nozzle  of  the  tweer  is  the  extreme  end  or 
portion  of  the  tweer  which  is  inserted  into  the  opening  of  the  plate  against  which  the 
etock  is  built.     C  Mechanician  and  Constructor.') 


46 


I'ORGING   AND   FINISHING. 


Forgi's  or  Eearths.— These  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of  form  and  size,  some 
obtaining  the  necessary  blast  by  means  of  bellows,  others  by  rotary  fans  or  blowers ; 
some  -with  a  single  and  others  with  a  double  blast ;  some  with,  others  without  hoods ; 
according  to  the  work  they  arc  destined  for.  Fig.  12  illustrates  a  "  Cyclops  "  circular 
forge,  with  a  pan  20  in.  across,  weighing  altogether  lOG  lb., 
and  costing  90s. ;  this  size  is  only  suited  for  riveting.  The 
blast  is  produced  by  a  small  rotary  blower.  The  square 
form  of  pan,  3i  in.  by  20  in.,  will  beat  2-in.  round  iron, 
weighs  2  cwt.,  and  costs  140s.  Fig.  13  is  a  portable  forge, 
the  pan  consisting  of  a  box  made  with  thin  iron  jdates, 
19  in.  square  and  9  in.  high  when  closed,  as  shown  at 
B,  and  capable  of  containing  all  the  tools  accompanying  the 
forge,  as  well  as  the  bellows  and  legs.  This  forge  is 
made  by  Schaller,  of  Vienna,  and  is  much  used  in  the 
Austrian  army.  In  large  forges  the  tuyere  pipe  feeding  the 
blast  to  the  fire  is  rendered  more  durable  by  the  constant 
application  of  a  stream  of  cold  water. 

jljivih. — An  anvil  is  an  iron  block,  usually  with  a  steel 
face,  upon  which  metal  is  hammered  and  shaped.     The 

ordinary  smith's  anvil,  Figs.  1-t  and  15,  is  one  solid  mass  of  metal, — iron  in  different 
states ;  C  is  the  core  or  body ;  B,  4  corners  for  enlarging  the  base ;  D,  Fig.  14,  the 
projecting  cud  ;  it  contains  one  or  two  holes  for  the  reception  of  set  chisels  in  cutting 


pieces  of  iron,  or  for  the  reception  of  a  shaper,  as  shown  at  E,  Fig.  15.  In  punching 
flat  pieces  of  metal,  in  forming  the  heads  of  nails  or  bolts,  and  in  numerous  other  cases, 
these  holes  «  of  ordinary  anvils  are  not  only  useful  but  indispensable.     The  beak- 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


47 


Lorn  A  16  used  for  turning  pieces  of  iron  into  a  circular  or  curved  form,  vreldin"- 
hoops,  and  for  other  similar  operations.  In  the  smithery,  the  anvil  is  generally 
seated  on  the  root  end  of  a  beech  or  oak  tree ;  the  anvil  and  wooden  block  must 
be  firmly  connected,  to  render  the  blows  of  the  hammer  effective;  and  if  the  block  bo 


15. 


not  firmly  connected  to  the  earth,  the  blows  of  the  hammer  will  not  tell.  The  best 
anvils,  anvil-stakes,  and  planishing  hammers  are  faced  with  double  shear-steel.  The 
steel-facings  are  shaped  and  laid  on  a  core  at  a  welding  heat,  and  the  anvil  is  completed  by 
being  reheated  and  hammered. 

When  the  steel-facuig  is  first  16. 

applied,  it  is  less  heated  than 
the  core.  But  the  proper 
hardening  of  the  face  of  the 
anvil  requires  great  skill ;  the 
face  must  be  raiised  to  a  full 
red-heat,  and  placed  under  a 
descending  column  of  water,  so 
that  the  surface  of  the  face  may 
continue  in  contact  with  the 
successive  sui^ply  of  the  quench- 
ing fluitl,  which  at  the  face 
retains  the  same  temperature, 
as  it  is  rapidly  sui^plied.     The 

rapidity  of  the  flow  of  water  may  be  increased  by  giving  a  sufficient  height  to  its 
descending  column ;  it  is  important  that  the  cooling  stream  should  fall  perpendicularly 
to  the  face  which  is  being  hardened.  Heat  may  escape  parallel  to  the  face,  but  not  in 
the  direction  of  the  falling  water. 
The  operator,  during  this  hardening 
process,  is  protected  from  spray  and 
smoke  by  a  suitable  cover,  and  by 
confining  the  falling  water  to  a  tube 
which  must  contain  the  required 
volume.  When  an  anvil  is  to  be 
used  for  planishing  metals,  it  is 
polished  with  emery  and  crocus 
ITOwders.  It  is  better  to  be  too 
heavy   than   too    light,    and    may 

range  from  2  to  5  cwt.,  according  to  the  work  to  be  done  on  it.  On  being  tapped  with 
a  hammer,  it  should  give  out  a  clear  ringing  note.  It  is  generally  used  with  the  tail 
(square)  end  towards  the  right  hand,  and  the  horn  (beak  iron)  towards  the  left. 

Vices  and  Tongs, — Of  vices  there  is  a  great  variety ;  Fig.  16  is  a  typical  example 


48 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


of  a  malleable  iron  jiarallel  vice.  Fig.  17  is  a  iiseful  little  combined  anvil  and  vice,  face 
10  in.  by  4,  4-in.  jaw,  weight  40  lb.,  costing  22s.  Gd.  Tongs  are  usually  home-made, 
and  will  be  described  further  on. 

ITammers.— Upon  the  principles  underlying  the  shapes,  sizes,  and  uses  of  hammers, 
much  will  be  found  under  the  heading  of  Carpentry.  A  few  representative  forms  of 
hammer  head  are  shown  in  Figs.  18, 19 :  a  to  d  are  used  by  engineers  and  mechauics, 

18 


c  to  k  by  boiler- makers,  while  I  is  a  sledgehammer.  All  but  I  are  hand-hammers.  They 
differ  mainly  in  the  form  of  the  pane,  the  head  remaining  pretty  much  the  same ;  a  is  a 
cross  pane,  b  a  straight  pane,  c  a  ball  pane,  and  so  on.  Hand-hammers  mostly  range 
between  1  and  4  lb.  in  weight ;  chipping  hammers,  h-lh  lb. ;  riveting  hammers,  5-2 lb.; 


19. 


\^-^-^ 


f 


eledge  hammers  not  exceeding  8  lb.  in  weight  are  "uphanded,"  i.e.  only  raised  to  a 
little  above  the  shoulder,  while  the  heavier  ones  (8-16  lb.)  are  "  swung"  in  a  complete 
circle.  The  machinists'  hammer  is  made  heavier  at  the  face  than  at  the  pane  end,  so^ 
that  the  hammer  will  naturally  assume  a  position  in  the  hand  with  the  face  downwards,, 
thus  relieving  the  workman  from  the  necessity  of  specially  forcing  it  into  that  position. 
In  using  a  hammer  it  is  essential  to  study  the  diflfercnce  between  a  sharp  blow  with  a 


FOEGING    AND    FINISHING. 


49 


light  liammcr  and  a  blow  blow  with  a  heavy  one:  the  formor  penetrates  farthest  and 
gives  least  lateral  pressure  ;  while  the  latter  penetrates  less  and  spreads  more  sideways. 

Cutting  Tools. — The  following  remarks  are  in  the  main  condensed  from  a  lecture  on 
Chisels  and  Chisel-shaped  Tools,  delivered  by  Joshua  Rose  before  the  Franklin  Institute, 
Philadelphia. 

In  Figs.  20  and  21  are  shown  the  shapes  in  wliich  flat  chisels  are  made.  The  diiferenco 
between  the  two  is  that,  as  the  cutting  edge  should  be  parallel  with  the  flats  on  the 
chisel,  and  as  Fig.  20  has  the 

-widest  flat,  it  is  easier  to  tell  20.  21.  22. 

with  it  when  the  cutting  edge 
and  the  flat  are  parallel ;  there- 
fore the  broad  flat  is  the  best 
guide  in  holding  the  chisel 
level  with  the  surface  to  bo 
chipped.  Either  of  these 
cliisels  is  of  a  proper  width  for 
wrought-iron  or  steel,  because 
chisels  nsed  on  these  metals 
take  all  the  power  to  drive  that 
can  be  given  with  a  hammer  of 
the  usual  proportions  for  heavy 
clipping,  which  is — weight  of 
hammer.  If  lb.;  length  of 
liammer  handle,  13  in. ;  the 
handle  to  be  held  at  its  end  and 
swinging  back  about  vertically 
over  the  shoulder. 

If  so  narrow  a  chisel  be  used 
on" cast-iron  or  brass,  with  full-force  hammer  blows,  it  will  break  out  the  metal  instead 
of  cutting  it,  and  the  break  may  come  below  the  depth  wanted  to  chip,  and  leave  ugly 
cavities.  So  for  these  metals  the  chisel  must  be  made  broader,  as  in  Fig.  22,  so  that 
the  force  of  the  blow  will  be  spread  over  a  greater  length  of  chisel  edge,  and  the  edge 
will  not  move  forward  so  much  at  each  blow,  therefore  it  will  not  break  the  metal  out. 

Another  advantage  is  that  the  broader  the  chisel  the  easier  it  is  to  hold  its  edge 
fair  with  the  work  surface  and  make  smooth  chipping.     The  chisel  point  must  be  made 


23. 


24. 


as  thin  as  possible,  the  thickness  shown  in  the  sketches  being  suitable  for  new  chisels. 
In  giiuding  the  2  facets  to  form  the  chisel,  be  careful  to  avoid  grinding  them  rounded, 
as  shown  in  a  in  the  magnified  chisel  ends  in  Fig.  23  ;  the  proper  way  is  to  grind  them 
flat,  as  at  ?>  in  the  sketch.  Make  the  angle  of  these  2  facets  as  acute  as  you  can,  because 
tlie  chisel  will  then  cut  easier. 


50 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


The  lidding  angle  at  c,  in  Fig.  24,  is  about  riglit  for  brass,  and  that  at  d  is  about 
right  for  steel.  The  difl'erence  is  that  with  hard  metal  the  more  acute  angle  dulls  too 
quickly. 

Considering  the  length  of  the  cutting,  it  may  for  heavy  chipping  be  made  straight, 
as  in  Fig.  20,  or  curved,  as  in  Fig.  22,  -which  is  the  best,  because  the  corners  are  relieved 
of  duty  and  are  therefore  less  liable  to  break.  The  advantage  of  the  curve  is  greatest 
in  fine  chipping,  because,  as  seen  in  Fig.  25,  a  thin  chip  can  be  taken  without  cutting 
■with  the  corners,  and  these  corners  are  exposed  to  the  eye  in  keeping  the  chisel  edge 
level  with  the  work  surface. 

In  any  case  you  must  not  grind  the  chisel  hollow  in  its  length,  as  in  Fig.  26,  or  as 
shown  exaggerated  in  Fig.  27,  because  in  that  case  the  corners  will  dig  in  and  cause  the 


25. 


chisel  to  be  beyond  control ;  besides  that,  there  will  be  a  force  that,  acting  on  the  wedge 
principle  and  in  the  direction  of  the  arrows,  will  operate  to  spread  the  corners  and 
break  them  off. 

Do  not  grind  the  facets  wider  on  one  side  than  on  the  other  of  the  chisel,  as  in  Fig.  28, 
because  in  that  case  the  fiat  of  the  chisel  will  form  no  guide  to  let  you  know  when 


31. 


the  cutting  edge  is  level  with  the  work  surface.  Nor  must  you  grind  it  out  of  square 
with  the  chisel  body,  as  in  Fig.  29,  because  in  that  case  the  chisel  will  be  apt  to  jump 
sideways  at  each  hammer  blow. 

A  quantity  of  metal  can  be  removed  quicker  by  using  the  cape  chisel  in  Fig.  30,  to 


FOEGING   AND  FINISHING. 


51 


first  cut  out  grooves,  as  at  a,h,  and  c  in  Fig.  31,  spacing  these  grooves  a  littlo  narrower 
apart  than  the  width  of  the  flat  chisel,  and  thus  relieving  its  corners.  It  is  necessary 
to  shape  the  end  of  this  chisel  as  at  a  and  h,  and  not  as  at  c,  as  in  Fig.  30,  so  as  to  bo 
able  to  move  it  sideways  to  guide  it  in  a  straight  line,  and  the  parallel  part  at  c  will 
interfere  with  this,  so  that  if  the  chisel  is  started  a  very  little  out  of  line  it  will  go 
still  farther  out  of  line,  and  cannot  bo  moved  sideways  to  correct  this. 

The  round-nosed  chisel,  Fig.  32,  must  not  bo  made  straiglit  on  its  convex  edge :  it 
may  be  straight  from  h  to  g,  but  from  g  to  the  point  it  must  be  bevelled  so  that  by 
altering  the  height  of  the  chisel  head  it  is  possible  to  alter  the  depth  of  the  cut. 

The  cow-mouthed  chisel,  Fig.  33,  must  be  bevelled  in  the  same  way,  so  that  when 


32. 


rPT] 


used  to  cut  out  a  round  corner,  as  at  I  in  Fig.  31,  you  can  move  the  head  to  the 
right  or  to  the  left,  and  thus  govern  the  depth  of  its  cut. 

The  oil  groove  chisel  in  Fig.  34  must  be  made  narrower  at  a  than  it  is  across  the 
curve,  as  it  will  wedge  in  the  groove  it  cuts. 

The  diamond-point  chisel  in  Figs.  35  and  36  must  be  shaped  to  suit  the  work, 
because  if  it  is  not  to  be  used  to  cut  out  the  corners  of  very  deep  holes,  you  can 
bevel  it  at  m  and  thus  bring  its  point  x  central  to  the  body  of  the  steel,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  line  q,  rendering  the  corner  x  less  liable  to  break,  which  is  the  great  trouble  with 
this  chisel.  But  as  the  bevel  at  m  necessitates  the  chisel  being  leaned  over  as  at  y  in 
Fig.  31,  it  could  in  deep  holes  not  be  kept  to  its  cut ;  so  you  must  omit  the  bevel  at  m, 
and  make  that  edge  straight  as  at  r  in  Fig.  36. 

The  side  chisel  obeys  just  the  same  rule,  so  you  may  give  it  bevel  at  w  in  Fig.  37 
for  shallow  holes,  and  lean  it  over  as  at  z  in  Fig.  31,  or  make  the  side  vw  straight  along 
its  whole  length,  for  deep  ones ;  but  in  all  chisels  for  slots  or  mortices  it  is  desirable  to 
I  have,  if  the  circumstances  will  permit,  some  bevel  on  the  side  that  meets  the  work,  so 
that  the  depth  of  the  cut  can  be  regulated  by  moving  the  chisel  head. 

In  all  these  chisels,  the  chip  on  the  work  steadies  the  cutting  end,  and  it  is  clear  that 
the  nearer  you  hold  the  chisel  at  its  head  the  steadier  you  can  hold  it,  and  the  less 
the  liability  to  hit  your  fingers,  while  the  chipped  surface  will  be  smoother. 

To  take  a  chip  oflf  a  piece  of  wrought  iron,  if  it  is  a  heavy  chip,  stand  well  away 
jfrom  the  vice,  as  an  old  hand  would  do,  instead  of  close  to  it,  as  would  be  natural  in  an 
jtminstructed  beginner.  In  the  one  case  the  body  is  lithe  and  supple,  having  a  slight 
Iraotion  in  unison  with  the  hammer  ;  while  in  the  other  it  is  constrained,  and  not  only  feels 
but  looks  awkward.  If,  now,  you  wish  to  take  a  light  chip,  you  must  stand  nearer  to  the 
work,  so  that  you  can  watch  the  chisel's  action  and  keep  its  depth  of  ciit  level.  In 
both  cases  you  push  the  chisel  forward  to  its  cut  and  hold  it  as  steadily  as  you  can.    It 

E  2 


52 


Forging  and  Finishing, 


is  a  mistake  to  move  it  at  each  blow,  as  many  do,  because  it  cannot  be  so  accurately 
maintained  at  the  proper  height.  Ijighfc  and  quick  blows  are  always  necessary  for  the 
finishing  cuts,  whatever  the  kind  of  metal  may  be. 

With  the  side  chisel  there  must  be  a  bevel  made  at  the  end  in  order  to  enable  the 
depth  of  cut  to  be  adjusted  and  governed,  for  if  you  happened  to  get  the  straight  chisel 
too  deeply  into  its  cut,  you  cannot  alter  it,  and  unless  you  begin  a  new  cut  it  will 

35. 


Q  O 


«    i 


\ 


get  embedded  deeper,  and  will  finally  break.  But  with  this  side  chisel  (Fig.  37)  that 
is  slightly  bevelled,  you  can  regulate  the  depth  of  cut,  making  it  less  if  it  gets  too 
deep,  or  deeper  if  it  gets  too  shallow. 

The  chisel  that  is  driven  by  hammer  blows  may  be  said  to  be  to  some  extent  a 
connecting  link  between  the  hammer  and  the  cutting  tool,  the  main  difierence  being 
that  the  chisel  moves  to  the  work  while  the  work  generally  moves  to  the  cutting  tool. 
In  many  stone-dressing  tools  the  ciiisel  and  hammer  are  combined,  iaasmuch  as  that 
the  end  of  the  hammer  is  chisel  shaped,  an  example  of  this  kind  of  tool  being  given  in 
the  pick  that  flour  millers  use  to  dress  their  grinding  stones.  On  the  other  hand,  we 
may  show  the  connection  between  the  chisel  and  the  cutting  tool  by  the  fact  that  the 
wood-worker  uses  the  chisel  by  driving  it  with  a  mallet,  and  also  by  using  it  for  a 
cutting  tool  for  work  driven  in  the  lathe.  Indeed,  we  may  take  one  of  these  carpenters' 
chisels,  and  fasten  it  to  the  revolving  shaft  of  a  wood-planing  machine,  and  it  becomes 
a  planing-knife ;  or  we  may  put  it  into  a  carpenters'  hand  plane,  and  by  putting  to  the 
work  it  becomes  a  plane  blade.  In  each  case  it  is  simply  a  wedge  whose  end  is  made 
more  or  less  acute  so  as  to  make  it  as  sharp  as  possible,  while  still  retaining  strength 
enough  to  sever  the  material  it  is  to  operate  upon. 

lu  whatever  form  we  may  apply  this  wedge,  there  are  certain  well-defined  mecha- 
nical principles  that  govern  its  use.  Thus,  when  we  employ  it  as  a  hand  tool  its 
direction  of  motion  under  hammer  blows  is  governed  by  tlie  inclination  of  that  of  its 
faces  which  meets  the  strongest  side  of  the  work,  while  it  is  the  weakest  side  of  the 
material  that  moves  the  most  to  admit  the  wedge,  and,  therefore,  becomes  the  chip, 
cutting,  or  shaving.  In  Fig.  38,  for  example,  we  have  the  carpenters'  chisel  operating 
at  a  and  h  to  cut  out  a  recess  or  mortice,  and  it  is  seen  that  so  long  as  the  face  of  the 
chisel  that  is  next  to  the  work  is  placed  level  with  the  straight  surface  of  the  work,  the 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


53 


(leptli  of  eui  will  be  equal,  or,  in  other  words,  llio  line  of  motion  of  the  chisel  is  that  of 
the  chisel  face  that  lies  against  the  work.  At  c  and  cZ  is  a  chisel  with,  in  tho  one 
instance,  the  straight,  and  in  tho  other  the  bevelled  face  toward  the  work  surface.  In 
both  cases  the  cut  would  gradually  deepen  because  the  lower  surface  of  tho  chisel  is  not 
parallel  to  the  face  of  tho  work. 

If  now  we  consider  the  extreme  cutting  edge  of  the  chisel  or  wedge-shaped  toolsj,  it 
will  readily  occur  that  but  for  the  metal  behind  this  fine  edge  tho  shaving  or  cutting 
would  come  off  in  a  straight  ribbon,  and  that  the  bend  or  curl  that  the  cutting  assumes 
increases  with  the  angle  of  the  face  of  the  wedge  that  meets  the  cutting,  shaving,  ov 
chip.  For  example,  if  you  take  a  piece  of  lead,  and  with  a  penknife  held  as  at  a, 
Fig.  39,  cut  off  a  curl,  it  will  be  bent  to  a  large  curve ;  but  if  the  same  knife  is  held  as 
at  b,  it  will  cause  the  shaving  to  curl  iip  more.  It  has  taken  some  power  to  efl'ect  this 
extra  bending  or  curling,  and  it  is  therefore  desirable  to  avoid  it  as  far  as  possible.     For 


39. 


cc 


the  purpose  of  distinction,  the  face  of  the  chisel  which  meets  the  shaving  may  be 
called  the  top  face,  and  that  which  lies  next  the  main  body  of  the  work  the  bottom 
face.  Then  at  whatever  angle  these  2  faces  of  the  chisel  may  be  to  each  other,  and  in 
whatever  way  the  chisel  is  presented  to  the  work,  the  strength  of  the  cutting  edge 
depends  upon  the  angle  of  the  bottom  face  to  the  line  of  motion  of  the  chisel ;  and  this 
is  a  rule  that  applies  to  all  tools  embodying  the  wedge  principle,  whether  they  are 
moved  by  hand  or  machine.  Thus  in  Fig.  40  the  bottom  face  is  placed  at  an  angle  of 
80°  to  the  line  of  tool  motion,  which  is  denoted  by  the  arrow,  and  its  weakness  is 
obvious.  If  the  angle  of  the  top  face  to  the  line  of  tool  motion  is  determined  upon,  we 
may  therefore  obtain  the  strongest  cutting  edge  in  a  hand-moved  tool  by  causing  tho 
bottom  angle  to  lie  fiat  upon  the  work  surface.  But  in  tools  driven  by  machine  power, 
and  therefore  accurately  guided  in  their  line  of  motion,  it  is  preferable  to  kt  the  bottom 
face  clear  the  work  surface,  save  at  the  extreme  cutting  edge.  The  front  face  of  the 
tool  is  that  which  mainly  determines  its  keenness,  as  may  be  seen  from  Fig.  41,  in 
which  the  tool  is  differently  placed  with  relation  to  the  work,  that  at  a  being  obviously 
the  keenest  and  least  liable  to  break  from  the  strain  of  the  cutting  process. 

Drilling  and  Boring. — The  term  "  drilling  "  is  applied  to  the  operation  of  perforating 


54  Forging  and  Finishing. 

or  sinking  holes  in  solid  material,  -while  "  boring  "  is  confined  to  turning  out  annular  holes 
to  true  dimensions.  These  allied  processes  are  thus  succinctly  explained  by  Kichards  in 
his  excellent  manual  on  '  Workshop  Manipulation.'  In  boring,  tools  are  guided  by 
axial  support  independent  of  the  bearing  of  their  edges  on  the  material;  while  in 
drilling,  the  cutting  edges  are  guided  and  supported  mainly  from  their  contact  with  and 
bearing  on  the  material  drilled.  Owing  to  this  difference  in  the  manner  of  guiding 
and  supporting  the  cutting  edges,  and  the  advantages  of  an  axial  support  for  tools  in 
boring,  it  becomes  an  operation  by  which  the  most  accurate  dimensions  are  attainable, 
while  drilling  is  a  comparatively  imperfect  operation ;  yet  the  ordinary  conditions  of 
machine  fitting  are  such  that  nearly  all  small  holes  can  be  drilled  with  sufficient 
accuracy. 

Boring  may  be  called  internal  turning,  differing  from  external  turning,  because  of 
the  tools  perfoiming  the  cutting  movement,  and  in  the  cut  being  made  on  concave 
instead  of  convex  surfaces ;  otherwise  there  is  a  close  analogy  between  the  operations 
of  turning  and  boring.  Buring  is  to  some  extent  performed  on  lathes,  either  with 
boring  bars  or  by  what  is  termed  chuck-boring ;  in  the  latter,  the  material  is  revolved 
and  the  tools  are  stationary.  Boring  may  be  divided  into  three  operations  as  follows ; 
chuck-boring  on  latlies  ;  bar-boring  when  a  boring  bar  runs  on  points  or  centres,  and  is 
supported  at  the  ends  only ;  and  bar-boring  when  a  bar  is  supported  in  and  fed  through 
fixed  bearings.  The  principles  are  different  in  these  operations,  each  being  applicable 
to  certain  kinds  of  work.  A  workman  who  can  distinguish  between  these  plans 
of  boring,  can  always  determine  from  the  nature  of  a  certain  work  which  is  the  best 
to  adopt,  lias  acquired  considerable  knowledge  of  fitting  operations.  Chuck-boring  is 
employed  in  three  cases :  for  holes  of  shallow  depth,  taper  holes,  and  holes  that  are 
screw-threaded.  As  i^ieces  are  overhung  in  lathe-boring,  there  is  not  sufiicient  rigidity, 
either  of  the  lathe  spindle  or  of  the  tools,  to  admit  of  deej}  boring.  The  tools  being 
guided  in  a  straight  line,  and  capable  of  acting  at  any  angle  to  the  axis  of  rotation,  the 
facilities  for  making  tapered  holes  are  complete ;  and  as  the.  holes  are  stationary,  and  may 
be  instantly  adjusted,  the  same  conditions  answer  for  cutting  internal  screw-threads;  an 
operation  corresponding  to  cutting  external  screws,  except  that  the  cross  motions  of  the 
tool  slide  are  reversed.  The  second  plan  of  boring  by  means  of  a  bar  mounted  on 
points  or  centres  is  one  by  which  the  greatest  accuracy  is  attainable  ;  it  is,  like  chuck- 
boring,  a  lathe  operation,  and  one  for  which  no  better  machine  than  a  lathe  has  been 
devised,  at  least  for  the  smaller  kinds  of  work.  It  is  a  problem  whether  in  ordinary 
machine  fitting  there  is  not  a  gain  by  performing  all  boring  in  this  manner,  whenever 
the  rigidity  of  boring  bars  is  suSicient  without  auxiliary  supports,  and  when  the  bars 
can  pass  through  the  work.  Machines  arranged  for  this  kind  of  boring  can  be 
employed  in  turning  or  boring  as  occasion  may  require.  When  a  tool  is  guided  by 
turning  on  points,  the  movement  is  perfect,  and  the  straightness  or  parallelism  of  holes 
bored  in  this  manner  is  dependent  only  on  the  truth  of  the  carriage  movement.  This 
plan  of  boring  is  employed  for  small  steam  cylinders,  cylindrical  valve  seats,  and  in 
cases  where  accuracy  is  essential.  The  third  plan  of  boring  with  bars  resting  in 
bearings  is  more  extensively  practised,  and  has  the  largest  range  of  adaptation.  A 
feature  of  this  plan  of  boring  is  that  the  form  of  the  boring  bar,  or  any  imperfection 
in  its  bearings,  is  communicated  to  tJic  work  ;  a  want  of  straightness  in  the  bar  makes 
tapering  holes.  This,  of  course,  applies  to  cases  where  a  bar  is  fed  through  fixed 
bearings  placed  at  one  or  both  ends  of  a  hole  to  be  bored.  If  a  boring  bar  is  bent,  or 
out  of  truth  between  its  luarings,  the  diameter  of  the  hole  (being  governed  by  the 
extreme  sweep  of  the  cutters)  is  untrue  to  tlie  same  extent,  because  as  the  cutters  move 
along  and  come  nearer  to  the  bearings,  the  bar  runs  with  more  truth,  forming  a  tapering 
hole  diminishing  toward  the  rests  or  bearings.  The  same  rule  applies  to  some  extent 
in  chuck-boring,  the  form  of  the  lathe  spindle  being  communicated  to  holes  bored  ;  but 
lathe  spindles  are  presumed  to  be  quite  perfect  compared  with  boring  bars. 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


55 


The  prevailing  custom  of  casting  machine  frames  in  one  piece,  or  iu  as  few  pieces  as 
possible,  leads  to  a  great  deal  of  bar-boring,  most  of  which  can  be  performed  accurately 
enough  by  boring  bars  supported  iu  and  fed  through  bearings.  By  setting  uji 
temporary  bearings  to  support  boring  bars,  and  improvising  means  of  driving  and 
feeding,  most  of  the  boring  on  machine  frames  can  be  performed  on  floors  or  sole  plates 
and  independent  of  boring  machines  and  lathes.  There  are  but  few  cases  in  which  the 
importance  of  studying  the  jDrinciples  of  tool  action  is  more  clearly  demonstrated  than 
in  this  matter  of  boring  ;  even  long  practical  experience  seldom  leads  to  a  thorough 
understanding  of  the  various  problems  which  it  involves. 

Drilling  difiers  in  principle  from  almost  every  other  operation  in  metal  cutting.  The 
tools,  instead  of  being  held  and  directed  by  guides  or  spindles,  are  supported  mainly  by 
the  bearing  of  the  cutting  edges  against  the  material.  A  common  angular-pointed  drill 
is  capable  of  withstanding  a  greater  amount  of  strain  upon  its  edges  and  rougher  use 
than  any  other  cutting  implement  employed  iu  machine  fitting.  The  rigid  support 
which  the  edges  receive,  and  the  tendency  to  press  them  to  the  centre,  instead  of  to  tear 
them  away  as  with  other  tools,  allows  drills  to  be  used  when  they  are  imperfectly  shaped, 
improperly  tempered,  and  even  when  the  cutting  edges  are  of  unequal  length.  Most  of 
the  difiSculties  which  formerly  pertained  to  drilling  are  now  removed  by  machine- 
made  drills,  which  are  manufactured  and  sold  as  an  article  of  trade.  Such  drills  do  not 
require  dressing  and  tempering,  or  fitting  to  size  after  they  are  in  use,  make  true  holes, 
are  more  rigid  than  common  solid  shank  drills,  and  will  drill  to  a  considerable  depth 
without  clogging.  A  drilling  machine,  adapted  to  the  usual  requirements  of  a  machine 
fitting  establishment,  consists  essentially  of  a  spindle  arranged  to  be  driven  at  various 
speeds,  with  a  movement  for  feeding  the  drills  ;  a  firm  table  set  at  right  angles  to  the 
spindle,  and  arranged  with  a  vertical  adjustment  to  or  from  the  spindle ;  and  a  compound 
adjustment  in  a  horizontal  plane.  The  simplicity  of  the  mechanism  required  to  operate 
drilling  tools  is  such  that  it  has  permitted  various  modifications,  such  as  column  drills, 
radial  drills,  susi^ended  drills,  horizontal  drills,  bracket  drills,  multiple  drills,  and  others. 
Drilling,  more  than  any  other  operation  in  metal  cutting,  requires  the  sense  of  feeling, 
and  is  farther  from  such  conditions  as  admit  of  power  feeding.  The  speed  at  which  a 
drill  may  cut  without  heating  or  breaking  is  dependent  upon  the  manner  in  which  it  is 
ground,  and  the  nature  of  the  material  drilled ;  the  working  conditions  may  change  at 
any  moment  as  the  drilling  progresses,  so  that  hand  feed  is  most  suitable.     Drilling 


(^3 


machines  arranged  with  power  feed  for  boring  should  have  some  means  of  permanently 
disengaging  the  feeding  mechanism  to  prevent  its  use  in  ordinary  drilling. 

Drills  present  considerable  variety  in  size  and  shape,  but  representative  examples 
are  shown  in  Fig.  42  :  a  is  the  simplest  and  most  general  form ;  6  is  a  pin  drill,  which 
does  rapid  work  when  a  hole  for  the  reception  of  the  pin  has  been  first  made  with  a 
smaller  drill ;  c  is  an  American  production,  the  Morse  twist  drill,  which  far  surpasses 


56 


FOKGING    AND   FINISHING. 


all  others  in  working  capacity.  In  grinding  an  ordinary  drill  (a)  ready  for  use,  it  ia 
essential  to  see  that  the  cutting  edges  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  the  outside  faces 
of  the  blade  sliglitly  rounded,  and  the  point  as  small  and  fine  as  the  work  will  allow. 
If  these  conditions  are  neglected,  the  point  will  not  maintain  a  central  position,  and 
there  will  not  be  convenient  space  for  the  escape  of  the  chips.  In  pin  drills  it  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  have  the  first  hole  for  the  pin  quite  straight,  and  fitting  so  well  that 
the  pin  cannot  shake,  or  the  work  will  be  irregular ;  these  drills  are  not  easy  to  sharpen 
when  worn.     The  Morse  twist  drills  can  be  obtained  in  sets  of  standard  sizes. 

All  forms  of  drill  are  applied  by  the  aid  of  a  rotary  motion,  which  may  be  communi- 
cated by  the  ratcliet  brace,  of  which  several  forms  are  shown :  Fig.  43  is  a  universal 


43. 


u 


u. 


2^ 


J 


ball ;  Fig.  44,  a  self-feeding ;  Fig.  45,  a  treble-motion ;  and  Fig.  4G,  Calvert's  ratchet 
brace.  Figs.  47  to  49  are  drill  stocks  of  various  kinds,  differing  mainly  in  the  means 
by  which  suitable  pressure  is  secured. 


45. 


46. 


Swaging  Tools. — Figs.  50,  51,  illustrate  a  couple  of  forms  of  swaging  block,  which 
are  often  useful  for  shaping  a  piece  of  hot  metal  quickly  and  truly. 

Surfacing  Tools. — By  far  the  most  important  tool  used  in  perfecting  the  surface  effused 
or'cast  work  is  the  file.  It  is  sometimes  replaced  by  emery,  either  in  the  form  of  wheels 
or  as  powder  attached  to  cloth ;  and  is  often  supplemented  in  fine  work  by  one  of  the 
various  kinds  of  polishing  powder,  e.g.  chalk,  crocus,  putty  powder,  tripoli,  sand,  &c. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  the  most  important  point  to  be  decided  before  commencing 
filing  is  the  fixing  the  vice  to  the  correct  height  and  perfectly  square,  so  that  when  the 
work  to  be  operated  on  is  placed  in  the  vice  it  will  lie  level.  As  to  what  is  really  the 
correct  height  some  slight  diffi-rence  of  opinion  exists,  but  the  height  which  is  generally 
thought  right  is  such  that  the  "chops"  or  jaws  of  the  vice  come  just  below  the  elbow  of  the 
workman  when  he  is  at  his  place  in  front  of  the  vice.  Having  the  vice  fixed  properly, 
the  correct  position  to  assume  when  filing  is  tlie  next  consideration.  The  left  foot  should 
be  about  6  in.  to  left  and  6  in.  to  "  front  "  of  the  vice  leg  ;  the  right  foot  being  about 
30  in.  to  front,  that  is  to  say,  30  in.  away  from  the  board  in  a  straight  line  with  the  vice 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


57 


post.    This  position  gives  command  over  the  tool,  and  is  at  once  characteristic  of  a  good 
workman. 

The  file  must  be  grasped  firmly  in  the  right  hand  by  the  handle,  and  it  is  as  ■well 
here  to  make  a  few  parenthetical  remarks  on  handles ;  they  should  always  be  propor- 


47. 


48. 


tionate  to  the  files  to  which  they  are  fitted,  and  the  hole  in  the  handle  should  be 
properly  squared  out  to  fit  the  "tang"  by  means  of  a  small  "  float"  made  from  a  small 
bar  of  steel,  similar  to  those  used  by  plane-makers  and  cabinet-makers.  The  handles 
should  always  have  good  strong  ferrules  on  them,  and  the  files  should  be  driven  home 


50. 


51. 


quite  straight  and  firm,  so  that  there  is  no  chance  of  the  tool  coming  out.  Each  tool 
should  have  its  handle  permanently  fixed ;  it  is  very  false  economy,  considering  the 
price  of  handles  is  about  9d.  per  dozen,  to  be  continually  changing.  The  left  hand 
must  just  hold  the  point  of  the  file  lightly,  so  as  to  guide  it ;  and  in  taking  the  forward 
cut  a  fairly  heavy  pressure  must  be  applied,  proportionate  to  the  size  of  the  tool  iti  use 
and  the  work  being  done.     Amateurs  who  have  never  received  any  practical  instruction 


58  Forging  and  Finishing. 

in  the  use  of  files  generally  liave  a  bad  habit  of  pressing  heavily  on  the  tool  continuously 
during  both  forward  and  backward  stroke,  and  at  the  same  time  work  far  too  quickly. 
These  habits  combined  will  almost  invariably  spoil  whatever  is  operated  on,  producing 
surfaces  more  or  less  rounding,  but  never  flat. 

The  art  of  filing  a  flat  surface  is  not  to  be  learned  without  considerable  practice,  and 
long  and  attentive  practice  is  necessary  ere  the  novice  will  be  able  to  creditably  accom- 
plish one  of  the  most  difficult  operations  which  fall  to  every-day  engineering  work,  and 
one  which  even  the  most  professionally  taught  workman  does  not  always  succeed  in.  The 
file  must  be  used  with  long,  slow,  and  steady  strokes,  taken  right  from  point  to  tang, 
moderate  pressure  being  brought  to  bear  during  the  forw^ard  stroke ;  but  the  file  must  be 
relieved  of  all  pressure  dui-ing  the  return  stroke,  otherwise  the  teeth  will  be  liable  to  be 
broken  off,  just  in  the  same  manner  that  the  point  of  a  turning  tool  would  be  broken  if 
the  lathe  were  turned  the  wrong  way.  It  is  not  necessary  to  lift  the  file  altogether  off 
the  work,  but  it  should  only  have  its  bare  weight  pressing  during  the  back  stroke.  One 
of  the  chief  difficulties  in  filing  flat  is  that  the  arms  have  a  tendency  to  move  in  arcs 
from  the  joints,  but  this  will  be  conquered  by  practice. 

A  piece  of  work  which  has  been  filed  up  properly  will  present  a  flat,  even  surface, 
with  the  file  marks  running  in  straight  parallel  lines  from  side  to  side.  Each  stroke  of 
the  file  will  have  been  made  to  obtain  a  like  end,  whereas  work  which  has  been  turned 
out  by  a  careless  or  inexperienced  workman  will  often  bear  evidence  that  each  stroke  of 
the  file  was  made  with  utter  disregard  to  all  others,  and  the  surface  will  be  made  up  of 
an  unlimited  number  of  facets,  varying  in  size,  shape,  and  position. 

There  is  considerable  skill  required  to  "  get  up  "  surfaces  of  large  area  by  means 
of  files  alone,  more  especially  when  these  surfaces  are  required  to  be  accurately  flat. 
The  method  of  preparing  surface  plates,  as  detailed  by  Sir  Joseph  Whitworth,  is 
most  valuable  information  to  any  one  desirous  of  excelling  in  this  particular  branch 
of  practical  handicraft,  and  those  interested  should  get  Whitworth's  pamphlet  entitled 
'  Plane  Bletallic  Surfaces,  and  the  Proper  Mode  of  Preparing  Them.'  In  large  engi- 
neering works,  filing  is  superseded  by  the  planing  and  shaping  machines  for  almost  all 
work  of  any  size.  The  speed  and  accuracy  of  the  planing  machine  cannot  be  approached 
by  the  file  when  there  is  any  quantity  of  material  to  be  removed,  and  files  are  only 
used  for  the  purpose  of  ' '  fitting  "  and  to  smooth  up  those  parts  which  are  inaccessible 
to  the  planing  tool.  However,  a  planing  machine  is  one  of  those  expensive  and  heavy 
pieces  of  machinery  usually  beyond  the  reach  of  amateurs  and  "  small  masters  " ;  it 
therefore  becomes  necessary  to  learn  how  to  dispense*  with  its  valuable  aid. 

Cast  iron  usually  forms  the  bulk  of  the  material  used  by  engineers.  The  hard  out- 
side skin  on  cast  iron,  and  the  sand  adhering  to  its  surface,  make  it  somewhat  formidable 
to  attack.  If  a  new  file  is  used  for  the  purpose  it  will  be  assuredly  spoiled  and  with 
no  gain;  for  one  ^Yhich  has  been  very  nearly  worn  out  will  be  almost  as  effective, 
and  will  not  be  much  deteriorated  by  the  use  to  which  it  is  put.  There  are  several 
ways  of  removing  the  "  bark  " — e.  g.  the  castings  may  be  "  pickled  " — that  is,  immersed 
in  a  bath  of  sulphuric  acid  and  water  for  a  couple  of  days ;  this  will  dissolve  the 
outer  crust  of  the  casting,  and  liberate  the  sand  adhering  to  the  surface  ;  another 
plan  is  to  remove  a  stratum  of  the  casting  from  that  part  which  has  to  be  filed,  by 
means  of  a  chipping  chisel,  and  this  is  a  very  good  plan  where  much  material  has 
to  be  removed  from  any  particular  part  of  a  large,  unwieldy  piece  of  machinery, 
though  some  practice  will  be  required  with  the  hammer  and  chisel  before  they  can  be 
used  satisfactorily. 

The  best  plan  to  follow  is  probably  this : — First  brush  the  casting  thoroughly — 
scrub  it — with  a  hard  brush  ;  this  will  rub  off  the  loose  sand  ;  then  take  an  old  file,  and 
file  away  steadily  at  the  skin  till  you  come  to  a  surface  of  pure  metal.  Having  by  this 
time  removed  those  parts  which  spoil  files,  the  "  old  file,"  with  which  but  slow  progress 
is  made,  can  be  changed  for  a  better  one,  and  the  best,  as  well  as  the  most  economical. 


FOKGING   AND   FINISHING.  59 

will  be  one  which  has  been  nsed  for  filing?  brass  till  it  has  become  too  much  worn  for 
that  material ;  such  a  file  is  in  lirst-class  condition  for  working  on  cast  iron  (when 
cleaned  of  its  sandy  skin),  and  when  worn  out  on  that  it  will  serve  admirably  for  steid. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  file  up  a  small  surface — say  2  in.  or  3  in.  square — the  file 
must  be  applied  in  continually  changing  directions,  not  always  at  right  angles  to  the 
chops  of  the  vice,  as,  though  the  work  might  be  made  perfectly  straight  in  that 
direction,  yet  there  would  not  be  any  means  of  assuring  a  like  result  on  that  part 
lying  parallel  to  the  jaws.  "When  the  surface  is  fairly  flat,  the  file  should  be  applied 
diagonally  both  ways ;  thus  any  hollow  or  high  places  otherwise  unobservable  will 
be  at  once  seen,  without  the  aid  of  straight-edges,  &c.  This  method  of  cros^sing  the 
file  cuts  from  corner  to  corner  is  recommended  in  all  cases,  and  the  file  should  invari- 
ably travel  right  across  the  work,  using  the  whole  length  of  the  file,  not  just  an  inch 
or  so  at  some  particular  part,  as  is  too  often  the  case.  When  in  use,  the  file  must  be 
held  quite  firmly,  yet  not  so  rigid  that  the  operator  cannot  feel  the  work  as  it  pro- 
gresses ;  the  sense  of  touch  is  brought  into  use  to  a  far  greater  extent  than  would  be 
imagined  by  the  inexperienced,  and  a  firm  grasp  of  the  tool,  at  the  same  time  preserv- 
ing a  light  touch  to  feel  the  work,  is  an  essential  attribute  of  a  good  filer. 

In  filing  out  mouldings  and  grooves  which  have  sections  resembling,  more  or  less, 
parts  of  a  circle,  a  special  mode  of  handling  the  file  becomes  requisite.  The  files  used 
are  generally  rats'-tails  or  half-rounds,  and  these  are  not  used  with  the  straightforward 
stroke  so  necessary  in  wielding  the  ordinary  hand-files,  but  a  partial  rotary  motion — a 
sort  of  twist  axially — is  given  to  the  file  at  each  stroke,  and  this  screw-like  tendency, 
given  alternately  from  right  to  left,  and  vice  versa,  serves  to  cross  the  file  cuts  and  regu- 
late the  truth  of  the  hollow. 

With  regard  to  cleaning  tools  which  have  become  clogged  up  with  minute  particles 
of  metal,  dirt,  and  grease,  files  which  are  in  that  state  are  not  fit  to  use,  and  the  follow- 
ing directions  will  enable  any  one  to  keep  them  in  proper  order.  The  most  generally 
used  tool  for  cleaning  files  is  the  scratch  brush  ;  but  this  is  not  very  efiicient  in  remov- 
ing those  little  pieces  which  get  firmly  embedded  and  play  havoc  with  the  work.  File 
cards  are  also  used  ;  they  are  made  by  fixing  a  quantity  of  cards— such  as  a  pack  of 
playing  cards — together  by  riveting,  or  screwing  to  a  piece  of  wood.  These  file  cards 
are  used  in  the  same  way  as  the  scratch  brushes,  i.  e.  transversely  across  the  file  in  the 
direction  of  its  "  cuts,"  and  though  neither  tool  produces  much  efi'ect  yet  they  are  both 
often  used.  ^Tien  files  have  become  clogged  up  with  oil  and  grease,  the  best  plan  is 
to  boil  them  for  a  few  minutes  in  some  strong  soda  water  ;  this  will  dissolve  the  grease 
and,  as  a  rule,  set  most  of  the  dirt  and  filings  free  ;  a  little  scrubbing  with  an  old  tooth 
brush  will  be  beneficial  before  rinsing  the  files  in  boiling  water  and  drying  them  before 
the  fire.  These  methods  will  prove  effective  in  removing  the  ordinary  accumulation 
of  dirt,  &c.,  in  files,  but  those  "  pins  "  which  are  so  much  to  be  dreaded  when  finishing 
work  can  only  be  removed  by  being  picked  out  with  a  scriber  point,  or,  what  is  better, 
a  piece  of  thin,  very  hard,  sheet  brass,  by  means  of  which  they  can  be  pushed  out  very 
easily.  These  "  pins  "  may  be  to  a  certain  extent  avoided  by  using  chalk  on  the  file, 
if  it  is  used  dry,  or  a  drop  or  two  of  oil  will  sometimes  help  matters. 

With  regard  to  finishing  filed  work,  such  as  has  to  be  made  particularly  presentable 
to  the  eye,  there  are  many  ways  of  polishing,  burnishing,  &c.,  but,  properly  speakmg, 
tliat  is  not  filing.  There  is  much  beauty  in  well-finished  work,  perfectly  square  and 
smooth,  as  left  by  the  file,  untouched  by  any  polishing  materials;  in  such  work  the 
filing  must  be  got  gradually  smoother  by  using  progressively  files  of  finer  cut,  and,  when 
the  work  is  deemed  sufficiently  finely  finished  for  the  purpose,  the  lines  should  bo 
carefully  equalized  by  "  draw-filing,"  that  is,  the  file  is  held  in  both  hands,  in  a  manner 
similar  to  a  spoke-shave,  and  drawn  over  the  work  in  the  same  way,  producing  a  series 
of  fine  parallel  lines. 

Screw-cutting  Tools.— These  are  intended  for  cutting  screw  threads  in  circular  work, 


60 


Forging  and  Finishing, 


such  as  on  the  outside  of  pipes  or  rods,  and  in  the  holes  cut  in  solid  work,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  screwed  joints.  Figs.  52-G3  show  a  double-handed  screw  stock 
with  4  pairs  of  dies,  and  4  each  of  taper  and  plug  taps ;  Fig.  64  is  a  clock  screw  plate  ; 
Fig.  65,  a  double-handed  screw  plate  with  taps ;  Fig,  66,  "Whitworth's  screw  stock. 


r.n. 


5-1.  ss. 


56. 


67. 


68, 


Fig.  67  illustrates  the  centre  gauge  for  grinding  and  setting  screw  tools,  and  the 
various  ways  of  using  it.  At  a  is  sliown  the  manner  of  gauging  the  angle  to  which  a 
lathe  centre  should  be  turned ;  at  h  the  angle  to  Avhich  a  screw  thread  cutting  tool 


3 


should  be  ground ;  at  c  the  correctness  of  the  angle  of  a  screw  thread  already  cut.  At 
d,  the  shaft  with  a  screw  thread  is  supposed  to  be  held  in  the  centres  of  a  lathe,  and  by 
applying  tlie  gauge,  as  at  d  or  e,  the  thread  tool  can  be  set  at  right  angles  to  the  shaft 


64. 


65. 


and  then  fastened  in  place  by  the  screw  in  tool  post,  thereby  avoiding  imperfect  or 
leaning  threads.  At  f  (j  the  manner  of  setting  the  tool  for  cutting  inside  threads  is 
illustrated.     The  angle  used  in  this  gauge  is  55°.     The  4  divisions  upon  the  gauge  of 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


61 


14,  20,  24,  and  32  parts  to  the  inch  are  very  useful  in  measurinf^  the  number  of  threads 
to  the  inch  of  taps  and  screws.     The  cost  of  the  gauge  is  only  28.  3ri. 

For  extensive  operations  a  number  of  small  machines  are  made  for  cuttin"  threads 
in  bolta  and  in  nuts.  " 


66. 


67. 


/ 


> 


Forging. — Forging  metal  consists  in  raising  it  to  a  high  temperature  and  hammering 
it  into  any  form  that  may  be  required.  Good  wrought  irou  may  be  seriously  injured  by 
■want  of  care  or  skill  in  forging  it  to  dififerent  shapes.  Eepeated  heating  and  reworking 
increases  the  strength  of  the  iron  up  to  a  certain  point ;  but  overheating  may  ruin  it ; 
the  iron  should  therefore  be  brought  to  the  required  shape  as  quickly  as  possible.  Tlie 
form  given  to  forgings  is  also  important ;  there  should  be  no  sudden  change  in  the 
dimensions — angles  should  be  avoided — the  larger  and  thicker  parts  of  a  forging  sliould 
-gradually  merge  by  curves  into  the  smaller  parts.  Experiments  have  shown  that  the 
■continuity  of  the  fibres  near  the  surface  should  be  as  little  interrupted  as  possible  ;  in 


62  FOEGING   AND   FINISHING. 

other  words,  that  the  fibres  near  the  surface  should  lie  in  layers  parallel  to  the  surface. 
If  wrought  iron  be  "  burnt,"  i.  c.  raised  to  too  high  a  temperature,  its  tensile  strength 
and  ductility  are  both  seriously  reduced.  These  qualities  may,  however,  be  to  a  great 
extent  restored  by  carefully  reheating  and  reroUing  the  iron.  Forging  steel  requires  still 
more  care  in  order  to  avoid  overheating.  Each  variety  of  steel  diflers  as  to  the  heat  to 
which  it  can  safely  be  raised.  Shear  steel  will  stand  a  white  heat ;  blister  steel  a 
moderate  heat ;  cast  steel  a  bright  red  heat. 

Welding. — This  is  the  process  by  which  2  pieces  of  metal  are  joined  together  with 
the  aid  of  heat.  Tiiere  are  several  forms  of  "  weld."  The  principles  upon  which  the 
welding  of  metals  depends  are  here  given.  In  welding  generally,  the  surfaces  of  the 
pieces  to  be  joined,  having  been  shaped  as  required  for  the  particular  form  of  weld,  are 
raised  to  a  high  temperature,  and  covered  with  a  flux  to  prevent  oxidation.  They  are 
then  brought  into  intimate  contact  and  well  hammered,  by  which  they  are  reduced  to 
their  original  dimensions,  the  scale  and  flux  are  driven  out,  and  the  strength  of  the  iron 
is  improved. 

Wrought  iron. — The  property  of  welding  possessed  by  wrought  iron  is  due  to  its 
continuing  soft  and  more  or  less  pasty  through  a  considerable  range  of  temperature 
below  its  melting  point.  When  at  a  white  heat,  it  is  so  pasty  that  if  2  pieces  be  firmly 
pressed  together  and  freed  from  oxide  or  other  impurity  they  unite  intimately  and  firmly. 
The  flux  used  to  remove  the  oxide  is  generally  sand,  sometimes  salt. 

Steel. — The  facility  with  which  steel  may  be  welded  to  steel  diminishes  as  the  metal 
approximates  to  cast  iron  with  respect  to  the  proportion  of  carbon  ;  or,  what  amounts  to 
the  same  thing,  it  increases  as  the  metal  approximates  to  wrought  iron  with  respect  to 
absence  of  carbon.  Hence  in  welding  together  2  pieces  of  steel — cxteris  imrihus — the 
more  nearly  their  melting  points  coincide— and  these  are  determined  by  the  amount  of 
carbon  they  contain— the  less  should  be  the  difficulty.  (Percy.)  Puddled  steel  welds 
ffery  indiff"erently,  and  so  does  cast  steel  containing  a  large  percentage  of  carbon.  The 
mild  cast  steels,  also  shear  and  blister  steel,  can  be  welded  with  ease.  In  welding  cast 
steel,  borax  or  sal-ammoniac,  or  mixtures  of  them,  are  used  as  fluxes.  Another  used 
for  mining  drills  in  America  is  a  mixture  of  6  qt.  powdered  limestone  and  1  qt.  sulphur ; 
heat  very  carefully  with  frequent  turnings,  take  from  the  fire  and  brush  with  a  short 
besom,  dip  into  the  mixture,  and  return  to  the  fire,  4  or  5  times,  before  the  heat  is  on. 
(See  also  Workshop  Eeceipts,  Third  Series,  pp.  293-303.) 

Steel  to  Wrought  Iron.— If  the  melting  points  of  2  metals  sensibly  difier,  then  the 
welding  point  of  the  one  may  be  near  the  melting  point  of  the  other,  and  the  difierence 
in  the  degree  of  plasticity,  so  to  speak,  between  the  2  jjieces  may  be  so  considerable  that 
when  they  are  brought  under  the  hammer  at  the  welding  point  of  the  least  fusible,  the 
blow  will  produce  a  greater  effect  upon  the  latter,  and  create  an  inequality  of  fibre. 
This  constitutes  the  difficulty  in  welding  steel  to  wrought  iron.  A  difference  at  the 
rate  of  expansion  of  the  2  pieces  to  be  welded  produces  unequal  contraction,  which  is  a 
manifest  disadvantage.  (Percy.)  Hard  cast  steel  and  wrougiit  iron  diff'er  so  much  in 
their  melting  points  that  they  can  hardly  be  welded  together.  Blister  and  shear  steel, 
or  any  of  the  milder  steels,  can,  however,  be  welded  to  wrought  iron  with  ease,  care  being 
taken  to  raise  the  iron  to  a  higher  temperature  than  the  steel,  as  the  welding  point 
of  the  latter  is  lower  is  consequence  of  its  greater  fusibility. 

Tem^jerm*/.— According  to  Richards,  an  excellent  authority  on  the  subject,  no  one 
has  been  able  to  explain  clearly  why  a  sudden  change  of  temperature  hardens  steel,  nor 
why  it  assumes  various  shades  of  colour  at  different  degrees  of  hardness  ;  we  only  know 
the  fact.  Every  one  who  uses  tools  should  understand  how  to  temper  them,  whether 
they  be  for  iron  or  wood.  Experimenting  with  tempered  tools  is  the  only  means  of 
determining  the  proper  degree  of  hardness,  and  as  smiths,  except  with  their  own  tools, 
have  to  rely  upon  the  explanations  of  others  as  to  proper  hardening,  it  follows  that 
tempering  is  generally  a  source  of  complaint.     Tempering,  as  a  term,  is  used  to  com- 


Forging  and  Finishing.  63 

prehend  both  hardening  and  drawing;  as  a  process,  it  depends  mainly  upon  judgment 
instead  of  skill,  and  has  no  such  connection  with  forghig  as  to  hu  performed  by  smiths 
only.  Tempej'ing  requires  a  diftVrent  lire  from  those  employed  in  forging,  and  also 
more  care  and  precision  than  blacksmiths  can  exercise,  unless  there  arc  furnaces  and 
baths  especially  arranged  for  tempering  tools.  A  difficulty  which  arises  in  Imrdening 
tools  is  because  of  the  contraction  of  the  steel  which  takes  place  in  proportion  to  the 
change  of  temperature ;  and  as  the  time  of  cooling  is  in  proportion  to  the  thickness  or  size 
of  a  piece,  it  follows,  of  course,  that  there  is  a  great  strain  and  a  tendency  to  break  the 
thinner  parts  before  the  thicker  parts  have  time  to  cool ;  this  strain  may  take  place  from 
cooling  one  side  first,  or  more  rapidly  than  another. 

The  following  propositions  in  regai-d  to  tempering  comprehend  the  main  points  to  be 
observed  : — (1)  The  permanent  contraction  of  steel  in  tempering  is  as  the  degree  of  liard- 
ness  imparted  to  it  by  the  bath.  (2)  The  time  in  which  the  contraction  takes  place  is  as 
the  temperature  of  the  bath  and  the  cross  section  of  the  piece  ;  in  other  words,  the  heat 
passes  off  gradually  from  the  surface  to  the  centre.  (3)  Thin  sections  of  steel  tools, 
being  projections  from  the  mass  whicli  support  the  edges,  are  cooled  first,  and  if  provision 
is  not  made  to  allow  for  contraction  they  are  torn  asunder. 

Tlie  main  point  in  hardening,  and  the  most  that  can  be  done  to  avoid  irregular 
contraction,  is  to  apply  the  bath  so  that  it  will  act  fii'st  and  strongest  on  the  thickest 
parts.  If  a  piece  is  tapering  or  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  the  thick  end  should  enter  the 
bath  first ;  a  cold  chisel,  for  instance,  that  is  wide  enough  to  endanger  cracking  should  be 
put  into  the  bath  with  the  head  downward.  The  upflow  of  currents  of  warmed  water  is 
a  common  cause  of  irregular  cooling  and  springing  of  steel  tools  in  hardening;  the  water 
that  is  heated  rises  vertically,  and  the  least  inclination  of  a  piece  from  a  perpendicular 
position  allows  a  warm  current  to  flow  up  one  side.  The  most  effectual  means  of 
securing  a  uniform  effect  from  a  tempering  bath  is  by  violent  agitation,  either  of  the  bath 
or  the  piece  ;  this  also  adds  to  the  rapidity  of  cooling.  The  effect  of  tempering  batlis  is 
as  their  conducting  power  ;  chemicals,  except  as  they  may  contribute  to  the  conducting 
properties  of  a  bath,  may  safely  be  disregarded.  For  batlis,  cold  or  ice  water  loaded 
with  salt  for  extreme  hardness,  and  warm  oil  for  tools  that  are  thin  and  do  not  require  to 
be  very  hard,  are  the  two  extremes  outside  of  which  nothing  is  required  in  ordinary 
practice.  In  the  case  of  tools  composed  partly  of  iron  and  partly  of  steel,  steel  laid  as  it  is 
called,  the  tendency  to  crack  in  hardening  may  be  avoided  in  most  cases  by  hammering 
the  steel  edge  at  a  low  temperature  until  it  is  so  expanded  that  when  cooled  in 
hardening  it  will  only  contract  to  a  state  of  rest  and  correspond  to  the  iron  part;  the 
same  result  may  be  produced  by  curving  a  piece,  giving  convexity  to  the  steel  side 
before  hardening. 

Tools  should  never  be  tempered  by  immersing  their  edges  or  cutting  parts  in  the 
bath,  and  then  allowing  the  heat  to  "  run  down  "  to  attain  a  proper  temper  at  the  edge. 
Tools  so  hardened  have  a  gradually  diminishing  temper  from  their  point  or  edge,  so 
that  no  part  is  properly  tempered,  and  they  require  continual  rehardeniug,  which  spoils 
the  steel ;  besides,  the  extreme  edge,  the  only  part  which  is  tempered  to  a  proper 
shade,  is  usually  spoiled  by  heating,  and  must  be  ground  away  to  begin  with.  No 
latheman  who  has  once  had  a  set  of  tools  tempered  throughout  by  slow  drawing,  either 
in  an  oven,  or  on  a  hot  plate,  will  ever  consent  to  point  hardening  afterwards.  A  plate 
of  iron  2-2|  in.  thick,  placed  over  the  top  of  a  tool-dressing  fire,  makes  a  convenient 
arrangement  for  tempering  tools,  besides  adding  greatly  to  the  convenience  of  slow 
heating,  which  is  almost  as  important  as  slow  drawing.  Richards  has  by  actual 
experiment  determined  that  the  amount  of  tool  dressing  and  tempering,  to  say  nothing 
of  time  wasted  in  grinding  tools,  may  in  ordinary  machine  fittings  be  reduced  one- 
third  by  "  oven  tempering." 

As  to  the  shades  that  appear  in  drawing  temper,  or  tempering  it  is  sometimes  called, 
it  is  quite  useless  to  repeat  any  of  the  old  rules  about  "  straw  colour,  violet,  orange,  blue," 


64  Forging  and  Finishing. 

and  so  on  ;  the  learner  knows  as  much  after  such  instruction  as  before.  The  shades  of 
temper  must  be  seen  to  be  learned,  and  as  no  one  is  likely  to  have  use  for  such 
knowledge  before  having  opportunities  to  see  tempering  performed,  the  following  plan  is 
suggested  for  learning  the  different  shades.  Procure  8  pieces  of  cast  steel  about  2  in. 
long  by  1  in.  wide  and  -|  in.  thick,  heat  them  to  a  high  red  heat  and  drop  them  into  a 
salt  bath ;  preserve  one  without  tempering  to  show  the  white  shade  of  extreme  hardness, 
and  f)olish  one  side  of  each  of  the  remaining  7  pieces  ;  then  give  them  to  an  experienced 
■workman  to  be  drawn  to  7  varying  shades  of  temper  ranging  from  the  white  piece  to  the 
daik-blue  colour  of  soft  steel.  On  the  backs  of  these  pieces  .labels  can  be  pasted  describ- 
ing the  technical  names  of  the  shades  and  the  general  uses  to  which  tools  of  correspond- 
ing hardness  are  adapted.  This  will  form  an  interesting  collection  of  specimens  and 
accustom  the  eye  to  the  various  tints,  which  after  some  experience  will  be  instantly 
recognized  when  seen  separately. 

It  may  be  remarked  as  a  general  rule  that  the  hardness  of  cutting  tools  is  "  inverse 
as  the  hardness  of  the  material  to  be  cut,"  which  seems  anomalous,  and  no  doubt  is  so, 
if  nothing  but  the  cutting  properties  of  edges  is  considered ;  but  all  cutting  edges  are 
subjected  to  transverse  strain,  and  tiie  amount  of  this  strain  is  generally  as  the  hardness 
of  the  material  acted  upon  ;  hence  the  degree  of  temper  has  of  necessity  to  be  such  as  to 
guard  against  breaking  the  edges.  Tools  for  cutting  wood,  for  example,  are  harder  than 
those  usually  employed  for  cutting  iron ;  for  if  iron  tools  were  always  as  carefully  formed 
and  as  carefully  used  as  those  employed  in  cutting  wood,  they  could  be  equally  hard. 
('  Workshop  Manipulation.') 

Steel  plunged  into  cold  water  when  it  is  itself  at  a  red  heat  becomes  excessively  hard. 
The  more  suddenly  the  heat  is  extracted  tiie  harder  it  will  be.  This  process  of 
"  hardening,"  however,  makes  the  steel  very  brittle,  and  in  order  to  make  it  tough 
enough  for  most  purposes  it  has  to  be  "  tempered."  The  process  of  tempering  depends 
upon  another  characteristic  of  steel,  which  is  that  if  (after  hardening)  the  steel  be 
reheated,  as  the  heat  increases,  the  hardness  diminishes.  In  order  then  to  produce  steel 
of  a  certain  degree  of  toughness  (without  the  extreme  hardness  which  causes  brittleness), 
it  is  gradually  reheated,  and  then  cooled  when  it  arrives  at  that  temperature  which 
experience  has  shown  will  produce  the  limited  degree  of  hardness  required.  Heated 
steel  becomes  covered  with  a  thin  film  of  oxidation,  which  grows  thicker  and  changes  in 
colour  as  the  temperature  rises.  The  colour  of  this  film  is  therefore  an  indication  of  the 
temperature  of  the  steel  upon  which  it  appears.  Advantage  is  taken  of  this  change  of 
colour  in  the  process  of  tempering,  which  for  ordinary  masons'  tools  is  conducted  as 
follows  : — The  workman  places  the  point  or  cutting-end  of  the  tool  in  the  fire  till  it  is  of 
a  bright-red  heat,  then  hardens  it  by  dipping  the  end  of  the  tool  suddenly  into  cold 
water.  He  then  immediately  withdraws  the  tool  and  cleans  off  the  scale  from  the  point 
by  rubbing  it  on  the  stone  hearth.  He  watches  it  while  the  heat  in  the  body  of  the 
tool  returns,  by  conduction,  to  the  point.  The  point  thus  becomes  gradually  reheated, 
and  at  last  he  sees  that  colour  appear  which  he  knows  by  experience  to  be  an  indication 
that  the  steel  has  arrived  at  the  temperature  at  which  it  should  again  be  dipped.  He 
then  plunges  the  tool  suddenly  and  entirely  into  cold  water,  and  moves  it  about  till  the 
heat  has  all  been  extracted  by  the  water.  It  is  important  that  considerable  motion  should 
be  given  to  the  surface  of  the  water  while  the  tool  is  plunged  in,  after  tempering,  other- 
wise there  will  be  a  sharp  straight  line  of  demarcation  between  the  hardened  part  and 
the  remainder  of  the  tool,  and  the  metal  will  be  liable  to  snap  at  this  point. 

In  very  small  tools  there  is  not  sufficient  bulk  to  retain  the  heat  necessary  for  con- 
duction to  the  point  after  it  has  been  dipped.  Such  tools,  therefore,  are  heated, 
quenched,  rubbed  bright,  and  laid  upon  a  hot  plate  to  bring  them  to  the  required 
temperature  and  colour  before  being  finally  quenched.  In  some  cases,  the  articles  so 
heated  are  allowed  to  cool  slowly  in  the  air,  or  still  more  gradually  in  sand,  ashes,  or 
powdered  charcoal.    The  effect  of  cooling  slowly  is  to  produce  a  softer  degree  of  temper. 


Forging  and  Finishing.  65 

The  following  tabic  shows  the  temperature  at  which  the  steel  should  bo  suddenly 
cooled  in  order  to  produce  the  hardness  requireil  for  different  descriptions  of  tools.  It 
also  shows  the  colours  which  indicate  that  the  reciuired  temperature  has  been  reached  : — 

Colour  of  Film.  \'^t.'  Nature  of  Tool. 

Very  pale  straw  yellow  ..  430°     Lancets  and  tools  for  metal. 

A  shade  of  darker  yellow  ,.  440'°     Razors  and  do. 

Darker  straw  colour  . .  . .  470°     Penknives. 

Still  darker  straw  yellow  ..  490°     Cold  chisels  fur  cutting  iron,  tools  for  wood. 

Brownish  yellow         ..  ..  500°  (Hatchets,  plane  irons,  pocket  knives,  chipping 

Yellow  tinged  with  purple   . .     520°  L  ''^]'^^''  f  ^■^'  '^'^- 

1  Do.  do.  and  tools  tor  working  granite. 

Light  purple  ..          ..          ..  530°  ")  Swords,  watch-springs,  tools   for   cutting   sand- 
Dark  purple    ..          ..          ..  550°  /    stone. 

Dark  blue        ..  ..  ..  570°     Small  saws. 

Pale  blue         ..  ..  ..  600°     Large  saws,  pit  and  hand  saws. 

Paler  blue  with  tinge  of  green  630°    Too  soft  for  steel  instruments. 

The  tempering  colour  is  sometimes  allowed  to  remain,  as  in  watch  springs,  but  is 
generally  removed  by  the  subsequent  processes  of  grinding  and  polishing.  A  blue 
colour  is  sometimes  produced  on  the  surface  of  steel  articles  by  exposing  them  to  the 
air  on  hot  sand.  By  this  operation,  a  thin  iilm  of  iron  oxide  is  formed  over  the  surface, 
which  gives  the  colour  required.  Steel  articles  are  often  varnished  in  such  a  way  as 
to  give  them  an  appearance  of  having  retained  the  tempering  colours.  The  exact  tem- 
pering heat  required  to  produce  the  same  degree  of  hardness  varies  with  diiferent  kinds 
of  steel,  and  is  arrived  at  by  experience. 

There  are  several  ways  of  heating  steel  articles  both  for  hardening  and  tempering. 
They  may  be  heated  in  a  hollow  or  in  an  open  fire,  exposed  upon  a  hot  plate,  or  in  a 
dish  with  charcoal  in  an  oven,  or  upon  a  gas  stove.  Small  articles  may  be  heated  by 
being  placed  within  a  nick  in  a  red-hot  bar.  K  there  is  a  large  number  of  articles,  and 
a,  uniform  heat  of  high  degree  is  required,  they  may  be  plunged  into  molten  metal  alloys, 
or  oil  raised  to  the  temperature  required. 

In  hardening  steel,  care  must  bo  taken  not  to  overheat  the  metal  before  dipping.  In 
case  of  doubt,  it  is  better  to  heat  it  at  too  low  than  too  high  a  temperature.  The  best 
kinds  require  only  a  low  red  heat.  If  cast  steel  be  overheated,  it  becomes  brittle,  and 
can  never  be  restored  to  its  original  quality.  If,  however,  the  steel  has  not  been 
thoroughly  hardened,  it  cannot  be  tempered.  The  hardness  of  the  steel  can  be  tested 
with  a  file.  The  process  of  hardening  often  causes  the  steel  to  crack.  The  expansion  of 
the  inner  particles  by  the  heat  is  suddenly  arrested  by  the  crust  formed  in  consequence  of 
tlie  cooling  of  the  outer  particles,  and  there  is  a  tendency  to  burst  the  outer  skin  thus 
formed. 

When  the  whole  bulk  of  any  article  has  to  be  tempered,  it  may  either  be  dipped  or 
allowed  to  cool  in  the  air.  It  does  not  matter  which  way  they  become  cold,  provided 
the  heat  has  not  been  too  suddenly  applied ;  for  when  the  articles  arc  removed  from  tho 
heat,  they  cannot  become  more  heated,  consequently  the  temper  cannot  become  more 
reduced.  But  those  tools  in  which  a  portion  only  is  tempered,  and  in  which  the  heat 
for  tempering  is  supplied  by  conduction  from  other  parts  of  the  tool,  must  be  cooled  in 
the  water  directly  the  cutting  part  attains  the  desired  colour,  otherwise  the  body  of  the 
tool  will  continue  to  supply  heat  and  the  cutting  part  will  become  too  soft. 

When  toughness  and  elasticity  are  required  rather  than  extreme  hardness,  oil  is  used 
instead  of  water  both  for  hardening  and  tempering,  and  the  latter  process  is  sometimes 
called  "  toughening."  The  steel  plunged  into  the  oil  does  not  cool  nearly  so  rapidly  as 
it  would  in  water.     The  oil  takes  ^up  the  heat  less  rapidly.    The  heated  particles  of  oil 


66  FOEGING   AND  FINISHING. 

cling  more  to  the  steel,  and  there  is  not  so  much  decrease  of  temperature  caused  by 
vaporisation  as  tliere  is  in  using  water.  Sometimes  the  oil  for  tempering  is  raised  to  the 
heat  suited  to  the  degree  of  hardness  required.  When  a  large  number  of  articles  have  to 
be  raised  to  the  same  temperature,  they  are  treated  in  this  way. 

Saws  are  hardened  in  oil,  or  in  a  mixture  of  oil  with  suet,  wax,  &c.  They  are  then 
heated  over  a  iire  till  the  grease  inflames.  This  is  called  being  "  blazed."  After  blazing 
the  saw  is  flattened  while  warm,  and  then  ground.  Springs  are  treated  in  somewhat 
the  same  manner,  and  small  tools  after  being  hardened  in  water  are  cooled  with  tallow, 
heated  till  the  tallow  begins  to  smoke,  and  then  quenched  in  cold  tallow. 

Annealing  or  softening  steel  is  effected  by  raising  hardened  steel  to  a  red  heat  and 
allowing  it  to  cool  gradually,  the  result  of  which  is  that  it  regains  its  original  softness. 

Case-hardening  is  a  process  by  which  the  surface  of  wrought  iron  is  turned  into  steel, 
so  that  a  hard  exterior,  to  resist  wear,  is  combined  with  the  toughness  of  the  iron  in  the 
interior.  This  is  effected  by  placing  the  article  to  be  case-hardened  in  an  iron  box  full 
of  bone-dust  or  some  other  animal  matter,  and  subjecting  it  to  a  red  heat  for  a  period 
varying  from  i  hour  to  8  hours,  according  to  the  depth  of  steel  required.  The  iron  at  the 
surface  combines  with  a  proportion  of  carbon,  and  is  turned  into  steel  to  the  dejith  of  J^ 
to  §  in.  If  the  sm-face  of  the  article  is  to  be  hardened  all  over,  it  is  quenched  in  cold 
water  upon  removal  from  the  furnace.  If  parts  are  to  remain  malleable,  it  is  allowed 
to  cool  down,  the  steeled  surface  of  those  parts  is  removed,  and  the  whole  is  then  re- 
lieated  and  quenched,  by  which  the  portions  on  which  the  steel  remains  are  hardened. 
Gun-locks,  keys,  and  other  articles  which  require  a  hard  surface,  combined  with  tough- 
ness, are  generally  case-hardened.  A  more  rapid  method  of  case-hardening  is  conducted 
as  follows  : — The  article  to  be  case-hardened  is  polished,  raised  to  a  red  heat,  sprinkled 
with  finely  powdered  prussiate  of  potash.  When  this  has  become  decomposed  and  has 
disappeared,  the  metal  is  plunged  into  cold  water  and  quenched.  The  case-hardening 
in  this  way  may  be  made  local  by  a  partial  application  of  the  jirussiate.  Malleable  cast- 
ings are  sometimes  case-hardened  in  order  that  they  may  take  a  polish. 

Many  further  details  on  hardening,  tempering,  softening,  and  annealing  steel  will  be 
foiuid  in  WoRKHOP  Receipts,  Third  Series,  pp.  25G-295. 

Examples  of  Smiths'  Work. — It  will  be  instructive  to  conclude  this  section  with  detailed 
descriptions  of  the  operations  entailed  in  a  few  of  the  more  common  kinds  of  work  per- 
formed by  smiths. 

Keys. — For  forging  small  round  short  rods,  or  keys,  no  tools  are  required  except  the 
ordinary  fire  irons  and  the  hand-hammer,  tongs,  and  anvil  chisel,  in  the  anvil,  shown  by 
Figs.  68  to  70.  The  pin  should  be  forged  to  the  proper  diameter,  and  also  the  ragged 
piece  cut  off  the  small  end  by  means  of  the  anvil  chisel,  shown  by  Fig.  70,  while  the 
work  is  still  attached  to  the  rod  of  steel  from  which  it  is  made.  After  having  cut  and 
rounded  the  small  end,  it  is  proper  to  cut  the  key  from  the  rod  of  steel,  allowing  a  short 
piece  to  be  drawn  down  to  make  the  holder,  by  which  to  hold  it  in  the  lathe.  This 
holder  is  drawn  down  by  the  fuller,  and  afterwards  by  the  hammer.  The  fuller  is  first 
applied  to  the  spot  that  marks  the  required  length  of  key  ;  the  fuller  is  then  driven  in 
by  the  hammerman  to  the  required  diameter  of  the  holder,  the  bottom  fuller  being  in 
the  square  hole  of  the  anvil  during  the  hammering  process,  and  the  work  between  the  top 
and  bottom  fullers.  During  the  hammering,  the  forger  rotates  the  key,  in  order  to  make 
the  gap  of  equal  or  uniform  depth  ;  the  lump  which  remains  is  then  drawn  down  by  the 
hammers,  or  by  the  hand  hammer  only,  if  a  small  pin  is  being  made.  -If  the  pin  is 
very  small,  it  is  more  convenient  to  draw  down  the  small  lump  by  means  of  the  set 
hammer  and  the  hammerman.  The  set  hammer  is  shown  in  Fig.  74 ;  and  the  top  and 
bottom  fullers  by  Fig.  75.  The  double  or  alternate  hammering  by  forger  and  hammer- 
man should  at  first  be  gently  done,  to  avoid  danger  to  the  arm  through  not  holding  the 
work  level  on  the  anvil.  The  hammerman  should  first  begin,  and  strike  at  the  rate  of 
one  blow  a  second ;  after  a  few  blows  the  smith  begins,  and  both  hammer  the  work  at 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


67 


times,  and  other  times  the  anvil.     Figs.  71,  72,  show  the  top  and  bottom   rounding 
tools,  for  rounding  large  keys.     Large  keys  may  be  made  without  rounding  tools  by 
roimding  the  work  with  a  hand  hammer,  and  cutting  off  the  pin  by  the  anvil  cliisel 
instead  of  the  rod  chisel,  Fig.  73.     The  rod  chisel  is  so  named  because  the  handle  by 


68, 


^ 


69. 


71. 


74. 


75. 


^^^ 


CD 

ZA 


ld: 


which  the  chisel  is  held  is  an  ash  rod  or  stick,  see  Fig.  71.  A  rod  chisel  is  thin  for 
cutting  hot  iron,  and  thick  for  cutting  cold  iron.  Fig.  70  represents  the  anvil  chisel  in 
the  square  hole  of  the  anvil.  By  placing  the  steel  while  at  a  yellow  heat  upon  the  edge 
of  the  chisel,  a  small  key  can  be  easily  cut  off  by  a  few  blows  of  a  hammer  upon  the  top 
of  the  work. 

To  forge  a  key  with  a  head  involves  more  labour  than  making  a  straight  one.  There 
are  3  principal  modes  of  proceeding,  which  include  drawing  down  with  the  fuller  and 
hammer  ;  upsetting  one  end  of  the  iron  or  steel ;  and  doubling  one  end  of  a  bar  to  form 
the  head.  For  proceeding  h^  drawing  down,  a  rod  or  bar  of  steel  is  required,  whose 
diameter  is  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  head  required ;  consequently,  large  keys  should 
not  be  made  by  drawing  down  imless  steam  hammers  can  be  used.  Small. keys  should 
be  drawn  to  size  while  attached  to  the  bar  from  which  they  are  made ;  the  di-awing  is 
commenced  by  the  fuller  and  set  hammer.  Instead  of  placing  the  work  upon  the 
bottom  fuller  in  the  anvil,  as  shown  for  forging  a  key  without  a  head,  the  steel  is  placed 
upon  the  face  of  the  anvil,  and  the  top  fuller  only  is  used,  if  the  key  required  is  large 
enough  to  need  much  hammering;  but  a  very  small  key  can  be  drawn  down  by 
dispensing  with  the  top  fuller  and  placing  the  bottom  fuller  in  the  hole,  and  placing  the 
work  upon  the  top,  and  then  striking  on  one  side  only,  instead  of  rotating  the  bar  or  rod 
by  the  hand.    By  holding  the  bar  or  rod  in  one  position,  the  head  is  formed  upon  the 

F  2 


68 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


Tincler-side  of  the  bar;  and  by  turning  the  work  upside  down,  and  drawin;^  dovm  the 
lump,  the  stem  is  produced.  The  upsetting  of  iron  generally  should  be  done  at  the 
welding  heat ;  the  upsetting  of  steel  at  the  yellow  heat,  except  in  some  kinds  of  good 
steel,  that  will  allow  the  welding  heat.  And  both  iron  and  steel  require  cooling  at  the 
extremity,  to  prevent  the  hammer  spreading  the  end  without  upsetting  the  portion  next 
to  it.  If  the  head  of  the  key  is  to  be  large,  several  heats  and  coolings  must  take  place, 
■which  render  the  process  only  applicable  to  small  work.  A  small  bar  can  be  easily 
upset  by  heating  to  a  white  heat  or  welding  heat,  and  cooling  a  quarter  of  an  inch  of  the 
end ;  then  immediately  put  the  bar  to  the  ground  with  the  hot  portion  upwards,  the 
bar  leaning  against  the  anvil,  and  held  by  the  tongs  (Fig.  7(j).  The  end  is  then 
upset,  and  the  extremity  cooled  again  after  being  heated  for  another  upsetting,  and  so 
on  until  the  required  diameter  is  attained.  When  a  number  of  bars  are  to  be  upset  in 
this  manner,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  an  iron  box,  into  which  to  place  the  ends  of  the 
bars,  instead  of  upon  the  soft  ground  or  wood  flooring,  injury  to  the  floor  being  thereby 
prevented.  "NVhen  the  key-head  is  sufficiently  upset,  the  fuller  and  set  hammer  arc 
necessary  to  make  a  proper  shoulder ;  the  stem  is  then  drawn  four-sided  and  rounded  by 

the  A  top  and  bottom  tools.    If  the  bar  from  which  the  key  is  being  made  is  not  large 

enough  to  allow  being  made  four-sided,  eight  sides  should  be  formed,  which  will  tend 
to  close  the  grain  and  make  a  good  key. 

The  third  method  of  making  keys  with  heads  is  the  quickest  of  the  three,  particu- 
larly for  making  keys  by  the  steam  hammer.  By  its  powerful  aid  we  are  able  to  use  a 
bar  of  iron  an  inch  larger  than  the  required  stem,  because  it  is  necessary  to  have 
sufficient  metal  in  order  to  allow  hammering  enough  to  make  it  close  and  hard,  and  also 
welding,  if  seamy.  If  the  bar  from  which  it  is  to  be  made  is  too  large  to  be  easily 
handled  without  the  crane,  the  piece  is  cut  from  the  bar  at  the  first  heat.  But  if  the 
bar  id  small,  it  can  be  held  up  at  any  required  height  by  the  prop,  shown  in  Fig.  77. 


16. 


While  thus  supported,  the  piece  to  be  doubled  to  make  the  head  is  cut  three-quarters  of 
the  distance  through  the  iron,  at  a  proper  space  from  the  extremity.  The  piece  is 
then  bent  in  the  direction  tending  to  break  it  off:  the  uncut  portion  being  of  sufficient 
thickness  to  prevent  it  breaking,  will  allow  the  two  to  be  placed  together  and  welded  in 
that  relation.  A  hole  may  also  be  punched  through  the  two,  while  at  a  welding  heat, 
as  shown  by  Fig.  78.  The  hole  admits  a  pin  or  rivet  of  iron,  which  is  driven  into  the 
opening,  and  the  three  welded  together.  This  plan  is  resorted  to  for  producing  a  strong 
head  to  the  key  without  much  welding ;  but  for  ordinary  purposes  it  is  much  safer  to 
weld  the  iron  when  doubled,  without  any  rivet,  if  a  sufficient  number  of  heavy  blows  can 
be  administered.  At  the  time  the  head  is  welded,  the  shoulder  should  be  tolerably 
squared  by  the  set  hammer ;  and  the  part  next  to  the  shoulder  is  theu  fullered  to  about 


Forging  and  Finishing.  69 

tbrco-qiiftrtcrs  of  the  distance  to  the  diameter  of  stem  required.  In  large  'work  the  fnller 
used  for  this  purpose  should  bo  broad,  as  iu  Fig.  79.  After  the  head  is  ■welded,  and 
the  portion  next  to  it  drawn  down  by  the  fuller,  the  piece  of  •work  is  cut  from  the  bar  or 
rod,  and  tlie  head  is  fixed  in  a  pair  of  tongs  similar  to  Fig.  80.  Such  tongs  are  useful 
for  very  small  •work,  and  are  made  of  large  size  for  heavy  work.     Tongs  of  this  character 


79. 


78. 


80. 


^. 


:f=UJ n 


nrc  suited  to  both  angular  and  circular  work.  They  will  grip  either  the  head  or  the 
Bteui,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  "While  hold  by  the  tongs  tlie  thick  lump  of  the  stem  that 
remains  is  welded,  if  necessary.  Next  draw  the  stem  to  its  proper  shape,  and  trim  the 
head  to  whatever  shape  is  required. 

Bolts. — Bolts  are  made  iu  such  immense  numbers,  that  a  variety  of  machinery  exists 
for  producing  small  bolts  by  compression  of  the  irou  while  hot  into  dies.  But  the 
machinery  is  not  yet  adapted  to  forge  good  bolts  of  large  size,  such  as  are  daily  required 
for  general  engine-making.  Good  bolts  of  large  diameters  can  now  be  made  by  steam 
hammers  at  a  quick  rate ;  and  small  bolts  of  good  quality  are  made  iu  an  economical  and 
expeditious  manner  by  means  of  instruments  named  bolt  headers.  There  is  a  variety  of 
these  touls  iu  use,  and  some  are  valuable  to  small  manufacturers  because  of  being  easily 
made,  and  incurring  but  little  expense.  The  use  of  a  bolt  header  consists  in  upsetting 
i  portion  of  a  straight  piece  of  iron  to  form  the  bolt  head,  instead  of  drawing  down  or 
reduiing  a  larger  piece  to  form  the  bolt  stem,  which  is  a  much  longer  process  ;  conse- 
quently, the  bolt  header  is  valuable  iu  proportion  to  its  capability  of  upsetting  bolt  heads 
of  various  sizes  for  bolts  of  different  diameters  and  lengths.  The  simplest  kind  of 
heading  tool  is  held  upon  the  anvil  by  the  left  hand  of  the  smith,  while  the  piece  to  be 
formed  into  a  head  is  hammered  into  a  recess  in  the  tool,  the  shape  of  the  intended 
head.  Three  or  four  recesses  may  be  drilled  into  the  same  tool,  to  admit  three  or  four 
sizes  of  bolt  heads.  Such  a  tool  is  represented  by  Fig.  SI,  and  is  made  either 
?ntirely  of  steel,  or  with  a  steel  face,  iu  which  are  bored  the  recesses  of  different  shapes 
ind  sizes. 

The  pieces  of  iron  to  be  formed  into  bolts  are  named  bolt  pieces,  When  these  pieces 
ire  of  small  diameter  or  thickness,  they  are  cut  to  a  proper  length  while  cold  by  moans 
3f  a  concave  anvil  chisel  and  stop,  or  by  a  large  she;u-iug  machine.  One  end  of  each 
piece  is  then  slightly  tapered  while  cold  by  the  hand-hammer,  Fig.  6S,  or  a  top  tool, 
rhis  short  bevel  or  taper  portion  allows  the  bolt  to  be  driven  in  aud  out  of  the  heading 
tool  several  times  without  making  sutficielit  ragged  edge  to  stop  the  bolt  in  the  hole 
svhile  being  driven  out.  Those  ends  that  are  not  bevelled  are  then  heated  to  about 
n-elding  heat,  and  upset  upon  the  anvil  or  upon  a  cast-iron  block,  on,  or  level  with,  the 
jround.  Tliis  upsetting  is  continued  until  the  smaller  parts  or  stems  will  remain  at  a 
proper  distance  through  the  tool ;  after  which,  each  head  is  shaped  by  being  hammered 
into  the  recess.  During  the  shaping  [iroc.  ss,  the  stem  of  (he  bolt  protrudes  through  the 
square  hole  in  the  auvD,  as  iudic;ited  by  Fig,  SI, 


70  FOEGING   AND   FINISHING. 

But  when  a  largo  number  of  small  bolts  are  required  in  a  sbort  tinw,  a  larger  kind 
of  heading  tool  is  made  use  of,  which  is  named  bolt  header.  One  of  these,  Fig.  82,  is 
a  jointed  bolt  header.  The  actual  height  of  these  headers  depends  upon  the  lengths  of 
bolts  to  be  made,  because  the  pieces  of  which  the  bolts  are  formed  are  cut  of  a  suitable 
length  to  make  the  bolts  the  proper  length  after  t-lie  heads  are  upset;  consequently, 
bolt  headers  are  made  2  or  3  ft.  in  height,  that  they  may  be  generally  useful.  The 
header  rciDreseuted  by  Fig.  82  contains  a  movable 
"block   B,   upon  which  rests  one  end  of  a  bolt  81- 

piece  to  be  upset ;  it  is  therefore  necessary  to  raise 
or  lower  the  block  to  suit  various  lengths  of  bolts. 
All  bolts,  large  and  small,  that  are  to  be  turned 
in  a  lathe  require  tlie  two  extremities  to  be  at 
right  angles  to  the  length  of  the  bolt,  to^  avoid 
waste  of  time  in  centring  previous  to  the  turning 
process ;  and  counectiug-rod  bolts  and  main-shaft 

bolts  require  softening,  which  makes  them  less  liable  to  break  in  a  sudden  manner; 
and  it  is  important  to  remember  that  hammering  a  bolt  while  cold  will  make  it  brittle 
and  unsafe,  although  the  bolt  may  contain  more  iron  than  would  be  suiBcient  if  the 
bolt  were  soft.  Great  solidity  in  a  bolt  is  only  necessary  in  that  portion  of  it  which  is 
to  be  formed  into  a  screw.  The  bolt  is  less  liable  to  break  if  all  the  other  parts  are 
fibrous,  and  the  lengths  of  the  fibres  are  parallel  to  the  bolt's  length.  But  in  the  screw, 
more  solidity  is  necessary,  to  prevent  breaking  off  while  the  bolt  is  being  screwed,  or 
while  in  use.  However  good  the  iron  may  be,  the  bolt  is  useless  if  the  screw  is 
unsound  ;  and  it  is  well  to  apply  a  pair  of  angular-gap  tools,  Fig.  88,  to  the  bolt  end 
while  at  welding  heat.  Bolts  of  all  kinds,  large  and  small,  are  injured  by  the  iron 
being  overheated,  which  makes  it  rotten  and  hard,  and  renders  it  necessary  to  cut  off 
the  burnt  portion,  if  the  bolt  is  large  enough  ;  if  not,  a  new  one  should  be  made  in 
l^lace  of  the  burnt  one. 

Long  bolts  that  require  the  lathe  process  are  carefully  straightened.  This  is 
convenient] y^efiected  by  means  of  a  strong  lathe,  which  is  placed  in  the  smithy  for  the 
purpose.  Long  bolts  are  also  straightened  in  the  smithy  by  means  of  a  long  straight- 
edge, which  is  applied  to  tliebolt  stem  to  indicate  the  hollow  or  concave  side  of  the  stem. 
This  concave  side  is  that  which  is  placed  next  to  the  anvil  top,  and  the  upper  side  of  the 
bolt  is  then  driven  down  by  applying  a  curved  top  tool  and  striking  with  a  sledge 
hammer.  This  mode  is  only  available  wilh  bolts  not  exceeding  2  or  3  in.  diameter  and 
of  length  convenient  for  the  anvil,  because  in  some  cases  bolts  require  straightening  or 
rectifying  in  two  or  more  j^laces  along  the  stems.  If  a  bolt  6  ft.  in  length  is  bent  1  ft. 
from  one  end,  the  bent  portion  is  placed  upon  an  anvil,  while  the  longer  portion  is 
supported  by  a  crane,  and  a  top  tool  is  api^lied  to  the  convex  part.  The  raising  of  the 
bolt  end  to  any  required  height  is  eff"ected  by  rotating  a  screw  which  raises  a  pulley,  upon 
which  is  an  endless  chain  ;  the  work  being  supported  by  the  chain,  both  chain  and  work 
are  raised  at  one  time.  It  is  necessary  to  adjust  the  work  to  the  inoper  height  while 
being  straightened;  if  not,  the  hammering  will  produce  but  little  effect.  The  amount 
of  straightening  necessary  depends  upon  the  diameters  to  which  the  bolts  are  forged, 
and  also  upon  their  near  approach  to  parallelism.  A  small  bolt  not  exceeding  Ih  in.  in 
diameter  need  not  be  forged  more  than  a  tenth  of  an  incli  larger  than  the  finished 
diameter;  a  bolt  about  2  in.  diameter,  only  an  eighth  larger;  and  for  bolts  4  or  5  in.  in 
diameter  and  4  or  5  ft.  in  length,  a  quarter  of  an  inch  for  turning  is  sufiicient,  if  the  bolts 
are  properly  straightened  and  in  tolerable  shape.  This  straightening  and  shaping  of  an 
ordinary  bolt  is  easily  accomplished  while  hot,  by  the  method  just  mentioned;  other 
straightening  processes,  for  work  of  more  complicated  character,  will  be  given  as  we 
proceed.  After  tne  bolts  are  made  sufficiently  straight  by  a  top  tool,  the  softening  is 
effected  by  a  treatment  similar  to  that  adopted  for  softening  steel,  which  consists  in 


Forging  and  Finishing.  •        71 

heating  the  bolts  to  redness  and  burying  them  in  coke  or  cinders  till  cold.  A  little  care 
is  necessary  while  heating  the  bolts  to  prevent  them  being  bent  by  the  blast.  To  avoid 
this  result,  the  blast  is  gently  administered  and  the  bolt  frequently  rotated  and  moved 
about  in  the  fire. 

Nuts. — The  simplest  method  of  making  small  nuts  is  by  punching  with  a  small  punch 
that  is  held  in  the  left  hand ;  this  punch  is  driven  through  a  bar  near  one  end  of  it, 
■which  is  placed  upon  a  bolster  on  the  anvil,  while  the  other  end  of  the  bar  is  supported 
6y  a  screw-prop.  This  mode  is  adapted  to  a  small  maker  whose  means  may  be  very 
limited.  By  supporting  the  bar  or  nuts  in  this  manner,  it  is  jiossible  for  a  smith  to  work 
without  a  hammerman.  A  bar  of  soft  iron  is  provided,  and  the  quantity  of  iron  that  is 
required  for  each  nut  is  marked  along  the  bar  by  means  of  a  pencil,  and  a  chisel  is  driven 
into  the  bar  at  the  pencil  marks  while  the  bar  is  cold.  A  punch  is  next  driven  tiirough 
while  the  iron  is  at  a  white  heat.  Each  nut  is  then  cut  from  the  bar  by  an  anvil  chisel, 
and  afterwards  finished  separately  while  on  a  nut  mandrel.  The  bar  on  the  bolster  is 
shown  by  Fig.  86. 

A  more  economical  method  is  by  punching  with  a  rod  punch,  which  is  driven  through 
by  a  sledge  hammer.  By  this  means  several  nuts  are  punched  at  one  heating  of  the 
bar,  and  also  cut  from  the  bar  at  the  same  heat.  A  good  durable  nut  is  that  in  which 
the  hole  is  made  at  right  angles  to  the  layers  or  plates  of  which  the  nut  is  composed. 
Some  kinds  of  good  nut  iron  are  condemned  because  of  these  plates,  which  separate 
when  a  punch  is  driven  between  them  instead  of  through  them.  By  punching  through 
the  plates  at  right  angles  to  the  faces  of  the  intended  nuts,  the  iron  is  not  opened  or 
separated,  and  scarfing  is  avoided.  Nuts  that  have  a  scarf  end  in  the  hole  require 
boring,  that  the  hole  may  be  rendered  fit  for  screwing ;  but  nuts  that  are  properly  punched 
may  be  finished  on  a  nut  mandrel  to  a  suitable  diameter  for  the  screw  required.  Nuts 
for  bolts  not  exceeding  2J  or  3  in.  diameter  can  be  forged  with  the  openings  or  holes  of 
proper  diameter  for  screwing  by  a  tap.  The  precise  diameter  is  necessary  in  such 
cases,  and  is  attained  by  the  smith  finishing  each  nut  upon  a  nut  mandrel  of  steel, 
which  is  carefully  turned  to  its  shape  and  diameter  by  a  lathe.  The  mandrel  is  tapered 
and  curved  at  the  end,  to  allow  the  nut  to  fall  easily  from  the  mandrel  while  being 
driven  off.  Such  nut  mandrels  become  smaller  by  use,  and  it  is  well  to  keep  a  standard 
gauge  of  some  kind  by  which  to  measure  the  nuts  after  being  forged.  The  best  kind 
of  nut  mandrel  is  made  of  one  piece  of  steel,  instead  of  welding  a  collar  of  steel  to  a 
bar  of  iron,  which  is  sometimes  done. 

One  punch  and  one  nut  mandrel  are  sufficient  for  nuts  of  small  dimensions,  but  large 
ones  require  drifting  after  being  punched  and  previous  to  being  placed  upon  a  nut 
mandrel.  The  drifting  is  continued  until  the  hole  is  of  the  same  diameter  as 
the  mandrel  upon  which  the  nut  is  to  be  finished.  The  nut  is  then  placed 
on,  and  the  hole  is  adjusted  to  the  mandrel  without  driving  the  mandrel  into 
the*.nut,  which  would  involve  a  small  'amount  of  wear  and  tear  that  may  be 
avoided.  A  good  steel  nut  mandrel,  with  careful  usage,  will  continue  serviceable, 
without  repair,  for  several  thousands  of  nuts.  The  holes  of  all  nuts  require  to 
be  at  right  angles  to  the  two  sides  named  faces ;  one  of  these  faces  is  brought 
into  contact  and  bears  upon  the  work  while  the  nut  is  being  fixed  ;  consequently,  it  is 
necessary  to  devote  considerable  attention  to  the  forging,  that  the  turning  and 
shaping  processes  may  be  as  much  as  possible  facilitated.  If  the  two  faces  of  the  nut 
are  tolerably  near  to  a  right  angle  with  the  hole,  and  the  other  sides  of  the  nut  parallel 
to  the  hole,  the  nut  may  be  forged  much  nearer  to  the  finished  dimensions  than  if  it 
were  roughly  made  or  malformed. 

To  rectify  a  nut  whose  faces  are  not  perpendicular  to  the  opening,  the  two  prominent 
corners  or  angles  are  placed  upon  an  anvil  to  receive  the  hammer,  as  indicated  in 
Fig.  87.  By  placing  a  nut  while  at  a  yellow  heat  in  this  position,  the  two  corners  are 
changed  to  two  flats,  and  the  faces  become  at  the  same  time  perpendicular  to  tho 


72 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


opening ;  the  nut  is  then  reduced  to  the  dimensions  desired.  If  the  nut  is  too  long, 
and  the  sides  of  it  are  parallel  to  the  opening,  the  better  plan  is  to  cut  prominences 
from  the  two  faces  by  means  of  a  trimming  chisel,  Fig.  91,  instead  of  rectifying  the  nut 
by  hammering.  Cutting  off  scrap  pieces  while  hot  with  a  properly  shaped  chisel  of 
this  kind  is  a  much  quicker  process  than  cutting  off  in  a  lathe. 

Small  connecting  bolts,  not  more  than  2  or  3  inches  in  diameter,  are  made  in  an 
economical  manner  by  drawing  down  the  stems  by  a  steam  hammer.  Those  who  have 
not  a  steam  hammer  will  find-  it  convenient  to  make  a  collar  to  be  welded  on  a 
stem,  in  order  to  form  a  head,  as  shown  by  Fig.  83.    After  being  welded  the  head 


83. 


84. 


may  be  made  circular  or  hexagonal,  as  required.  The  tool  for  shaping  hexagonal  heads 
is  indicated  by  Fig.  85.  Such  an  apparatus  may  be  adapted  to  a  number  of  different 
sizes  by  fixing  the  sliding  part  of  the  tool  at  any  required  place  along  the  top  of 
the  block,  in  order  to  shape  heads  of  several  different  diameters.  The  movable  or 
sliding  block  is  denoted  in  the  figure  by  S. 

Tongs. — Fig.  88  shows  a  curved-gap  tongs.  Fig.  89  a  bar  tongs,  and  Fig.  90  a 
side-grip  tongs.  Other  forms  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  92  to  99.  To  forge  and  put  together 
a  pair  of  flat  bitted  tongs  (Fig.  93),  of  the  most  usual  pattern,  select  a  bar  of  good  1  in. 


88. 


89. 


^:^_F 


91. 


square  iron  ;  lay  about  3  in.  on  the  inside  edge  of  the  anvil  (Fig.  100)  and  "  take  down  '* 
the  thickness  to  i  in.,  at  the  same  time  "  drawing  "  it  edgeways  to  maintain  the  widtli 
at  1  in. ;  this  is  done  rapidly,  so  as  to  have  heat  enough  in  the  bar  to  proceed  with, 
the  next  step,  which  consists  in  turning  it  at  right  angles,  and  hanging  the  "  bit,"  or 
part  just  taken  down,  over  the  front  edge  of  the  anvil  (Fig.  101)  and  flattening  the 
bar  just  behind  it.  The  third  step  is  performed  by  placing  the  work  about  3  in. 
farther  forward  on  the  anvil,  and  again  turning  at  right  angles  (Fig.  102),  slightly 
raising  the  back  end,  and  striking  the  iron  fairly  over  the  front  edge  of  the  anvil,  alter- 
nating the  blows  by  turning  and  returning  the  bar.     Cut  off  the  "  bit  "  3or  4  in.  behind 


Forging  and  Finishin'g, 


73 


the  part  last  treated  (Fig.  103).     Prepare  a  second  bit  in  exactly  the  same  manner, 
and  scarf  down  one  end  of  each.     For  the  liandles  or  "  reins,"  choose  a  piece  of  J-in! 


92, 


96. 


93. 


99. 


100. 


102. 


103.' 


rod,  upset  one  end,  scarf  it,  and  weld  it  to 
one  of  the  bits.  Serve  the  other  bit  the  same. 
Punch  a  -l-in.  hole  through  each,  and  connect 
them  by  riveting.  Keheat  the  finished  tongs 
and  dress  them  parallel;  then  cool  by  im- 
mersion and  constant  motion  in  cold  water. 
The  other  forms  are  made  in  a  similar 
manner,    dressing    the    bits    in    each    case 


around  pieces  of  metal   of  suitable  shape 
and  size. 

Hammers. — All  hammers  for  hand  use,  whether  chipping  hammers  or  sledge  hammers 
should  be  made  entirely  of  steel.  The  practice  of  welding  steel  faces  to  iron  eye  portions 
in  order  to  avoid  using  a  larger  quantity  of  steel,  is  more  expensive  than  making  the 
entire  tool  of  one  piece  of  steel,  and  an  unsound  inferior  tool  is  made  instead  of  a  "-ood 
one.  The  steel  selected  for  hammers  is  a  tough  cast  steel,  and  may  be  termed  a  soft 
fibrous  steel  that  will  bear  hardening.  Cast  steel  which  has  been  well  wrought  with 
rolling  and  hammering  is  suitable  for  hammers,  and  but  little  forging  is  necessary  if  tho 
metal  selected  is  of  proper  size.  The  small  chipping  hammers  and  other  hammers  for 
vice  work  are  easily  made  of  round  steel,  but  the  larger  sizes,  termed  sledge  hammers, 
require  to  be  made  of  square  bar  steel.  "When  several  are  to  be  made,  a  long  piece  is 
selected,  that  each  hammer  may  be  forged  at  one  of  tho  bar's  ends,  thus  avoiding  a  great 
portion  of  the  handling  with  tongs.  While  the  work  is  attached  to  tho  bar,  it  is  punched 
and  drifted  to  shape  the  hole,  and  also  thinned  with  top  and  bottom  fullers  at  both  sides 
of  the  hole.  The  greater  part  of  the  forging  is  thus  effected  previous  to  cutting  th(> 
hammer  from  the  bar,  and  when  cut  off",  all  rugged  portions  at  the  extremities  ara 
carefully  trimmed  off  with  a  sharp  rod  chisel,  that  the  faces  of  the  work  may  bo  solid. 

A  good  hammer  is  that  which  has  a  long  hole  to  provide  a  good  bearing  for  tho 


74  Forging  and  Finishing. 

handle,  and  which  has  the  metal  around  the  hole  curved  with  punching  and  drifting, 
the  hole  being  oval,  as  in  Fig.  104,  and  tapered  at  both  ends  or  entrances  of  the  hole. 
The  entrances  of  the  hole  are  principally  tapered  at  the  two  sides  which  are  nearest  to 
the  hammer's  faces,  tlie  other   two   sides  being  nearly  parallel. 
Steel  taper  drifts  of  proper  sliape  are  therefore  driven  into  both 
ends  of  the  hole,  to  produce  the  required  form,  and  all  filing  of 
that  part  is  thus  avoided. 

The  making  of  small  sledge  hammers  is  conducted  by  forging 
each  one  at  the  end  of  a  bar,  similar  to  the  mode  for  chipping 
hammers,  but  a  sledge  hammer,  about  20  lb.  in  weight,  is  made 
either  singly,  or  of  a  piece  of  steel  which  is  only  large  enough  to  be 
made  into  two ;  the  handling  of  a  heavy  bar  is  thus  avoided.     By  referring  to  Fig.  105, 
it  may  be  seen  that  the  handle  hole  or  shaft  hole  of  a  sledge  hammer  is  comparatively 
smaller  than  that  of  a  chipping  hammer ;  this  is  to  provide  a  solid  tool  that  will  not 
quiver  or  vibrate  when  in  use,  and  is  therefore  not  liable  to  break. 

Very  little  filing  is  sufficient  to  smooth  a  hammer,  if  properly  forged,  the  shaping 
being  easily  efiected  with  fullers  and  rounding  tools ;  and  after  being  filed,  each  of  the 
two  ends  is  hardened,  but  not  afterwards  tempered.  After  hardening,  the  two  ends 
are  finished  with  grinding  on  a  grindstone.  Polishing  the  faces  of  engineers'  hammers 
is  not  necessary. 

Through  the  handle  hole  of  a  hammer  being  tapered  at  both  ends,  the  shaft  end  is 
made  to  resemble  a  rivet  which  is  thickest  at  the  two  ends,  one  part  of  the  shaft  being 
made  to  fit  one  mouth  of  the  hole  witli  filing  or  with  a  paring  chisel  for  wood,  and  the 
outer  end  of  the  shaft  being  made  to  fit  the  other  mouth  of  the  hole  by  spreading  the 
wood  with  a  wedge.  The  wood  for  the  shaft  is  ash,  and  is  fitted  while  dry,  so  that  the 
handle  requires  hammering  to  force  its  end  into  the  hole,  and  when  the  hammering  has 
made  the  taper  shoulder  of  the  shaft  end  bear  tight  against  the  taper  mouth  of  the  hole, 
the  driving  ceases,  and  the  superfluous  wood  extending  beyond  the  wedge  end  of  the 
hole  is  cut  off,  and  the  wedge  hammered  into  its  place.  This  wedge  is  of  iron,  and  has 
an  angle  of  about  5°  or  6°;  consequently,  the  mouth  of  the  hole  should  have  the  same 
angle,  to  cause  the  wood  to  fill  the  hole  when  a  wedge  is  driven  in.  The  principal 
taper  of  the  wedge  is  in  its  thickness,  its  width  being  nearly  parallel,  to  make  it  hold 
tight  to  the  wood.  When  it  is  to  be  put  in,  it  is  placed  so  that  its  width  shall  be  parallel 
with  the  parallel  sides  of  the  hole,  the  taper  part  will  then  spread  the  wood  in  the  proper 
direction.  An  additional  means  of  tightening  tlie  wedge  consists  in  making  a  few  barbs 
upon  the  edges,  and  also  cleaning  and  chalking  it  when  it  is  to  be  hammered  into  the 
•wood. 

In  order  to  produce  a  large  number  of  hammers  of  the  same  shape  and  dimensions, 
each  one  should  be  shaped  while  between  a  couple  of  top  and  bottom  springy  shnpers. 
This  shaping  is  effected  near  the  conclusion  of  the  forging,  and  the  hammer  being 
shaped,  is  held  with  a  long  handle  drift,  whose  point  extends  a  few  inches"  tlirough  the 
hammer,  and  also  beyond  the  shapers,  the  length  of  the  hammer  being  at  right  angles 
to  the  length  of  the  drift.  After  such  shaping,  the  mouths  of  the  hole  may  be  tapered 
with  a  drift  or  with  filing ;  to  avoid  filing,  a  short  taper  drift  is  used  for  tapering  the 
mouths  of  the  hole,  and  the  long  handle  drift  for  holding  the  hammer  in  the  shapers  is 
provided  with  a  taper  shoulder,  to  fit  the  taper  mouths  of  the  hole ;  and  when  a  hammer 
is  to  be  put  between  the  shapers,  this  drift  is  hammered  tight  into  the  hole  until  the 
taper  shoulder  of  the  drift  bears  on  the  taper  mouth  of  the  hammer. 

Chisels. — Cliipping  chisels  for  engineers  seldom  remain  long  in  use,  through  the 
continual  hammering  and  consequent  vibration  to  which  they  are  subjected  for  cutting 
metals,  and  because  they  are  made  of  a  granular  tool  steel  which  is  too  solid  for  chisels, 
and  always  breaks  unless  the  cutting  part  of  the  chisel  is  too  thick  to  possess  good 
cutting  properties.    Every  sort  of  steel  which  has  been  cast,  but  not  afterwards  made 


Forging  and  Finishing.  75 

fibrous  with  hammering,  should  bo  rejected,  and  pure  iron  bars,  Wi-at  were  carbonized 
with  charcoal  without;  being  afterwards  cast,  should  bo  selected,  the  precise  quality  of  any 
cue  piece  in  all  cases  depending  on  the  quality  of  tho  iron  at  the  time  of  carbonization. 

It  is  not  possible  for  the  tool  maker  to  know  how  or  of  what;  materials  his  steel  was 
made,  but  he  is  able  to  ascertain  the  quality  of  any  piece  by  testing  it,  whicli  should 
always  be  done  previous  to  making  a  large  number  of  one  bar,  or  of  one  sort  of  steel. 
It  is  also  necessary  to  test  each  bar,  and  sometimes  both  ends  of  one  bar,  because  one 
end  may  be  much  harder  than  the  other  end,  and  the  operator  be  deceived  thereby. 

The  bar  steel  which  is  made  for  hand  chisels  is  in  the  shape  of  four-sided  bars,  each 
having  two  fiaC  sides  and  two  curved  convex  ones ;  such  a  shaiie  is  produced  with  rollino-, 
and  is  convenient  for  handling.  A  piece  of  such  a  bar,  or  a  few  inches  at  one  end  of  it, 
is  to  be  first  tested  by  heating  it  to  a  bright  red,  and  cooling  it  in  clean  cold  water  until 
the  steel  is  quite  cold ;  it  is  then  filed  with  a  saw  file,  or  some  other  smooth  file  known 
to  be  hard,  and  if  the  steel  cannot  be  cut,  its  hardening  i^roperty  is  manifested.  The 
next  test  consists  in  hardening  it  and  allowing  it  to  remain  in  the  water  till  nearly 
cold,  then  taking  it  out  and  allowing  the  heat  in  the  interior  to  expand  the  hard 
exterior ;  this  will  break  it,  if  not  fibrous  enough  to  withstand  the  trial.  A  third  test 
consists  in  making  a  grooving  chisel  of  the  steel,  and  hardening  it  ready  for  use.  This 
is  the  proper  test  for  all  chisels,  because  it  is  easily  and  quickly  performed ;  and  it  is 
advisable  to  make  the  cutting  end  rather  thinner  than  for  ordinary  chipping,  so  that  if 
it  does  not  break  nor  bend  while  thin,  it  is  reasonable  to  expect  it  would  not  break  if 
thicker. 

The  forging  of  a  chisel,  whether  a  broad  smoother  or  a  narrow  groover,  consists  in 
tapering  one  end,  and  next  cutting  off  the  cracked  extremity  which  is  produced  whenever 
steel  is  forged  thin  and  tapered.  During  the  final  reducing,  the  taper  jxirt  is  thinned 
with  a  flatter,  and  the  flattening  is  continued  till  the  end  is  below  red  heat.  Hardening 
is  next  performed  while  the  work  is  yet  warm  ;  this  consists  in  gripping  tlio  chisel  in 
tongs,  and  heating  5  or  G  in.  of  the  steel  to  redness,  then  placing  about  2  in.  of  the  taper 
part  slantways  into  water  and  moving  it  quickly  to  and  fro  till  cold ;  it  is  then  taken 
out  and  tempered,  which  is  eft'ected  with  the  heat  in  the  thick  portion  that  was  not  put 
into  the  water ;  this  heat  moves  along  to  the  hard  end  and  softens  it  while  the  operator 
rubs  off  the  thin  scale  with  a  piece  of  grindstone,  which  allows  the  colour  to  appear ; 
and  as  soon  as  a  purple  is  seen  at  the  cutting  part,  the  entire  taper  portion  is  cooled  in 
water.  This  mode  of  tempering  allows  only  about  half  an  inch  of  the  taper  part  to 
remain  hard,  all  the  remainder  being  soft ;  if  not,  the  vibration  caused  while  hammering 
would  break  the  tool  in  the  midst  of  the  taper  portion.  Some  sorts  of  steel  require 
hardening  at  a  very  dull  red,  and  tempering  until  a  quarter  of  an  inch  at  tho  end 
is  blue. 

Sharpening  chisels  ready  for  use  is  effected  on  ordinary  grindstones.  The  cutting 
edge  should  be  made  convex,  to  obtain  two  results,  one  of  which  is  rendering  the  tool 
less  liable  to  break,  and  the  other  result  is  the  greater  ease  of  cutting  while  holding  the 
tool  to  its  work.  Those  chisels  that  are  to  cut  brass  or  gun-metal  have  their  long  taper 
portions,  and  also  their  cutting  parts,  thinner  than  the 
taper  loortions  of  chisels  for  iron  and  steel,  those  for  steel  ' 

being  thickest  of  all ;  but  the  angles  of  the  taper  parts  are 
about  the  same  for  all  chisels.  When,  however,  a  small 
difference  is  made  in  such  angles,  the  smaller  angle  is  given 
to  those  for  cutting  brass  and  gim-metal.     The  angle  of  a 

hand  chisel's  long  taper  portion  is  only  about  6°,  but  that  of  the  cutting  end  is  about 
G0°.  In  Fig.  lOG  a  narrow  side  of  a  chisel  is  shown,  and  a  couple  of  lines  are  made  that 
extend  from  the  cutting  end ;  two  other  lines  are  also  shown,  which  extend  from  the 
long  taper  part,  the  difference  between  the  two  angles  being  indicated  by  such  lines. 

It  is  only  during  the  mending  of  a  chisel  that  the  proper  management  can  be  exactly 


76  Forging  and  Finishing. 

effected.  After  they  have  been  in  use,  the  workman  can  decide  whether  the  metal  he  is 
cutting  requires  the  chisels  to  be  harder  or  softer  than  they  were  when  first  hardened, 
so  that  he  instructs  the  tool  maker  to  make  them  harder,  if  necessary,  or  to  make  them 
thicker  at  the  cutting  part,  if  steel  or  hard  iron  is  being  chipped.  By  using  a  chisel 
it  is  also  discovered  whether  it  were  left  too  hard  at  its  tempering,  and  needs  different 
treatment. 

To  prevent  the  head  of  a  chisel  burring  around  the  edges  with  hammering,  and 
causing  pieces  to  fly  off,  the  head  should  be  frequently  curved  with  grinding,  at  the 
time  the  cutting  part  is  sharpened ;  and  when  a  head  is  mended  at  a  forge,  the  end 
may  be  tapered,  but  none  of  the  burr  is  to  be  hammered ;  all  these  should  be  cut  off 
with  a  small  trimmer,  or  ground  off  with  a  grindstone,  previous  to  tapering  on  the 
anvil. 

Files. — The  processes  to  which  files  are  subjected,  after  receiving  them  from  the 
file  maker,  include  hardening,  bending,  cranking  the  tangs,  and  shaping  the  tangs  to 
prevent  their  handles  falling  off. 

Kough  files  are  oftener  made  of  inferior  steel  than  smooth  ones,  and  if  the  metal  is 
not  capable  of  properly  hardening  in  ordinary  water,  salt  water  is  used;  and  if  an 
extraordinary  hardness  is  requisite,  the  file  may  be  hardened  in  mercury.  Eough  files 
are  often  softer  than  they  should  be,  to  prevent  their  teeth  breaking  off  during  use  ; 
this  should  be  remedied  by  forming  the  teeth  so  that  they  shall  be  inclined  at  a  proper 
angle  to  the  file's  broad  sides,  and  by  properly  polishing  the  sides  previous  to  forming 
the  teeth ;  smooth  teeth  are  more  durable  than  rugged  ones,  and  teeth  having  smooth 
extremities  cannot  be  produced  if  the  blank  sides  are  not  smooth.  The  cutting  sides  of 
a  file  miist  be  convex,  and  to  obtain  this  form  the  middle  of  tlie  file  is  made  thickest. 
The  convexity  of  one  side  of  a  flat  file  is  destroyed  if  the  tool  bends  much  in  hardening, 
and  if  found  to  be  thus  bent,  it  is  heated  to  dull  red  and  hammered  with  a  wood  hammer 
while  lying  across  a  wood  block  having  a  concave  face;  this  hammering  is  equally 
administered  along  the  entire  length  to  avoid  forming  crankles,  after  which  it  is  heated 
to  redness  and  hardened.  Half-round  files  are  always  preferable  if  the  half-round  sides 
are  convex  and  the  point  very  much  tapered.  A  rough  file  which  is  made  of  soft  steel 
that  cannot  be  properly  hardened,  is  improved  by  heating  it  to  a  bright  red  and  rolling 
it  in  a  long  narrow  box  containing  powdered  prussiate  of  potash ;  the  file  is  then  held 
in  the  fire  a  few  seconds  until  the  powder  attached  is  melted,  when  the  work  is  cooled 
in  water.  The  tangs  of  files  are  not  hardened,  or,  if  hardened,  are  always  made  quite 
soft  afterwards,  to  prevent  them  breaking  while  in  use. 

In  order  to  crank  the  tang  of  a  file  without  softening  its  teeth,  it  is  necessary  to  bind 
a  couple  of  thick  pieces  of  iron  to  that  portion  which  adjoins  the  tang,  and  to  heat  the 
tang  as  quickly  as  possible  by  putting  it  through  the  hole  of  a  thick  iron  ring  which  is 
at  near  welding  heat ;  this  ring  is  narrow  enough  to  allow  the  greater  part  of  the  tang's 
length  to  extend  beyond  the  hole,  by  which  means  the  thick  portion  in  the  hole  is 
heated  to  redness  while  the  thin  end  remains  black.  When  the  proper  heat  is  thus 
obtained,  the  first  bend  to  commence  the  cranking  is  made  by  bending  the  work  while 
in  the  hole,  if  the  hole  is  small  enough ;  if  not,  the  bending  is  performed  on  the  anvil 
edge.  The  situation  of  the  first  bend  is  near  the  file's  teeth,  and  the  second  bend  nearer 
the  tang's  point  is  afterwards  easily  made,  because  it  is  not  necessary  to  heat  the  tang 
in  its  thick  part. 

File  handles  frequently  slip  off  through  the  tangs  being  too  taper :  this  is  remedied 
by  grinding  and  filing  the  tang  at  its  thickest  end,  without  heating  it  and  thinning  it  on 
an  anvil,  especially  if  the  file  is  a  good  one.  Handles  also  slip  off  through  their  holes 
being  of  a  wrong  shape,  resulting  from  using  one  handle  for  several  files.  The  proper 
mode  of  fitting  a  handle  to  a  tang  consists  in  making  a  small  round  hole  which  is  nearly 
as  deep  as  the  length  of  the  tang,  and  next  shaping  the  hole  to  the  desired  form  by 
burning  out  the  wood  with  the  tang  ;  for  this  purpose  it  is  heated  to  a  bright  red  at  the 


FORQING   AND    FINISHING.  77 

point,  and  a  dull  red  at  flie  thick  part ;  it  13  then  pushed  into  the  handle,  and  allowed 
to  remain  in  a  few  seconds,  when  it  is  pulled  out  and  tho  dust  sliaken  from  the  hole ; 
tlie  tang  is  then  again  heated  and  put  the  same  way  into  tho  hole,  to  oljtaiu  the  proper 
shape.  One  heating  of  the  tang  is  sufficient,  except  it  happens  that  the  round  holo 
■were  too  small  or  too  shallow,  when  two  or  throe  burnings  may  be  necessary.  In  order 
to  avoid  the  danger  of  softening  a  good  file,  it  is  proper  to  use  the  fang  of  an  old  fdc, 
observing  that  its  shape  is  similar  to  that  of  the  tang  to  be  fitted. 

Scrapers.— A  scraper  having  a  flat  extremity  is  easily  made  of  a  small  flat  file,  tho 
thin  taper  portion  of  tho  file  being  first  broken  off,  and  a  straight  smooth  extremity 
produced  with  grinding  on  a  grindstone.  Tho  two  broad  sides  are  ground  near  tho 
intended  cutting  edges,  to  destroy  all  convexity  in  that  part,  and  to  produce  a  slight 
concavity,  for  giving  a  cutting  projierty  to  the  edges,  these  two  concave  sides  being 
afterwards  polished  with  flour-emery  cloth.  The  flat  extremity  requires  to  be  slightly 
curved  and  convex,  and  is  ground  until  about  a  sixteenth  of  an  inch  prominent  in  the 
middle.  After  such  a  scraper  has  been  properly  made,  tlie  several  grindings  for 
sharpening  are  entirely  performed  upon  the  flat  extremity,  so  named,  the  broad  sides 
not  being  ground,  but  merely  rubbed  on  an  oilstone.  An  oilstone  is  also  required 
to  smoothly  polish  the  cutting  part  every  time  the  tool  is  sharpened. 

Three-cornered  scrapers  are  much  used,  and  are  made  of  triangular  files  of  various 
sizes  ;  the  points  of  these  are  ground  on  a  grindstone  until  the  three  intended  cutting 
edges  are  regularly  curved  and  convex ;  and  the  tool  is  finally  polished  on  an  oilstone. 
Scrapers  having  broad  thin  ends  for  scraping  sides  of  holes,  concave  surfaces,  brasses, 
shells  of  steam-cocks,  and  similar  work,  require  a  concave  side,  that  may  be  termed 
the  bottom.  This  side  or  surface  is  that  which  bears  on  the  surface  being  scraped, 
and,  through  being  concave,  the  tool  has  a  superior  cutting  property,  and  is  also  easily 
moved  to  and  fro  by  the  operator  without  being  liable  to  rock  or  cant  while  on  the 
work. 

A  mode  of  making  a  scraper  very  light,  to  promote  an  easy  handling,  consists  in 
thinning  the  intermediate  portion,  thus  making  it  much  thinner  than  the  cutting  part. 
If  a  scraper  thus  lightened  is  not  thick  enough  to  permit  its  being  firmly  held  by  the 
workman,  the  thin  portion  is  covered  with  a  few  layers  of  cloth,  flannel,  worsted,  felt, 
or  similar  substance,  to  enlarge  the  mid-part  of  the  tool  to  a  convenient  thickness.  Such 
a  covering  is  also  useful  for  all  scrapers,  whether  thick  or  thin,  rectangular  or  triangular, 
if  they  are  small,  to  avoid  cramping  the  fingers. 

Scrapers  that  are  made  of  files  by  grinding  need  no  hardening ;  but  if  one  has  been 
forged  by  thinning  and  spreading  one  end  of  a  piece  of  round  steel,  the  process  of 
hardening  is  performed  after  the  tool  is  roughly  filed  to  its  shape.  For  scrapers,  no 
tempering  is  necessary. 

Drifts. — Cutting  drifts  having  teeth  on  their  sides,  similar  to  large  file  teeth,  are 
shaped  by  two  methods ;  small  ones  not  more  than  1  in.  thick  being  grooved  by  filing, 
and  large  ones  that  may  be  3  or  4  in.  thick  being  grooved  with  a  planing  machine  or 
shaping  machine. 

The  steel  suitable  for  drifts  is  a  tough,  well-hammered  metal  that  has  not  been  cast, 
and  the  smaller  the  intended  tool  the  greater  is  the  need  to  select  an  elastic  fibrous 
metal  which  will  bend  after  being  hardened,  and  not  be  liable  to  crack  in  hardening 
through  being  too  solid.  Small  thin  drifts  may  be  made  of  a  hard  Swedish  iron,  and 
afterwards  jjartly  carbonized  to  steel  the  exterior.  A  drift  thus  made  will  sustain  a 
severe  bending  while  in  a  crooked  hole,  without  being  so  liable  to  break  as  if  the  entire 
tool  were  of  steel.  The  short  drifts  do  not  bend  while  being  hammered  through  a  piece 
of  work ;  they  may  therefore  bo  made  of  steel ;  but  all  long  ones  that  are  comijaratively 
thin  are  more  pliable  if  made  of  iron.  The  hammering  of  any  drift,  whether  long  or 
short,  shakes  and  tends  to  break  it,  and  it  is  advisable  to  make  each  one  as  short  as  its 
intended  work  will  permit.    Those  for  drifting  small  holes  often  require  long  huudlca, 


78  FOEGING   AND   FINISHING. 

similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  107 ;  such  a  handle  is  thinner  tiian  ne  portion  for  cutting, 
that  all  its  teeth  may  be  driven  through  the  work. 

Iron  drifts  are  steeled  by  being  packed  in  charcoal  in  boxes ;  the  lids  are  put  on, 
all  the  crevices  are  filled  with  loam,  and  a  thick  layer  of  loam  is  put  on  the  ledge,  which 
extends  all  round  the  mouth  for  the  convenience  of  supporting  the  loam.     After  all  the 
crevices  are  thus  filled,  to  keep  out  the  air,  the  affair  is  put 
into  a  large  clear  fire,  that  plenty  of  room  may  exist  around,  107. 

and  gradually  heat  all  sides  of  the  Ix)x  at  one  time.    A  

I^late  furnace  fire  will  afford  a  convenient  heat,  a  substitute       ^^  {'\\^\'^'\\^ 

being  a  largo  forge  fire ;  if  this  is  used,  the  blast  is  very 
gently  administered  until  the  work  is  red  hot,  when  the  blast 

is  stopped,  and  the  work  is  allowed  to  remain  at  the  same  heat  for  2  hours,  during 
which  time  the  drifts  have  absorbed  the  carbon  from  the  charcoal,  and  the  surfaces  are 
steeled.  This  being  done,  each  one  is  taken  carefully  from  the  charcoal  without  bruising 
the  edges,  and  allowed  o  cool  separately,  if  they  are  required  immediately ;  if  not,  the 
box  is  taken  from  the  firO;  he  lid  is  raised,  and  the  work  is  allowed  to  slowly  cool  while 
among  the  charcoal.  When  t  he  drifts  are  cold,  they  are  put  into  order  for  hardening. 
This  may  be  done  at  any  future  time,  and  consists  in  sharpening  the  teeth  and  polishing 
the  surfaces,  to  make  them  as  they  appeared  previous  to  being  heated,  and  when  they 
are  to  be  hardened  they  are  again  heated  and  cooled  in  water.  This  second  heating  is 
seldom  necessary  for  drifts  if  they  are  properly  finished  previous  to  steeling,  and  they 
may  be  hardened  while  hot  at  the  time  they  are  first  carbonized.  Drifts  thus  steeled 
may  be  softened  at  any  future  time  when  the  teeth  require  sharpening,  and  again 
hardened  by  merely  heating  and  dipping  into  water,  because  heating  the  tool  does  not 
liberate  the  carbon. 

This  method  of  carbonizing  is  also  adopted  for  changing  the  surfaces  of  iron  screw- 
taps  into  steel;  taps  thus  treated  are  useful  for  several  classes  of  work,  if  properly 
managed. 

Punches. — A  punch  with  a  circular  extremity,  for  making  round  holes  into  cold 
sheet  iron  and  other  metals,  is  about  G  in.  long,  and  made  of  an  old  round  file,  to  avoid 
forging.  The  file  is  first  thoroughly  softened  along  its  entire  length,  and  one  end  is 
reduced  imtil  of  a  proper  diameter  to  make  the  holes  desired ;  this  reducing  is  often 
done  with  a  grindstone,  while  the  file  is  soft,  when  forging  cannot  be  efiected,  and  the 
intended  cutting  extremity  is  ground  until  flat.  When  properly  shaped,  the  tool  is 
hardened  by  heating  to  redness  about  3  in.  of  its  length,  and  placing  about  1  in.  into 
water,  moving  it  to  and  fro  as  for  hardening  other  tools ;  as  soon  as  the  tool's  extremity 
is  cold,  it  is  taken  from  the  water  and  cleaned,  during  which  time  the  heat  slowly 
softens  the  end,  and  when  a  blue  colour  appears  at  J  or  |  in.  from  the  extremity,  the 
hard  part  of  the  punch  is  cooled,  but  the  remainder  is  allowed  to  cool  as  slowly  as 
possible,  that  it  may  be  quite  soft. 

Square  punches  and  other  angular  punches  for  hand  use  are  of  the  same  length  as 
round  ones,  and  are  made  of  properly  softened  round  and  square  files.  Punches  are  not 
merely  required  to  make  holes ;  they  are  useful  for  smoothing  and  polishing  the 
boundaries  of  various  recesses  that  cannot  be  filed,  scraped,  or  ground.  A  punch  for 
such  work  is  held  in  one  hand,  and  aj^plied  to  the  work  while  the  head  of  the  punch  is 
hammered  until  the  surface  in  contact  is  shaped.  Tools  of  this  class  have  shaping 
extremities  of  various  forms,  some  being  curved  and  convex,  others  are  concave,  some 
are  provided  with  ridges,  Imobs,  teeth,  and  otlier  protuberances,  the  extremities  of  others 
are  rectangular,  triangular,  and  oval,  having  recesses  of  several  forms.  All  such 
punches  require  a  careful  polishing,  both  previous  to  hardening  and  afterwards,  and  the 
better  the  polish  given  to  the  punch,  the  smoother  will  be  the  surface  to  be  punched. 
The  ends  of  such  tools  are  specially  tempered  after  hardening,  to  suit  their  respective 
shapes,  those  extremities  which  are  broad,  and  consequently  strong,  being  tempered  to  a 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


79 


108. 


(2 


109. 


110. 


brown,  unless  the  steel  happens  to  be  a  brittle  cast  steel,  for  which  metal  the  temper 
denoted  by  blue  is  necessary. 

Spanners.— The  proper  metal  for  spanners  generally,  is  a  soft  fibrous  Bessemer  steel  ; 
such  metal  is  produced  by  rolling  and  hammering  the  Bessemer  product  after  being 
cast,  that  the  fibrous  character  may  be  produced.  If  such  steel  is  soft  cnou"-li,  it  will 
■weld,  and  spanners  of  all  shapes  may  be  made  of  it. 

To  make  a  gap  spanner  quickly  for  immediate  use,  one  end  of  an  iron  or  steel  bar  is 
heated  to  a  bright  yellow  heat,  and  bent  until  a  hook  is  formed ;  the  work  is  next 
heated  at  the  curved  part,  and  lengthened  or  shortened  until  the  gap  is  of  a  proper 
width,  A  gap  spanner  of  this  character  is  shown  by  Fig.  108.  Another  simple  class  of 
gap  spanners  are  those  made  of  thm  bar  or  plate  steel.  A  spanner  of  this  sort  needs  no 
thinning  to  produce  the  handle,  because  the  gap  iwrtion  is  no  thicker  than  the  handle  ; 
it  is  therefore  made  by  cutting  out  witli  chisels  while 
the  plate  is  at  bright  red  heat.  Small  spanners  only 
should  be  made  by  this  mode,  because  of  their  wide 
gap  portions,  and  are  represented  by  Figs.  109 
and  110. 

Small  gap  spanners,  of  only  1  or  2  lb.  each  in 
weight,  are  easily  made  of  steel,  and  should  have 
cylindrical  handles,  usually  termed  round  handles, 
to  promote  an  easy  handling.  Large  spanners  may 
have  broad  thin  handles,  that  they  may  be  light, 
and  the  two  edges  or  narrow  sides  are  curved.  A 
gap  spanner  with  only  one  gap  end  is  made  by 
providing  a  bar  which  is  thick  enough  to  be  made 
into  the  spanner's  gap  portion  without  upsetting, 
and  thinning  the  end  of  the  bar  until  it  is  of  the 
desired  length  and  shape  for  the  spanner's  handle. 
The  gap  in  the  thick  portion  is  next  made  by  first 
punching  a  hole  at  the  place  for  the  bottom  of  the 
intended  gap,  a  round  punch  being  used  if  the 
bottom  is  to  be  curved,  and  a  6-sided  punch  or  driCt, 
if  the  bottom  is  to  be  angular.  When  the  hole  is 
made,  two  slits  are  formed  from  the  hole  to  the 
extremities,  and  the  superfluous  gap-piece  is  cut  out, 
at  which  time  the  work  is  roughly  prepared  for  an 
after  trimming.  Another  spanner  is  next  partly 
made  by  the  same  means  of  the  same  bar,  if  neces- 
sary, and  any  greater  number  that  may  be  required. 
A  spanner  in  process  of  being  made  of  such  a  piece 
is  indicated  by  Fig.  111. 

The  forging  of  a  spanner  which  is  to  have  a  gap 
at  each  end  is  effected  by  making  two  gap-pieces,  each  one  having  a  gap  of  proper  size, 
and  an  end  or  stem  of  about  half  the  entire  length  of  the  intended  simnner.  These  two 
stems  are  scarfed,  or  a  tongue-joint  is  made,  for  the  jjurpose  of  welding  them  together, 
which  produces  the  desired  spanner  having  a  gap  at  each  end.  After  being  shaped  at 
the  gap  parts,  the  spanner  is  bent,  whether  it  has  one  gup  or  two,  the  bending  being 
necessary  that  the  spanner  may  be  applied  to  the  6  sides  of  a  nut  by  moving  the  handle 
to  and  fro  in  the  shortest  possible  space.  This  bending  consists  in  heating  the  junction 
of  the  gap  part  with  its  stem,  and  bending  it  until  the  handle  or  stem  is  at  an  angle  of 
15°  with  the  gap-sides. 

The  final  shaping  of  a  gap-spanner  consists  in  trimming  the  edges  with  a  trimming 
chisel  and  curving  the  outer  surfaces.     Half-round  top  and  bottom  tools  are  employed 


112. 


o 


3) 


113. 


0 


80  Forging  and  Finishing. 

for  this  curving,  and  the  edges  of  the  gap  portions  are  shaped  while  between  such  tools, 
and  also  while  a  filler  is  iu  the  spanner's  gap.  This  filler  is  of  steel,  and  is  long  enough 
to  be  supported  on  a  couple  of  blocks,  or  across  an  opening  of  some  sort,  while  the 
spanner's  gap-part  is  held  on  the  filler  and  shaped  with  the  top  and  bottom  tools.  One 
narrow  side  of  the  filler  is  angular,  similar  to  the  bottom  of  the  gap,  and  the  thickness  is 
the  forged  width  of  the  gap  ;  consequently,  while  the  outer  surfaces  are  being  shaped  at 
the  time  the  filler  is  in  the  gap,  both  the  gap  and  the  outer  edges  of  the  gap  portion  are 
shaped  at  one  hammering. 

In  order  to  provide  good  bearings  in  the  gap  surfaces,  and  to  prevent  the  entire  gap 
portion  being  too  broad,  and  thereby  occupying  too  much  room,  the  thickness  of  a  gap 
portion  belonging  to  a  small  spanner  should  be  about  equal  to  the  height  of  the  nut 
which  is  to  be  rotated,  and  the  total  breadth  across  the  gap  part  only  about  3  times  the 
diameter  of  the  hole  in  the  nut.  Large  spanners  for  nuts  3  or  4  in.  height,  may  have  gap 
parts  which  are  two-thirds  of  the  nuts'  heights.  The  proper  shape  for  the  bottom  of  a 
spanner's  gap  is  angular,  that  it  may  fit  any  two  contiguous  sides  of  i\  6-sided  nut  or 
bolt  head.  Gaps  of  such  a  form  will  suit  hexagonal  nuts  and  square  ones.  A  gap  with 
a  ciurved  bottom  braises  the  nuts'  corners,  and  it  must  be  made  very  deep  to  prevent  the 
spanner  slipping  off  while  in  use.  By  Fig.  112  a  spanner  is  represented  whose  gap  part 
is  of  proper  shape. 

Gap  spanners  are  often  forged  of  ordinary  fibrous  wrought  iron,  and  after  they  are 
properly  finished  and  the  gap  surfaces  smoothly  filed  to  suit  the  nuts,  the  entire  gap 
portion  of  each  spanner  is  hardened  ;  this  is  performed  by  heating  it  to  a  bright  red, 
rolling  it  in  powdered  prussiate  of  potash,  and  then  cooling  it  in  clean  water.  Small 
iron  spanners,  that  are  only  G  or  8  in.  long,  are  put  into  a  box  with  bones  or  hoofs,  and 
their  entire  surfaces  are  steeled,  similar  to  the  mode  for  steeling  other  small  tools. 

Cast-iron  spanners  are  those  that  are  made  by  pouring  the  metal  into  sand  moulds 
that  are  shaped  with  wood  or  iron  patterns  resembling  the  spanners  to  be  cast.  After 
casting,  the  spanners  are  softened  by  a  long  gradual  cooling,  which  makes  the  metal 
soft,  and  prevents  the  tool  breaking  while  in  use,  although  the  metal  is  not  made  fibrous. 
Cast  steel  thus  used  is  a  preferable  metal  to  cast  iron. 

The  stems  and  handles  of  socket  spanners  are  made  of  round  iron  or  steel,  and 
separate  from  the  socket  portions.  The  socket  portion  of  the  spanner  consists  of  a 
tubular  piece  which  is  attached  to  the  stem  by  welding  its  end  in  the  socket  hole.  This 
socket  piece  may  be  an  end  of  a  thick  tube,  if  such  a  piece  can  be  obtained  with  a  hole 
of  proper  diameter.  The  socket  may  be  made  also  by  punching  a  hole  through  a  solid 
piece,  and  drifting  the  hole  to  a  proper  shape  and  size;  this  produces  a  good  socket  if 
the  metal  is  solid.  The  convenient  mode  of  making  a  socket  of  an  iron  or  soft  steel  bar 
consists  in  .curving  to  a  circular  form  one  end  of  a  bar  which  is  about  as  thick  as  the 
intended  socket,  and  welding  the  two  ends  together  by  means  of  a  sort  of  scarf  joint 
termed  a  lap  joint.  Such  a  joint  is  made  by  tapering  both  the  ends  tliat  are  to  be  welded 
together,  and  curving  the  socket  piece  until  its  hole  is  about  three-quarters  of  its 
finished  diameter,  which  allows  the  socket  to  be  stretched  with  welding  to  its  proper 
diameter.  After  a  socket  is  made  by  either  of  these  means,  its  hole  is  shaped  with  a 
steel  6-sided  drift  which  is  of  the  same  shape  and  thickness  as  the  required  socket  hole. 
One  end  of  the  socket  is  next  heated  and  upset,  to  make  it  thicker  and  larger  in  diameter 
than  the  remainder,  at  which  time  it  appears  as  in  Fig.  113,  being  then  ready  for 
welding  to  the  stem. 

The  preparation  of  the  stem  consists  in  thickening  one  end  by  upsetting,  and  shaping 
it  to  a  6-sided  form  to  fit  the  socket-hole.  A  stem  thus  shaped  is  denoted  by  Fig.  114; 
and  the  thick  part  is  made  to  fit  tight  in  the  hole,  that  it  may  be  easily  handled  and 
welded  in  that  situation.  The  length  of  the  part  which  is  in  immediate  contact  with 
the  enlarged  end  of  the  hole  is  about  half  of  tlie  socket's  length,  and  while  the 
two  are  together  a  welding  heat  is  given  them,  and  they  are  welded  with  a  couple  of 


Forging  and  Finishing,  81 

mgnlar-gap  fools  wbilo  the  socket  is  between.  During  this  vrelding,  tlie  tools  are  in 
iontact  with  only  that  part  which  contains  tlie  end  of  tlic  stem,  in  order  that  tlio  liolo 
nay  not  be  made  much  smaller  by  the  hammering.  Tliis  welding  reduces  the  thick 
)art  of  the  socket  to  the  same  diameter  as  the  thinner  part,  and  also  lengthens  the 
)earing  of  the  stem  in  the  hole. 

The  final  shaping  of  the  socket,  after  it  is  properly  attached  to  the  stem,  is  accom- 
dished  by  trimming  off  superfluous  metal  to  make  the  socket  to  a  proper  length 
nd  smoothly  finishing  the  hole  with  a  G-sided  filler.  This  filler  is  parallel  and  is 
larefully  made  so  that  it  shall  be  the  precise  thickness  and  shape  of  the  finished  hole 
leing  tapered  a  short  distance  at  the  point,  that  it  may  enter  easily  into  the  hole  wheii 
lecessary.  The  extremity  of  the  part  which  is  in  the  hole  is  smoothly  shaped  and 
urved,  for  smoothing  the  bottom  of  the  socket  hole.  This  smoothing  is  effected  by 
leatiug  that  part  of  the  socket  and  hammering  the  end  of  the  stem  while  the  filler  is  in 
he  hole  and  touches  its  bottom.  To  conveniently  hammer  the  stem,  the  filler  is  put 
Qto  the  hole,  and  the  outer  end  of  the  filler  is  then  put  to  the  floor  with  the  socket-stem 
xtending  upwards,  the  filler  resting  on  a  soft  iron  block  or  lead  block,  whose  top  ia 
3vel  with  the  floor ;  while  thus  arranged,  the  upper  end  of  the  stem  is  hammered  and 
lie  bottom  of  the  holo  is  shaped.  A  filler  of  this  class,  in  the  hole  of  a  socket  is 
Bpiesented  by  Fig.  115.  Through  such  a  filler  being  nearly  or  quite  parallel  along  a 
reat  part  of  its  length,  it  cannot 

e  released  from  any  socket  after  lu. 

eing  once  hammered  in,  without 
eating  it  and  enlarging  the  holo 
aough  to  let  out  the  filler  with 
ulling  in  a  vice,  or  similar  means.  115. 

The  handle  end  of  the  stem  for 


g  Si 


socket  spanner  is  provided  with  a  C'';|J|i»M  H  0 

Die,  if  to  be  used  with  a  separate 

iver,  or  provided  with  a  y  handle,  ue 

to  be  rotated  by  such  means ;  and 

the  spanner  has  a  bent  stem,  con- 

ituting  a  handle  which  is  at  right 

igles  to  the  length  of  the  socket, 

le  stem  is    heated   to    make    the  ii7, 

jnd  in  the  right  place,  after  all 

e  joint-making  is  completed. 

If  a  socket  spanner  is  not  to  be 
the-turned,  it  is  necessary  to  care- 
lly  reduce  the  work  to  a  proper 
lape  and  dimensions  while  on  the 

ivil;  but  if  to  be  turned,  a  proper  amount  of  metal  is  allowed,  that  the  socket  may 
)t  be  too  thin.  A  socket  spanner  is  turned  while  its  handle  end  is  supported  on  the 
andrel  pivot  of  a  lathe,  and  its  socket  part  is  supported  on  a  broad  conical  pivot,  which 
large  enough  to  bear  on  the  edges  of  the  hole's  mouth.  By  tliis  method,  the  socket 
accurately  turned  so  that  one  side  shall  be  just  as  thick  as  the  opposite  side,  and  if 
e  entire  length  of  the  socket  were  forged  parallel  to  the  drift  while  in  the  hole,  the 
itire  outer  surface  of  the  socket  when  turned  would  be  also  parallel  with  the  hole. 

A  spanner  which  has  a  boss  at  one  end  containing  a  square,  G-sided,  or  round  hole, 
forged  at  one  end  of  a  bar  which  is  nearly  as  thick  as  the  length  of  the  boss  which  is 
have  the  hole.  At  the  end  of  the  bar  a  portion  is  reduced  until  small  enough  for  the 
mdle,  and  the  thick  portion  adjoining  is  punched  with  a  taper,  square,  or  round  punch, 
id  also  drifted  while  at  welding  heat  with  taper  drifts  of  proper  shapes.  In  Fig.  IIG 
spanner  being  made  at  one  end  of  a  bar  is  shown,  and  may  be  partly  drifted  while 

o 


82  Forging  and  Finishing. 

attached  to  the  bar,  and  also  afterwards,  while  separate,  as  denoted  bj-  Fig.  117,  When 
it  is  cut  from  the  bar,  the  shaping  of  the  boss  is  completed  by  hammering  the  outside 
while  at  welding  heat,  and  by  fullers  applied  to  the  junction  of  the  boss  with  the 
handle  ;  during  both  these  processes  a  drift  is  in  the  hole  ;  a  drift  is  also  in  the  hole  of 
a  boss,  which  is  circular,  and  being  rounded  with  half-round  top  and  bottom  tools. 

The  drifts  for  enlarging  the  holes  are  very  taper,  similar  to  the  one  shown  in 
Fig.  117,  and  those  for  adjusting  holes  to  proper  diameters  are  so  nearly  parallel  that 
they  appear  parallel  to  ordinary  observation.  A  parallel  drift  is  indicated  in  Fig.  118 
and  is  tapered  at  each  end,  to  prevent  its  being  stopped  by  the  burs  made  with 
hammering  while  being  driven  into  or  out  of  a  hole. 

Several  drifts  of  various  sizes  and  shapes  are  always  kept  ready  by  the  smith,  and  by 
a  proper  use  of  the  parallel  ones  a  spanner  with  a  circular  hole  can  be  enlarged  until 
the  desired  amount  of  metal  remains  for  boring  the  boss  to  the  stated  dimensions  ;  and 
if  the  spanner  being  finished  has  a  square  or  6-sided  hole,  it  can  be  drifted  until  it  fits 
the  nuts,  bolt  heads,  spindle  end,  plug  end,  or  other  works  for  which  the  spanner  is 
made,  thus  avoiding  much  filing,  drifting  with  cutting  drifts,  and  other  lengthy 
processes. 

Wrenches. — Wrenches  for  rotating  taps,  broaches,  and  similar  tools  are  made  of  three 
portions  for  each  wrench,  one  piece  being  the  boss  which  is  to  contain  the  hole  or  holes, 
and  the  other  pieces  being  round  straight  pieces  for  the  handles,  the  three  being 
separately  made,  and  the  holes  in  the  boss-part  finished,  previous  to  welding  the  pieces 
together.  The  length  of  the'boss-part  depends  on  the  number  of  holes  to  be  in  it,  and 
after  the  length  is  ascertained,  a  piece  of  soft  steel  is  selected  which  is  large  enough  for 
the  boss,  and  long  enough  to  allow  a  stem  to  be  thinned  at  each  end  of  the  boss ; 
this  component  piece  is  first  properly  marked  while  cold,  to  denote  the  commencement 
of  each  stem,  and  next  fullered  with  top  and  bottom  fullers  to  commence  the  thinning, 
wliich  reduces  the  stems  to  a  proper  diameter.  A  boss-piece  of  this  class  is  shown 
by  Fig.  119,  which  is  to  have  only  one  square  hole.  Another  bo.ss-piece,  made  by  the 
same  means,  but  having  3  holes,  is  represented  by  Fig.  120  ;  in  this  figure  a  mouth  for 
a  tongue  joint  is  shown  at  the  end  of  each  stem,  such  a  joint  being  adopted  when 
making  large  tap  spanners.  A  tap  spanner  to  be  welded  by  means  of  scarf  joints  is 
indicated  by  Fig.  121,  in  which  the  ends  are  thickened  and  bevelled  ready  for  welding. 
When  the  handles  are  welded  with  tongue  joints,  the  joints  are  made  very  strong, 
through  the  extremities  being  made  to  extend  several  inches  along  the  handles,  as 
denoted  in  Fig.  122. 

A  small  wrench  that  is  only  about  1  ft.  long  is  made  of  only  one  piece  of  steel,  and 
it  is  not  necessary  to  select  soft  steel  for  welding,  the  stems  which  are  produced  from 
the  boss  being  made  long  enough  by  thinning  to  become  the  handles,  without  welding 
them  to  sei:)arate  pieces.  Large  tap  spanners,  also,  are  occasionally  made  in  this  way  if 
the  operators  have  access  to  steam  hammers  for  the  reducing.  For  economy,  small 
wrenches  are  often  made  of  old  files,  and  if  the  steel  is  not  too  brittle  to  be  properly 
thinned  for  the  handles,  strong,  hard,  durable  spanners  are  produced. 

All  the  holes  in  wrenches  are  square,  and  are  made  by  punching  and  drifting, 
having  proper  care  to  enlarge  the  holes  with  smooth  drifts,  so  that  only  a  very  little 
filing  shall  be  necessary.  The  handles  of  tap  wrenches  are  lathe-turned,  and  the 
junctions  of  the  stems  with  the  bosses  are  nicely  curved  with  springy  corner  tools. 

To  make  a  capstan  spanner  having  4  handles  extending  from  the  boss,  one  thick 
piece  for  the  boss  is  necessary,  and  4  straight  pieces  for  the  handles ;  these  are  welded 
to  the  boss  part  by  means  of  stems  that  are  produced  from  the  boss  by  thinning. 

The  outer  shape  of  the  boss  should  be  square,  not  circular ;  and  to  i^roduce  a  boss 
which  is  to  be  4  in.  long  and  about  4  in.  square,  a  piece  of  soft  steel  bar  should  be 
selected  which  is  about  4^  in.  square,  whicli  will  allow  a  trimming  to  shape  the  boss 
after  it  is  sproad  with  punching  and  drifting,  the  length  of  the  piece  being  about 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


83 


9  in.,  that  there  may  be  ample  metal  for  the  4  stems,  in  addition  to  the  hnm.  This 
piece  is  first  fullered  at  each  side  of  the  intended  boss,  and  tiiiuncd,  to  form  a  lump  in 
the  middle,  and  which  shall  extend  from  only  one  side,  as  shown  in  Pig.  123;  the  two 
thinner  portions  are  next  punched  with  a  round  punch  to  make  2  holes  near  the  boss, 
similar  to  those  in  Fig.  124 ;  a  slip  is  next  made  from  each  hole,  to  make  the  2  .stems 
or  arms  into  4 ;  these  are  separated,  and  the  juncJtions  fullered  to  make  a  rou^h  4-arm 


118. 


121. 


E 


120. 


119. 


'Bzn^^^: 


D 


122. 


□  Gn 


j^ 


123. 


124. 


125. 


126. 


12?. 


boss  denoted  by  Fig.  125.  The  square  hole  is  next  punched  in  the  boss,  by  commencing 
with  a  very  taper  square  punch,  which  is  driven  from  both  ends  of  the  hole,  the 
punch  being  placed  to  make  each  corner  of  the  hole  opposite  one  of  tlie  4  arms.  After 
punching,  square  drifts  are  used  to  enlarge  the  hole,  and  a  hammering  is  given  to  the 
boss  while  a  drift  is  in  the  hole,  and  the  boss  at  welding  heat,  which  makes  it  rather 
more  fibrous  than  before.  The  junctions  of  the  arms  are  next  shaped  with  a  fuller  and 
set  hammer,  and  the  arms  lengthened  to  a  convenient  length,  that  the  boss  may  not  be 
too  near  the  anvil  while  welding  the  handles  to  the  stems  of  the  boss.  The  final  shaping 
of  the  boss  consists  in  cutting  off  superfluous  metal  with  a  flat  chisel  and  a  gouge  chisel, 

G  2 


84  Forging  and  Finishing. 

and  smoothing  it  ■with  a  set  hammer  or  flatter,  also  with  a  fuller  at  the  junctions^ 
while  a  drift  of  the  finished  size  of  the  hole  remains  in  it.  A  boss  of  this  class  requires- 
a  careful  trimming  to  shape  it  at  the  conclusion  of  forging,  to  avoid  a  lengthy  shaping 
■while  cold,  especially  because  it  cannot  be  turned  in  a  lathe.  The  boss,  having  its 
arms  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and  reduced  to  a  proper  thickness,  is  represented  by- 
Fig.  126. 

The  circular  boss,  shown  by  Fig.  127,  has  an  elegant  appearance,  and  can  be  lathe- 
turned  to  partly  shape  it ;  but  such  a  boss  requires  more  metal  around  a  square  hole  than 
is  necessary  for  a  square  boss  of  the  same  strength.  When  bosses  having  4  arms,  or 
3  arms,  are  being  made  in  considerable  numbers,  each  one  can  be  easily  shaped  in 
a  shaping  mould,  which  is  fitted  to  a  steam-hammer  anvil. 

Adjusting  surfaces  by  hammering. — One  of  the  most  interesting  uses  of  the  hammer 
is  for  stretching  plates  of  metal.  Blows  applied  upon  the  surface  of  a  straight  piece 
of  metal  will  cause  the  side  struck  to  rise  up  and  become  convex,  and  render  the  other 
side  concave.  This  process  is  termed  "  paning  "  or  "  pening,"  from  the  pane  or  pene  of 
the  hammer  being  generally  used  to  perform  it ;  it  is  resorted  to  for  straightening^ 
plates,  correcting  the  tension  of  circular  saws,  &c.,  and  has  recently  been  made  the 
subject  of  a  most  instructive  lecture  before  the  Franklin  Institute,  by  Joshua  Rose,  from, 
which  the  following  abstract  is  taken. 

Supposing  you  have  a  -J-in.  plate  with  a  dent  in  the  middle,  on  laying  one  end  on  aa 
anvil,  holding  up  the  other  in  your  left  hand,  and  springing  the  plate  up  and  down 
with  your  right  hand,  if  you  watch  the  plate,  you  will  see  that  as  you  spring  it  the 
middle  moves  most,  and  the  part  that  moves  is  a  "  loose  "  place.  The  metal  round  about 
it  is  too  short  and  is  under  too  much  tension.  Now,  if  you  hammer  this  loose  place  you 
will  stretch  it  and  make  it  wide,  so  hammer  the  places  round  about  it  that  move 
the  least,  stretching  them  so  that  they  will  pull  the  loose  place  out.  With  a  very- 
little  practice  you  can  take  out  a  loose  place  quite  well ;  but  when  it  comes  to  a  thick  plate, 
the  case  is  more  difficult,  because  you  cannot  bend  the  plate  to  find  the  tight  and  loose 
places,  so  you  stand  it  on  edge,  and  between  you  and  the  window  the  lights  and  shades 
show  the  high  and  low  patches.  Fig.  128  represents  what  is  called  the  "  long  cross-face  '* 
hammer  used  for  the  first  part  of  the  process,  which  is  termed  the  "  smithing."  The 
face  that  is  parallel  to  the  handle  is  the  long  one,  and  the  other  is  the  cross-face.  These 
faces  are  at  right  angles  one  to  the  other,  so  that  without  changing  his  position  the  operator 
may  strike  blows  that  will  be  lengthways  in  one  direction,  as  at  a,  in  Fig.  129,  and 
by  turning  the  other  face  towards  the  work  he  may  strike  a  second  series  standing 
as  at  h.  Now,  suppose  we  had  a  straight  plate  and  delivered  these  two  series  of 
blows  upon  it,  and  it  is  bent  to  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  130,  there  being  a  straight  wave 
at  a,  and  a  seam  all  across  the  plate  at  h,  but  rounded  at  its  length,  so  that  the  plate  will 
be  highest  in  the  middle,  or  at  c,  if  we  turn  the  plate  over  and  repeat  the  blows  against 
the  same  places,  it  will  become  flat  again. 

To  go  a  little  deeper  into  the  requirements  of  the  shape  of  this  hammer,  for  straighten- 
ing saws  both  faces  are  made  alike,  being  rounded  across  the  width  and  slightly 
rounded  in  the  length,  the  amount  of  this  rounding  in  either  direction  being  important, 
because  if  the  hammer  leaves  indentations,  or  what  are  technically  called  "  chops,"  they 
will  appear  after  the  saw  has  been  ground  up,  even  though  the  marks  themselves  are 
ground  out;  because  in  the  grinding  the  hard  skin  of  the  plate  is  removed,  and  it 
goes  back  to  a  certain,  but  minute,  extent  towards  its  original  shape.  This  it  will  do 
more  in  the  spaces  between  the  hammer  blows  than  it  will  where  the  blows  actually  fell, 
giving  the  surface  a  slightly  waved  appearance. 

The  amount  of  roundness  a-cross  the  face  regulates  the  widths,  and  the  amount  of 
roundness  in  the  face  length  regulates  the  length  of  the  hammer  marks  under  any  given 
force  of  blow.  As  the  thicker  the  plate  the  more  forcible  the  blow,  therefore  the  larger 
the  dimensions  of  the  hammer  mark.    This  long  cross-face  is  used  again  after  the  saws 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


85 


iiave  been  ground  wp,  but  the  faces  are  made  more  nearly  flat,  so  that  the  marks  will  not 
sink  so  deeply,  it  being  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  in  no  case  must  they  form 
distinct  indentations  or  "  chops." 

Fig.  131  is  a  "twist"  hammer,  used  for  precisely  the  same  straightening  purposes  as 
the  long  cross-face,  but  on  long  and  heavy  plates,  and  for  the  following  reasons. 

When  the  operator  is  straightening  a  short  saw,  he  can  stand  close  to  tho  spot 
he  is  hammering,  and  the  arm  using  the  hammer  may  bo  well  bent  at  tho  elbow, 
which  enables  him  to  see  the  work  plainly,  and  does  not  interfere  with  the  use  of  the 


128. 


129. 


130. 


a. 


I  III  „>,/ 
I'm '/!/:! 


hammer,  while  the  shape  of  the  smithing  hammer  enables  him  to  bend  his  elbow  and 
still  deliver  the  blows  lengthways,  in  the  required  direction.  But  when  a  long  and 
ieavy  plate  is  to  be  straightened,  tho  end  not  on  the  anvil  must  be  supported  with  the 
Jeft  hand,  and  it  stands  so  far  away  from  the  anvil  that  he  could  not  bend  his  elbow 
and  still  reach  the  anvil.  With  the  twist  hammer,  however,  he  can  reach  his  arm  out 
straight  forward  to  the  anvil,  to  reach  the  work  there,  while  still  holding  up  the  other 
end,  which  he  could  not  do  if  his  elbow  were  bent.  By  turning  the  twist  hammer 
over  he  can  vary  the  direction  of  the  blow  the  same  as  with  the  long  cross-face. 

Both  these  hammers  are  used  only  to  straighten  the  plates,  and  not  to  regulate  their 
tension,  for  a  plate  may  be  flat  and  still  have  in  it  unequal  strains ;  that  is  to  say,  there 
may  exist  in  different  locations  internal  strains  that  are  not  strong  enough  to  bend  tho 
plate  out  of  truth  as  it  is,  but  which  will  tend  to  do  so  if  the  slightest  influence  is 
■exerted  in  their  favour,  as  will  be  the  case  when  the  saw  is  put  to  work.  When  a  plate 
is  in  this  condition,  it  is  said  to  have  unequal  tension,  and  it  is  essential  to  its  proper 
use  that  this  be  remedied. 

The  existence  of  unequal  tension  is  discovered  by  bending  the  plate  with  the  hands, 
as  has  been  already  mentioned,  and  it  is  remedied  by  the  use  of  the  dog-head  hammer, 
shown  in  Fig.  132,  whose  face  is  rounded  so  that  the  effects  of  its  blow  will  extend  equally 
all  round  the  spot  struck.  It  will  be  readily  understood  that  the  effects  of  the  blow 
delivered  by  the  smithing,  or  by  the  twist  hammer,  will  be  distributed  as  in  Fig.  133,  at 
a,  6,  while  those  of  the  dog-head  will  be  distributed  as  at  Fig.  133,  c,  gradually  diminish- 
ing as  they  pass  outwards  from  the  spot  struck ;  hence  the  dog-head  exerts  the  most 
•equalized  effect. 

Now,  while, the  dog-head  is  used  entirely  for  regulating  the  tension,  it  may  also  bo 


86 


FOEGING   AND   FINISHING. 


132. 


133. 


used  for  the  same  purposes  as  either  the  long  cross-faced  or  the  twist  hammer,  because 

the  smith  operates  to  equalize  the  tension  at  the  same  time  that  he  is  taking  down  the 

lumps ;  hence  he  changes  from  one  hammer  to  the  other  in  an  instant,  and  if,  after 

regulating  the  tension  with  the  dog-head,  he  should  happen  to  require  to  do  some 

smithing,  before  regulating  the  tension  in  another,  he  would  go 

right  on  with  the  dog-head  and  do  the  intermediate  smithing 

without  changing  to  the  smitliing  hammer.     Or,  in  some  cases, 

he  may  use  the  long  cross-face  to  produce  a  similar  effect  to 

that  of  the   dog-head,  by  letting  the  blows  cross  each  other, 

tbu;j  distributing  the  hammer's  effects  more  equally  than  if  the 

blows  all  lay  in  one  direction. 

In  circular  saws,  which  usually  run  at  high  velocity,  there 
is  generated  a  centrifugal  force  that  is  sufficient  to  actually 
stretch  the  saw  and  make  it  of  larger  diameter.  As  the  outer 
edge  of  the  saw  runs  at  greater  velocity  than  the  eye,  it 
stretches  most,  and  therefore  the  equality  of  tension  through- 
out the  saw  is  destroyed,  the  outer  surface  becoming  loose  and 
causing  the  saw  to  wobble  as  it  revolves,  or  to  run  to  one  side 
if  one  side  of  the  timber  happens  to  be  harder  than  the  other, 
as  in  the  case  of  meeting  the  edge  of  a  knot. 

The  amount  of  looseness  obviously  depends  upon  the 
amount  the  saw  expands  from  the  centrifugal  force,  and  this  clearly  depends  upon  the 
speed  the  saw  is  to  run  at,  so  the  saw  straightener  requires  to  know  at  what  speed  the 
saw  is  to  run,  and,  knowing  this,  he  gives  it  more  tension  at  the  outside  than  at  the 
eye  ;  or,  in  other  words,  while  the  eye  is  the  loosest, 
the  tension  gradually  increases  towards  the  circum- 
ference, the  amount  of  increase  being  such  that  when 
the  saw  is  running  the  centrifugal  force  and  con- 
sequent stretching  of  the  saw  will  equalize  the 
tension  and  cause  the  saw  to  run  steadily. 

In  circular  saws  the  combinations  of  tight  and 
loose  places  may  be  so  numerous  that  as  the  smith 
proceeds  in  testing  with  the  straight-edge  he  marks 
them,  drawing  a  circular  mark,  as  at  g,  in  Fig.  134, 
to  denote  loose,  and  the  zig-zag  marks  to  indicate  tight  places. 

To  cite  some  practical  examples  of  the  principles  here  laid  down,  suppose  we  have  in 
Figs.  135  and  136  a  plate  with  a  knick  or  bend  in  the  edge,  and  as  this  would  stiffen  the 
plate  there,  it  would  be  called  a  tight  place.  To  take  this  out,  the  hammer  marks  could 
be  delivered  on  one  side  radiating  from  the  top  of  the  convexity  as  in  Fig.  135,  and  on  the 
other  as  shown  radiating  from  the  other  end  of  the  concavity  as  in  Fig.  136,  the  smithing 
hammer  being  used.  This  would  induce  a  tight  place  at  a.  Fig.  135,  which  could  be 
removed  by  dog-head  blows  delivered  on  both  sides  of  the  plate.  Suppose  we  had  a 
plate  with  a  loose  place,  as  at  g  in  Fig.  137,  we  may  take  it  out  by  long  cross-face  blows, 
as  at  a  and  h,  delivered  on  both  sides  of  the  plate,  or  we  might  run  the  dog-head  on  both 
sides  of  the  plate,  both  at  a  and  at  b,  the  effect  being  in  either  case  to  stretch  out  the 
metal  on  both  sides  of  the  loose  place  g,  and  pull  it  out.  In  doing  this,  however,  we 
shall  have  caused  tight  places  at  e  and  /,  which  we  remove  with  dog-head  blows,  as 
shown.  If  a  plate  had  a  simj^le  bend  in  it,  as  in  Fig.  138,  hammer  blows  would  first  be 
delivered  on  one  side,  as  at  a,  and  on  the  other  side,  as  at  b.  A  much  more  complicated 
case  would  be  a  loose  place  at  g,  in  Fig.  139,  with  tight  places  at  li,  i,  k,  I,  for  which  the 
hammer  blows  would  be  de]ivere<l  as  marked,  and  on  both  sides  of  the  plate.  Another 
complicated  case  is  given  in  Fig.  140,  g  being  two  loose  places,  with  tight  places 
between  them  and  on  each  side.     In  this  case,  the  hammering  with  the  long  cross- 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


87 


'ace  would  induce  tight  places  at  d  and  e,  requiring  hammer  blows  as  denoted  by  the 
narks. 

Eose  had  some  examples  to  illustrate  how  plainly  bending  a  plate  will  kIiow  its 
;ight  and  loose  places.    With  a  rectangular  piece  of  plate  tliat  is  loose  in  tiie  middle, 


134. 


IM. 


135. 


137. 


;he  straight-edge  lies  flat  on  it ;  but  if  you  try  to  bend  the  middle  of  the  plate  downwards 
ivith  your  hands,  you  will  see  that  it  goes  down  instantly,  the  straight-edge  showing  a 
.arge  hollow  in  the  middle,  as  in  Fig.  141,  the  same  thing  occurring  with  the  straight- 


138. 


139. 


0     0     0    0  0     0    „ 


O    0    0     0   0 


0      0  0       0   "(,   °0    ° 


3dge  tried  on  both  sides  of  the  plate.  Another  piece  is  tight  in  the  middle,  and  when 
jrou  try  to  bend  its  middle  downwards  in  precisely  the  same  way,  it  comes  upwards, 
ind  the  straight-edge  shows  it  to  be  round  as  in  Fig.  142.    In  the  first  case  the  middle 


140. 


^.///MC 


142. 


actually  moves,  because  it  is  loose ;  in  the  second  place  the  edges  move,  because  they 

are  loose. 

With  two  circular  saws,  one  tight  and  one  loose  at  the  centre,  the  same  thing  occurs ; 


88  Forging  and  Finishing. 

for  if  you  bend  the  loose  one  down,  it  goes  down,  leaving  a  wide  space  between  the  eye 
of  the  saw  and  the  straight-edge  ;  while  if  you  try  to  bend  the  middle  of  the  light  one 
down  it  refuses  to  go  there,  but  goes  at  the  outside,  leaving  the  straight-edge  resting  on 
the  middle.  Here,  again,  then,  the  part  that  is  loose  moves  the  most.  These  examples 
are  simple  cases,  but  they  impart  a  general  knowledge  of  the  principles  involved  in  the 
skilful  use  of  the  hammer. 

Red-lead  Joints. — In  every  case  in  which  steam  is  used  at  a  pressure  exceeding  that 
of  the  atmosphere,  either  as  a  motive  power  or  a  heating  agent,  it  is  necessary  to  make 
tlie  machinery  or  piping  connected  therewith  in  many  pieces,  for  obvious  reasons,  the 
chief  of  which  is  convenience  in  manufacture,  and  wherever  these  are  joined  together  to 
hold  or  convey  steam  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  joints  steamtight.  For  this  purpose 
there  are  almost  innumerable  methods,  but  we  only  intend  giving  briefly  a  few  notes 
on  those  in  which  red  lead  is  used,  which  are  most  familiar  to  those  connected  with 
the  trade  of  an  engineer ;  but  notwithstanding  this  familiarity,  nineteen  out  of  twenty 
mechanics  have  very  erroneous  ideas  on  the  subject,  and  consequently  many  joints  are 
fhe  cause  of  much  delay,  trouble,  and  expense,  which  could  easily  have  been  avoided  if 
the  general  principles  were  understood.  The  fundamental  principle  of  all  joint-making 
is,  that  the  thinner  the  joint  the  stronger  and  more  durable  it  is. 

(a)  Flat-faced  joints,  as  pipe  flanges,  cylinder  covers,  &c. — Each  face  must  have  all 
the  old  lead  removed,  and  then  be  wiped  over  with  a  piece  of  oily  waste  (boiled  linseed 
oil).  The  lead  must  be  thoroughly  worked,  either  by  machine  or  by  hand,  to  make  it 
soft  and  pliable,  and  also  to  remove  all  grit  and  lumps.  It  should  then  be  rolled  in  the 
hands  into  thin  ropes,  about  5  in.  diameter,  and  laid  on  once  round  inside  the  bolt  holes. 
The  2  faces  must  now  be  brought  together  carefully,  and  tightened  up  equally  all 
round,  by  screwing  up  opposite  bolts,  so  as  to  avoid  getting  one  side  closer  than  another. 
Tarred  twine,  hemp,  string,  wire  gauze,  &c.,  should  be  studiously  avoided  wherever 
possible,  as  it  prevents  the  faces  from  being  brought  into  close  contact.  There  are 
certain  rough  jobs  where  it  may  be  permitted,  but  a  joint  so  made  is  never  so  durable, 
and  very  clumsy.  When  joints  are  accurately  faced,  by  scraping  or  otherwise,  as  in 
locomotive  practice,  nothing  but  liquid  red  lead  is  used,  made  of  white  lead  mixed  with 
boiled  oil  to  the  coneistency  of  paint ;  they  are  of  exceptional  durability. 

(h)  Joints  between  male  and  female  threads,  such  as  screwed  pipes  and  sockets,  bolts 
or  studs  screwed  into  boiler  plates,  &c. — In  these  cases  liquid  red  lead  is  used,  and 
should  be  put  on  the  female  thread  for  inside  pressure,  on  the  male  for  outside  pressure, 
as  then  the  steam  in  each  case  forces  any  surplus  lead  into  the  thread,  and  forma  a  more 
reliable  joint,  or  rather  assists  it ;  whereas,  when  it  is  applied  in  the  reverse  way,  as 
generally  done,  the  threads  are  left  quite  bare  and  clear,  leaving  nothing  to  assist  the 
joint. 

These  methods,  broadly  speaking,  apply  just  the  same  to  the  various  compositions 
sold  as  substitutes  for  lead,  the  chief  advantages  claimed  for  them  being  cheapness  and 
durability  ;  but  they  can  never  surpass,  or  even  equal  it,  if  it  be  only  used  as  explained, 
esi^eciilly  if  a  little  common  sense  be  applied  in  special  cases. 

Rust  Joints. — "  Rust "  cement,  known  also  as  cast  iron  cement,  and  by  other  names, 
is  used  for  caulking  the  joints  of  cast  iron  tanks,  pipes,  &c.  It  is  composed  of  cast  iron 
turnings,  pounded  so  that  they  will  pass  through  a  sieve  of  8  meshes  to  the  in. ;  to  these 
are  added  powdered  sal-ammoniac,  and  sometimes  flowers  of  sulphur.  The  ingredients 
having  been  mixed  are  damped,  and  soon  begin  to  heat.  They  are  then  again  well 
mixed  and  covered  with  water.  The  exact  proportions  of  the  ingredients  vary.  A 
simple  form  is  I  oz.  sal-ammoniac  to  1  cwt.  iron  turnings.  The  following  are  recom- 
mended by  Molesworth : — 

Quick-setting  Cement. — 1  sal-ammoniac  by  weight;  2  flowers  of  sulphur;  80  iron 
borings. 

Slow-setting  Cement. — 2  sal-ammoniac ;  1  flowers  of  sulphur ;  200  iron  borings. 


Forging  and  Finishing. 


89 


143. 


The  latter  cement  being  the  best  if  the  joint  is  not  required  for  immediate  use.  la 
the  absence  of  sal-ammoniac  the  urine  of  an  animal  may  bo  substituted.  The  cement 
will  keep  for  a  long  time  under  water.  Its  efficacy  depends  upon  the  expansion  of  the 
iron  in  combining  -with  the  sal-ammoniac.  The  joints  may  bo  undone  by  heating  the 
part  to  redness  and  jarring  by  hammer  blows;  paraffin  or  benzolino  applied  to  the  joint 
will  sometimes  assist. 

liivets. — The  dimensions  of  rivets  and  of  the  plates  at  the  joint  may  be  calculated  by 
the  same  rules  as  for  single  bolts.  If  it  is  a  joint  subject  to  tenision,  as  in  Fig.  143,  the 
eflfective  strength  of  the  joint 
and  of  the  plate  is  the  resistance 
of  the  cross-sections  a  h  and  c  d 
to  tension,  and  of  the  cross- 
sections  h  e  and  cf  to  shearing. 
If  it  is  a  joint  subject  to  com- 
pression, as  in  Fig.  144,  the 
effective  strength  is  the  re- 
sistance of  the  section  g  i  h  to 
compression.  Hence,  in  a  tensile 
lap  joint  the  size  of  the  rivets 
should  be  as  small  as  possible, 
and  the  sections  of  the  parts 
a  b  c  d  as  large  as  possible ;  and 
in  a  compressile  lap  joint  the 
size  of  the  rivets  should  be  as  large  as  possible. 

Lap  joint  is  the  name  given  to  a  riveted  joint  when  the  plates  overlap  each  other. 
In  a  single  rivet  lap  joint,  as  in  Fig.  145,  the  whole  tensile  or  compressile  strain  being 
divided  amongst  the  spaces  between  the  rivets  determines  the  interval  of  them.  And 
the  whole  shearing  strain  being  divided  amongst  the  sections  ab,  c  d,  &c.,  determines 


ci 


114. 


145. 


146. 


JT\ 


-CT- 


!  ^■-■ 

\ 

the  amount  of  overlap.  Fairbairn  considers  that  the  strength  of  such  a  joint  under 
tension  is  only  0-56  of  tliat  of  the  solid  plate  of  the  same  general  cross-sections. 

In  a  double  rivet  lap  joint  the  amount  of  overlap  and  the  intervals  between  the  rows 
of  rivets  both  ways,  and  the  size  of  the  rivets,  are  all  determined  by  the  above  considera- 
tions, and  by  the  rules  for  bolts.  Fig.  14G  shows  the  joint  recommended  by  Hamber  for 
tensile  strains. 

Fig.  147  shows  the  joint  he  recommends  for  compressive  strains. 

In  practice  the  diameter  of  the  rivets  is  generally  made  a  little  more  than  the  tliick- 
ness  of  the  plate,  and  the  interval  is  from  2  to  4  times  the  diameter,  according  to  the 
closeness  of  the  joint  required. 

The  practice  in  H.M.  Dockyard  at  Chatham,  in  the  construction  of  iron  ships,  is  (o 


/'"N  r^   1^- 

>  rA  r-^ 

.                                                                                      1 

'                                                                             • 

O    OiO     O 

O     i     O 
O    O^O     O 


a 


90  FOEGING   AND   FINISHING. 

use  rivets  ratber  larger  in  diameter  than  the  thickness  of  the  plate,  and  at  intervals  from 

2  to  4  times  the  diameter.  Thornton  states  that  a  watertight  joint  can  be  formed  with 
single  riveting  at  intervals  of  4  diameters ;  double  riveting  is  commonly  used,  the  first 
row  being  placed  at  a  distance  of 

at  least  one  diameter  (of  rivet) 
from  the  edge  of  the  plate,  and 
the  second  row  at  about  3  dia- 
meters from  the  first.  These 
rules  determine  the  length  of 
what  is  called  the  butt-plate,  or 
fishing-piece.  The  rivets  in  the 
second  row  are  placed  directly 
ojiposite  those  in  the  first  row, 
and  not  diagonally  opposite  the 

spaces.  In  all  exterior  plates  the  outer  rivet-holes  are  countersunk  and  the  rivets 
hammered  flush. 

SOLDERING-. — Soldering  is  the  art  of  forming  joints  between  metallic  surfaces 
by  the  application  of  molten  alloys. 

Solders. — Alloys  employed  for  joining  metals  together  are  termed  "  solders,"  and 
they  are  commonly  divided  into  two  classes :  hard  and  soft  solders.  The  former  fuse 
only  at  a  red  heat,  but  soft  solders  fuse  at  comparatively  low  temperatures. 

One  of  the  most  easily  fusible  metals  is  an  alloy  of  2  parts  bismuth,  1  tin,  and 
1  lead ;  tin  is  the  most  fusible  of  these  three  metals,  melting  at  455°  F.  (235°  C), 
but  tliis  alloy  melts  at  199J°  F.  (93°  C),  or  a  little  below  the  boiling-point  of  water. 
By  diminishing  the  quantity  of  bismuth  in  the  alloy,  the  point  of  fusion  may  be 
made  to  vary  between  212°  F.  (100°  C),  and  329°  F.  (200°  C),  and  thus  it  is  an  easy 
matter  to  form  a  solder  which. shall  fuse  at  any  required  temperature  between  these 
limits,  for  electrical  puri^oses,  steam-boiler  plugs,  &c.  The  following  are  the  best 
recipes  for  the  common  solders  : — For  aluminium-bronze :  (o)  88  •  88  gold,  4  •  68  silver, 
6*44  copper;  (h)  54 '4  gold,  27  silver,  18 "6  copper,  (c)  Melt  20  parts  of  aluminium 
in  a  suitable  crucible,  and  when  in  fusion  add  80  of  zinc.  When  the  mixture  is 
melted,  cover  the  siurface  with  some  tallow,  and  maintain  in  quiet  fusion  for  some 
time,  stirring  occasionally  with  an  iron  rod.  Then  pour  into  moulds,  (d)  15  parts 
aluminium  and  85  of  zinc;  (e)  12  aluminium  and  88  zinc;  (/)  8  aluminium  and 
92  zinc ;  all  of  these  alloys  are  prepared  as  (c).      The  flux  recommended  consists  of 

3  parts  copaiba  balsam,  1  of  Venetian  turpentine,  and  a  few  drops  of  lemon-juice. 
The  soldering-iron  is  dipped  into  this  mixture. 

For  hrassicork :  (a)  equal  parts  of  copjier  and  zinc ;  (b)  for  the  finer  kinds  of 
work,  1  part  silver,  8  copper,  8  zinc. 

For  copper :  (o)  3  parts  copper,  I  zinc;  (6)  7  copi^er,  3  zinc.  2  tin. 

Hard  solder :  86  •  5  copper,  9  •  5  zinc,  4  tin. 

Hard  solder  for  gold  :  18  parts  I8-carat  gold,  10  silver,  10  pure  copper. 

Hard  silver  solder  :  («)  4  parts  silver,  I  copper  ;  {L)  2  silver,  1  brass  wire ;  these  are 
employed  for  fine  work ;  the  latter  is  the  more  readily  fusible ;  (c)  equal  parts  copper 
and  coin  silver ;  requires  higher  temperature  than  h,  but  will  not  "  burn,"  is  as  fluid 
as  water,  and  makes  a  far  sounder  joint. 

Hard  spelter  solder:  2  parts  copper;  1  zinc;  this  solder  is  used  for  ironwork, 
gun-metal,  &c. 

For  jewellers :  (a)  19  parts  fine  silver,  10  brass,  1  copper ;  (h)  for  joining  gold. 
24  parts  gold,  2  silver,  1  copper. 

Middling  hard  solder  :  4  parts  scraps  of  metal  to  be  soldered,  1  zinc. 

For  pewterers:  (a)  2  parts  bismuth,  4  lead,  3  tin  ;  (b)  1  bismuth,  1  lead,  2  tin; 
the  latter  is  best  applied  to  the  rougher  kinds  of  works. 


Soldering — Solders. 


91 


For  sealing  iron  in  stone :  2  lead,  1  zinc. 

For  sealing  tops  of  canned  goods:  IJ  lb.  lead,  2  lb.  tin,  2  oz.  bismutli ;  the  lead 
is  melted  first,  the  tin  added  next,  and  finally  the  bismuth  stirred  in  well  just  before 
pouring.     This  makes  a  soft  solder,,  and  the  cans  do  not  take  much  heat  to  open  them. 

Soft  solder :  1  lead,  2  tin. 

Soft  solder  for  joining  electrotype  plates :  67  parts  lead,  33  tin. 

For  steel :  19  parts  silver,  3  copper,  1  zinc. 

For  tinned  iron  ■•  7  lead,  1  tin. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  composition  and  characters  of  a  number  of 
solders : — 


No. 


1 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 

8 

9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 


Name. 


Plumbers'  coarse  solder 

„  sealed      „ 

„  fine  „  ..      .. 

Tinners'  solder      

„        fine  solder      

Hard  solder  for  copper,  brass,  iron 


more  fusible  than  6  or  7  . .  / 
Hard  solder  for  copper,  brass,  iron 
Silver  solder  for  jewellers    . . 

„  plating  ..  .. 
„  silver,  brass,  iron 
„  steel  joints 
„    more  fusible 

Gold  solder 

Bismuth  solder      


5> 


Pewterers'  solder 


Composition. 


Tin  1,  Lead  3 

1  2 

1  „        1  ..  .. 

H    „    1      ..     .. 

2  „     1       ..      .. 

Copper  2,  zinc  1  . . 
Good  tough  brass  5,  zinc  1 

Copper  1,  zinc  1 

Good  tough  plate  brass  .. 
Silver  19.  copper  1,  brass  1 
2,  brass  1 

1  „  1  ..  .. 
19,  copper  1,  brass  1 
5,  brass  5,  zinc  5  . . 
Gold  12,  silver  2,  copper  4 
Lead  4,  tin  4,  bismuth  1 
8    „    3         „  1 

2     „    2         „  1 

2    „    1         „  2 

o     „     o  ,,  o 

4     „    3 


5) 
)> 

1» 


)5 


Flu^ 

R 

R 

R 

Ror 

Z 

Ror 

Z 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

B 

Ror 

z 

Ror 

z 

Ror 

z 

Ror 

z 

Ror 

z 

Ror 

z 

Fluxing  point. 


800  F.  (427  C.) 
441  F.  (227  C.) 
370  F.  (188  C.) 
334  F.  (108  C.) 
340  F.  (171  C.) 


320  F.  (160  C.) 
310  F.  (154  C.) 
292  F.(144C.) 
236  F.  (113  C.) 
202  F.  (94  C.) 


Abbreviations  :  R,  Rosin  ;  B,  Borax  ;  Z,  Zinc  Chloride. 


Advantage  may  be  taken  of  the  different  degrees  of  fusibility  of  the  solders  in  the 
table  to  make  several  joints  in  the  same  piece  of  work.  Thus,  if  the  first  joint  has 
been  made  with  fine  tinners'  solder,  there  would  be  no  danger  of  melting  it  in 
making  a  joint  near  it  with  bismuth  solder  No.  16,  and  the  melting-point  of  both 
is  far  enough  removed  from  No.  19  to  be  in  no  danger  of  fusion  during  the  use  of 
that  solder.  Soft  solders  do  not  make  malleable  joints.  To  join  brass,  copper,  or 
iron,  so  as  to  have  the  joint  very  strong  and  malleable,  hard  solder  must  be  used.  For 
this  purpose.  No.  12  will  be  found  excellent ;  though  for  iron,  copper,  or  very  infusible 
brass,  nothing  is  better  than  silver  coin,  rolled  out  thin,  which  may  be  done  by  any 
silversmith  or  dentist.  This  makes  decidediy  the  toughest  of  all  joints,  and,  as  a 
little  silver  goes  a  long  way,  it  is  not  very  expensive.  To  obtain  hard  solders  of 
uniform  composition,  they  are  generally  granulated  by  pouring  them  into  water  through 
a  wet  broom.  Sometimes  they  are  cast  in  solid  masses,  and  reduced  to  powder  by 
filing.  Nos.  10,  11,  12,  13,  14,  and  15  are  generally  rolled  into  thin  plates,  and  some- 
times the  soft  solders,  especially  No.  21,  are  rolled  into  sheets,  and  cut  into  narrow  strips, 
■which  are  very  convenient  for  small  work  that  is  to  be  heated  by  lamp.  Hard  solders, 
Nos.  C,  7,  8,  and  9,  are  usually  reduced  to  powder,  either  by  granulation  or  filing,  and  then 


92  Soldering — Solders. 

spread  along  the  joints  after  being  mixed  with  borax  which  has  been  fused  and  powdered. 
It  is  not  necessary  that  the  grains  of  solder  should  be  placed  between  the  pieces  to  be 
joined,  as  with  the  aid  of  the  borax  they  will  sweat  into  the  joint  as  soon  as  fusion  takes 
place.  The  best  solder  for  platinum  is  fine  gold.  The  joint  is  not  only  very  infusible, 
but  is  not  easily  acted  upon  by  common  agents.  For  German  silver  joints.  No.  14  is 
excellent. 

When  brass  is  soldered  with  soft  solder,  the  difference  in  colour  is  so  marked  as  to 
direct  attention  to  the  spot  mended.  The  following  method  of  colouring  soft  solder  is 
given  by  the  MetaUarbeiter :  First  prepare  a  saturated  solution  of  copper  sulphate 
(bluestone)  in  water,  and  apply  some  of  this  on  the  end  of  a  stick  to  the  solder.  On 
touching  it  with  a  steel  or  iron  wire  it  becomes  coppered,  and  by  repeating  the 
experiment  the  deposit  of  copper  may  be  made  thicker  and  darker.  To  give  the  solder 
a  yellower  colour,  mix  1  part  of  a  saturated  solution  of  zinc  sulphate  with  2  of  copper 
sulphate,  apply  this  to  the  coppered  spot,  and  rub  it  with  a  zinc  rod.  The  colour  can 
be  still  further  improved  by  applying  gilt  powder  and  polishing.  On  gold  jewelry  or 
coloured  gold,  the  solder  is  first  coppered  as  above,  then  a  thin  coat  of  gum  or  isinglass 
solution  is  applied,  and  bronze  powder  is  dusted  over  it,  which  can  be  polished  after  tie 
gum  is  dry,  and  made  very  smooth  and  brilliant ;  or  the  article  may  be  electroplated 
with  gold,  and  then  it  will  all  have  the  same  colour.  Ou  silverware,  the  coppered  spots 
of  solder  are  rubbed  with  silvering  powder,  or  polished  with  the  brush  and  then  carefully 
scratched  with  the  scratch-brush,  then  finally  polished. 

Burning,  or  Autogenous  Soldering. — The  process  of  uniting  two  or  more 
pieces  of  metal  by  partial  fusion  is  called  "  burning."  This  operation  differs  from  the 
ordinary  soldering,  in  the  fact  that  the  uniting  or  intermediate  metal  is  the  same  as 
those  to  be  joined,  and  generally  no  flux  is  used,  but  the  metals  are  simply  brought 
almost  to  the  fusing-point  and  united.  The  process  of  burning  is,  in  many  cases,  of 
great  importance ;  when  the  operation  is  successfully  performed,  the  work  is  stronger 
than  when  soldered,  for  all  parts  of  it  are  alike,  and  will  expand  and  contract  evenly 
■when  heated,  while  solders  often  expand  and  contract  more  or  less  than  the  metals  which 
they  unite,  and  this  uneven  contraction  and  expansion  of  the  metal  and  solder  often 
tears  the  joint  apart ;  another  objection  to  soldering  is  that  the  solders  oxidize  either 
more  or  less  freely  than  the  metals,  and  weaken  the  joints,  as  is  the  case  if  leaden  vessels 
or  chambers  for  sulphuric  acid  are  soldered  with  tin,  the  tin,  being  so  much  more  freely 
dissolved  by  the  acid  than  the  lead,  soon  weakens  or  opens  the  joints. 

Fine  work  in  pewter  is  generally  burned  together  at  the  corners  or  sharp  angles, 
where  it  cannot  be  soldered  from  the  inside ;  this  is  done  that  there  may  be  no  difference 
of  colour  in  the  external  surface  of  the  work.  In  this  operation,  a  piece  or  strip  of  the 
same  pewter  is  laid  on  the  parts  to  be  united,  and  the  whole  is  melted  together  with  a 
large  soldering-iron  or  copper  bit,  heated  almost  to  redness ;  the  superfluous  metal  is  then 
•dressed  off,  and  leaves  the  surfaces  thoroughly  united,  without  any  visible  joint.  In 
burning  together  pewter  or  any  of  the  very  fusible  metals,  great  care  is  required  to  avoid 
melting  and  spoiling  the  work. 

Castings  of  brass  are  often  united  by  burning.  In  this  operation,  the  ends  of  the 
2  pieces  to  be  united  are  filed  or  scraped,  so  as  to  remove  the  outside  surface  or  scale ; 
they  are  then  embedded  in  a  sand  mould  in  their  proper  position,  and  a  shallow  or  open 
space  is  left  around  the  joint  or  ends  of  the  castings  ;  30  or  40  lb.  of  melted  brass  are 
then  poured  on  to  the  joint,  and  the  surplus  metal  is  allowed  to  escape  through  a 
flow-gate.  In  this  way  2  castings  may  be  united  so  that  they  are  as  solid  as  if  they  had 
been  cast  in  one  piece.  This  process  is  resorted  to  by  all  brassfounders  in  making  large 
and  light  castings,  such  as  wheels,  large  circular  rims,  &c. ;  when  too  largo  to  be  run  in 
one  piece,  they  are  usually  cast  in  segments  and  united  by  burning  together. 

Cast  iron  is  often  united  by  burning  together,  or,  more  properly,  burning  on,  for  in 
this  case  one  of  the  metals  added  or  united  is  in  the  fluid  state.     When  about  to  bum 


Soldering — Burning.  93 

on  to  a  piece  of  casting,  the  part  to  bo  united  to  is  scraped  or  filed  perfectly  clean,  and 
is  then  embedded  in  sand,  and  a  mould  of  the  desired  shape  is  formed  around  the 
casting ;  the  metal  is  then  poured  into  the  mould,  and  allowed  to  escape  through  a 
flow-gate  until  the  surface  of  the  casting  is  melted,  and  the  metals  unite,  the  same 
as  in  burning  together  brass  castings.  In  this  way,  small  pieces  that  have  broken  oft 
large  castings  are  burned  on,  and  cylinders  that  have  had  part  of  the  flanges  torn  oft"  by 
blowing  out  the  heads  are  repaired  by  burning  on  a  new  flange  or  the  part  that  has  been 
torn  oif.  In  burning  on  to  cast  iron  there  are  several  very  important  points  that  must 
be  observed  in  order  to  make  it  a  success.  The  ingate,  as  well  as  the  flow-gate,  should 
be  made  of  a  good  size,  so  that  the  molten  metal  may  be  flowed  through  them  rapidly 
if  necessary.  The  molten  iron  used  should  be  the  hottest  that  can  be  procured,  and 
in  pouring  it  into  the  gate  it  should  be  let  in  rapidly  at  first,  and  allowed  to  run  out 
freely  at  the  flow-gate,  so  as  to  prevent  its  being  chilled  upon  the  surface  of  the  casting. 
After  the  casting  has  been  heated  in  this  way,  the  metal  should  be  poured  and  flowed 
through  the  gates  slowly,  so  as  to  give  the  solid  metal  a  chance  to  melt  and  unite  with 
the  fluid  metal.  After  the  surface  of  the  metal  has  been  melted,  the  pouring  should 
be  urged,  so  as  to  unite  the  metals  more  thoroughly  ;  the  operation  should  be  continued 
for  some  time,  so  that  the  casting  may  be  more  thoroughly  heated,  and  not  be  so  liable  to 
crack  from  uneven  expansion  and  shrinkage. 

The  process  of  burning  together  or  mending  is  often  resorted  to  by  stove-plate 
moulders  for  stopping  small  holes  in  the  plates ;  this  is  done  by  laying  the  plate  on 
the  sand,  with  the  sand  firmly  tucked  under  the  part  to  be  mended  ;  a  little  sand  is  also 
put  on  top  of  the  plate,  around  the  part  to  be  mended,  so  as  to  prevent  the  iron  spread- 
ing over  the  plate ;  the  molten  iron  is  poured  on  the  part  to  be  mended,  until  the  edges 
are  fused,  and  the  surplus  metal  is  then  scraped  off  with  the  trowel  or  a  clamp  iron 
while  in  the  molten  state. 

The  simplest  method  of  burning  is  that  adopted  in  the  manufacture  of  leaden  tubs, 
tanks,  and  other  vessels,  the  success  of  the  operation  depending  more  upon  the 
quantity  and  state  of  the  materials  than  upon  the  skill  of  the  workman.  Thus  if  a 
round  or  square  tank  is  required,  a  piece  of  the  sheet  lead  sufficient  in  size  to  form  the 
sides  and  ends  of  the  tank,  or  the  hoop,  if  a  round  one,  is  bent  into  shape,  the  over- 
lapping ends  being  secured  by  a  few  touches  of  solder  or  a  few  nails,  driven  from  the 
inside,  so  as  to  keep  the  overlapping  edges  perfectly  close.  On  the  outside  of  the  joint  a 
piece  of  stout  brown  paper  is  pasted,  so  as  to  cover  the  whole  of  the  joint.  The  hoop 
or  parts  to  be  joined,  are  then  turned  downwards  on  to  the  casting  floor,  and  moulding 
sand  of  good  quality  is  packed  over  the  joint  to  about  5  or  6  in.  in  depth,  a  piece  of 
wood  about  |  in.  thick  being  placed  over  the  junction  of  the  edges,  while  the  sand  is 
being  rammed  together.  This  wood  is  to  form  the  runner  or  channel  for  the  molten 
metal,  and  must  be  slightly  longer  than  the  joint  to  be  made,  so  that  it  can  be  drawn 
out  lengthways.  The  sand  being  tolerably  firm,  cut  down  to  the  wood,  with  a  trowel, 
forming  a  sort  of  V-shaped  groove  along  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  intended  joint, 
leaving  a  few  inches  of  the  wood  buried  at  one  end,  which  is  also  to  be  completely 
stopped.  When  the  wood  is  drawn  out,  which  is  the  next  operation,  the  other  end  of 
the  ''  runner "  is  to  be  stopped  up  to  a  greater  or  lesser  height,  according  to  the 
thickness  of  the  metal;  about  1  in.  is  usually  sufficient.  It  will  be  understood  that  we 
have  here,  as  it  were,  a  broad-mouthed  ditch  in  the  sand,  stopped  at  one  end,  and  with  a 
"bar"  1  in.  deep  at  the  other  ;  and  at  the  bottom  are  the  overlapping  edges  of  the  lead 
that  is  to  be  joined,  A  quantity  of  lead  is  then  melted  in  a  furnace,  and  brought 
to  a  heat  sufficient  to  melt  the  2  edges  in  the  metal  to  be  joined.  Everything  being 
in  readiness,  a  small  quantity  of  rosin  is  dusted  along  the  intended  joint  at  the  bottom 
of  the  runner,  and  a  bay  is  formed  to  catch  the  overflow  of  metal.  The  latter  is  then 
poured  in  steadily  but'  quickly,  giving  it  as  much  fall  as  possible,  and  keeping  up  the 
supply  till  by  means  of  a  trying  stick  it  is  known  that  the  cold  metal  of  the  edges  haa 


94  Soldering— Burnino:, 


o 


becu  melted.  The  overflow  end  is  theu  stopped  up,  and  more  metal  is  poured  in, 
the  molten  lead  being  kept  ready  to  fill  up  as  shrinkage  shows  itself.  "WTien  set,  the 
sand  is  removed,  and  the  "  runner,"  or  the  remains  of  the  metal  poured  on  the  joint,  is 
cut  off  with  a  chisel  and  mallet ;  the  surface  is  finished  off  with  a  scratch-brush  or 
wire-card.  The  paper  that  was  pasted  over  the  outside  will  have  fallen  off,  and  will 
be  seen  to  have  left  a  smooth  surface,  in  which  no  trace  of  a  join  is  visible.  The  secret 
of  success  lies  in  having  a  good  bed  of  sand,  plenty  of  hot  metal,  and  careful  attention 
to  the  shrinkage.  The  bottom  of  the  tub  or  tank  is  put  in  by  a  similar  process. 
The  hoop  or  sides,  when  the  tank  is  not  too  deep,  being  completely  sunk  in  a  hole 
in  the  casting-shop,  is  filled  up  with  sand  inside  and  out.  The  sand  is  then  removed 
from  the  inside  to  a  depth  equal  to  the  thickness  required  iu  the  bottom  of  the  tank, 
and  smoothed  over  well  with  the  trowel.  The  sand  outside  the  tank  must  be  rammed 
hard,  and  a  bay  left  all  round  to  take  the  overflow.  As  before,  rosin  is  sprinkled  over 
the  edge  of  the  metal,  and  the  melting-furnace  is  brought  close  to  the  work.  When  the 
metal  is  as  hot  as  possible,  2  or  more  men  take  a  ladleful  and  pour  along  the  edge,  and 
when  the  latter  is  melted,  the  molten  metal  is  poured  in  until  it  is  up  to  and  running 
over  the  level  of  the  outside  sand  all  round.  The  dross  is  then  skimmed  off  and  the 
metal  is  left  to  cool,  as  it  shrinks  equally  all  over  and  requires  no  further  attention. 
It  is  obvious  that  instead  of  making  the  bottom  by  pouring  on  molten  metal,  a  piece  of 
the  required  size  can  be  cut  out  of  thinner  sheet  lead,  and  placed  on  the  top  of  the 
inside  sand  ;  but  the  majority  of  experienced  workmen  prefer  the  first-mentioned  method 
of  burning  in  a  bottom.  If  the  article  is  of  considerable  size,  however,  it  is  necessary 
to  have  more  than  one  workman,  as  the  metal  must  be  poured  on  as  quickly  as  possible.  ' 

This  method  of  lead-burning  is  considerably  troublesome,  and  is  rarely  used,  except 
when  the  lead  is  too  thick  to  be  melted  conveniently  by  means  of  the  blowpipe,  or  the 
oxyhydrogen  flame.  The  latter  is,  however,  always  used  when  possible  by  those  who 
can  accomplish  the  operation,  which  requires  a  much  greater  degree  of  skill  than  the 
process  described  above. 

Similar  processes  are  applicable  in  the  case  of  the  other  metals.  Thus  brass  may  be 
burned  together  by  placing  the  parts  to  be  joined  in  a  sand  mould,  and  pouring  a 
quantity  of  molten  brass  on  them,  afterwards  reducing  the  parts  by  means  of  the  file, 
&c.,  to  proper  dimensions.  The  sine  qua  non  is  plenty  of  molten  metal,  made  a 
trifle  hotter  than  usual.  Pewter  is  generally  "  burned "  by  the  blowpipe  or  a  very 
hot  copper-bit.  In  angles,  where  bent  over  sharp  comers,  and  in  seams,  one  edge  is 
allowed  to  stand  over  the  surface  of  the  other,  and  a  strip  of  the  same  metal  is  then 
laid  along  the  intended  junction.  This  joint  is  burned,  as  mentioned,  by  melting  the 
surfaces  and  edges  by  means  of  a  blowpipe  or  the  hot  soldering-iron,  and  the  super- 
fluous metal  is  filed  off,  leaving  the  joint,  if  at  an  angle,  looking  as  if  it  had  been 
made  out  of  the  solid.  The  principle  of  the  process  is  the  same  whatever  be  the  mode 
in  which  it  is  performed ;  and  when  hot  metal  is  used  as  the  sole  agent  of  heat,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  plenty  of  it,  and  to  see  that  the  parts  to  be"  joined  are  clean.  It  is 
scarcely  necessary  to  say  that  the  autogenous  method  is  the  only  proper  method  of 
remedying  the  defects  in  castings,  and  notwithstanding  the  trouble  attached  to  it, 
should  always  be  attempted  with  all  metals  for  which  it  is  applicable,  and  all  articles 
in  which  it  is  possible.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  trifling  defects  in  iron  castings 
will  be  remedied  by  this  means,  though  there  is  no  very  great  difficulty  in  accomplishing 
it,  as  flanges  are  often  burned  on  to  pipes  and  wheels,  but  with  the  more  costly  or  easily 
worked  metals,  the  practice  of  this  process  would  be  attended  with  advantage. 

Dr.  Hoffman  suggests  endeavours  being  made  to  employ  the  oxyhydrogen  flame  for 
effecting  autogenous  joints  in  all  metals.  The  operation  is  already  conducted  with 
complete  success  in  the  case  of  2  essentially  different  metals,  lead  and  platinum,  and 
offers  the  advantages  of  being  cleaner,  stronger,  and  more  economical  of  time  and 
materials. 


Soldering — Burnm^. 


95 


For  all  leaden  vessels  and  chambers  to  be  used  in  contact  witli  acid  vapours  or  liquids, 
autogenous  soldering  is  the  only  admissible  way  of  making  a  joint.  Tho  apparatus 
employed  consists  of  a  hydrogen  gas  generator,  or  "  burning  machine,"  as  it  is  conmionly 
called,  an  "air  vessel  "  or  portable  bellows,  some  indiarubber  tubing,  and  a  set  of  o-as- 
cocks  and  jets.  The  hydrogen  generator  is  shown  in  Fig.  148  :  a  is  an  airtight  leaden 
cistern,  having  a  perforated  shelf  h,  and  an  opening  c  in  the  top;  d  is  another  leaden 
cistern  with  a  perforated  shelf  e.    A  pipe /connects  the  cisterns  a  d,  passing  through  a 


us. 


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ijuiy 


as  far  as  the  shelf  h,  which  it  just  perforates.  The  hinged  cover  g  being  turned  back, 
the  cistern  a  is  filled  with  sheet  zinc  cuttings,  and  the  cover  is  closed.  Diluted  oil  of 
vitriol,  say  1  qt.  of  the  acid  to  1  gal.  water,  is  poured  into  the  cistern  d,  and  finds  its 
way  through  the  pipe /into  the  bottom  of  the  cistern  a,  rising  through  the  strainer  h, 
and  surrounding  the  zinc.    The  acid  acts  upon  the  zinc,  forming  zinc  suli^hate,  with 


96 


Soldering — Burning. 


consequent  liberation  of  hydrogen.  As  the  hydrogen  gas  is  set  free,  it  passes  through  the 
cock  and  pipe  h  into  the  leaden  vessel  i,  partially  filled  -with  water,  and,  passing  through 
the  water,  it  becomes  purified,  and  escapes  at  the  pipe  h  ;  m  is  the  pipe  through  which 
the  generator  is  emptied  of  acid  when  the  gas  is  no  longer  required.  The  vessel  i  may 
be  removed  from  its  place  by  unscrewing  the  nut  close  to  the  cock  on  the  pipe  7t,  and 


149. 


151. 


j^y,kkXm?U  ■Vl'l'-r^^rTTTvi     ^ 


rS 


TOP  VIEW 


150. 


may  be  filled  with  water  or  emptied  through  the  pipe  n.  The  pipes 
m  and  n  are  plugged  with  corks ;  o  are  short  pieces  of  pipe  supporting 
the  shelf  6,  to  which  they  are  attached. 

The  air  vessel  consists  simply  of  a  wooden  cask  open  at  the  top, 
containing  a  cylinder  of  zinc,  with  a  closed  top,  having  a  hole  and 
cover  in  the  centre,  as  shown  in  Fig.  149,  which  is  drawn  on  a  scale 
of  ^  in.  =  1  ft.  The  cask  a  is  partially  filled  with  water,  the  cover  h  \p5»* 
(which  is  coated  underneath  with  sheet  indiarubber  to  make  it  shut 
close)  is  opened,  the  cylinder  c  is  raised,  and  the  cover  is  closed  agiain,  preventing  th& 
escape  of  air  from  the  cylinder  except  through  the  small  pipe  d.  A  weight  e  is  placed! 
on  the  top  of  the  cylinder,  to  keep  the  cover  h  firmly  closed,  aud  give  force  to  the 
current  of  air  issuing  from  d,  the  weight  being  conveniently  represented  by  a  J-,  J-,  or 
1-cwt.,  according  to  the  pressure  of  air  required. 


Soldering — Cold;  Hard.  97 

A  small  bellows,  Fig.  150,  is  sometimes  used  by  plumbers  for  obtaining  a  supply  of 
air.  It  is  more  portable  than  the  air  vessel,  but  cannot  bo  usl(1  without  an  assistant  to 
work  .it. 

ludiarubber  tubes  o  h  (Fig.  151)  connect  the  gas  generator  and  air  vessel  or  bellows 
with  a  pail  of  brass  cocks  and  breeches-pipe  c.  Tlie  gas  aTul  air,  being  admitted  tlirouf  li 
these  cocks,  unite  in  the  tube  d,  and,  pnssing  through  the  brass  i)ipe  e  and  jet/,  may  bo 
ignited,  and  produce  an  intensely  hot  flame,  by  which  leaden  sheets  may  be  joined 
without  the  aid  of  any  flux. 

The  lead  to  be  burned  must  first  be  scraped  bright,  and  where  a  strong  seam  is  required 
as  for  instance  in  the  bottoms  of  chambers,  strips  of  clean  lead  are  run  on  in  the  manner 
(if  solder.  But  it  is  essential  to  success  that  all  the  surfaces  to  be  subjected  to  the  flame 
be  bright  and  dry,  and  that  no  moisture  be  sufticiently  near  the  seam  to  be  drawn  into  it 
by  the  heat.  Several  jets  are  in  use,  with  holes  of  various  sizes,  for  procuring  a  laro'e  or 
small  flame,  according  to  the  special  requirements  of  the  work  in  hand ;  and  the  intensity 
of  the  heat  is  also  regulated  by  the  proportions  and  quantities  of  gas  and  air  admitted 
through  the  cocks.  As  it  is  imperative  that  the  flame  should  not  be  subject  to  sudden 
variation,  little  brass  tubes  are  fitted  to  the  nozzle  to  guard  the  flame  from  air  currents, 
when  working  out  of  doors  or  in  draughty  places.     (Lock's  '  Sulphuric  Acid,') 

Cold  Soldering. — Various  nostrums  have  been  proposed  from  time  to  time  which 
profess  to  be  reliable  methods  of  soldering  without  heat ;  but  when  tried,  they  have 
geuerally  proved  useless.  The  following  recipe,  which  is  due  to  Fletcher,  of  Warring- 
ton, will  be  found  to  bo  more  trustworthy.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  though  the 
first  preparation  is  tedious,  a  large  quantity  of  the  materials  can  be  made  at  once,  and  the 
actual  soldering  process  is  as  simple  and  quick  as  it  well  can  be. 

Flux :  1  part  metallic  sodium  to  50  or  CO  of  mercury.  These  combine  on  being  wel\ 
shaken  in  a  bottle.  If  this  is  too  much  trouble,  the  sodium  amalgam  can  be  bought,  ready 
made,  from  any  chemist  or  dealer  in  reagents.  This  sodium  amalgam  must  be  kept  in  a 
stoppered  bottle  closed  from  the  air.  It  has  the  projjerty  of  amalgamating  (equivalent 
to  tinning  by  heat)  any  metallic  surface,  cast  iron  included. 

Solder :  Make  a  weak  solution  of  copper  sulphate,  about  1  oz,  to  1  qt.  of  water. 
Precipitate  the  copper  by  rods  of  zinc ;  wash  the  precipit;ite  2  or  3  times  with  hot  water  ; 
drain  the  water  off,  and  add,  for  every  3  oz.  of  precipitate,  6  oz.  or  7  oz.  mercury  ;  add 
also  a  little  sulphuric  acid  to  assist  the  combination  of  the  2  metals.  When  combined, 
they  form  a  paste  which  sets  intensely  hard  in  a  few  hours,  and  this  paste  should  be 
made,  whilst  soft,  into  small  pellets. 

When  wanted  for  use,  heat  one  or  more  of  the  pellets  until  the  mercury  oozes  out 
from  the  surface  in  small  beads  ;  shake  or  wipe  them  ofl",  and  rub  the'  pellet  into  a  sofl 
paste  with  a  small  mortar  and  pestle,  or  by  any  other  convenient  means,  until  it  is  as 
smooth  and  soft  as  painters'  white-lead.  This,  when  put  on  a  surface  previously  amal- 
gamated by  the  sodium  and  mercury,  adheres  firmly,  and  sets  perfectly  hard  in  about  3 
hours.  The  joint  can  be  parted,  if  necessary,  either  by  a  hammer  and  cold  chisel,  or  by 
a  heat  about  sufficient  to  melt  plumbers'  solder. 

Hard  Soldering.— Hard  soldering  is  the  art  of  soldering  or  uniting  2  metals  or  2 
pieces  of  the  same  metal  together  by  means  of  solder  that  is  almost  as  hard  and  infusible 
as  the  metals  to  be  united.  In  some  cases,  the  metals  to  be  united  are  heated  to  a  high 
degree,  and  their  surfaces  simply  united  without  solder  by  means  of  fluxing  them.  This 
process  is  then  termed  brazing,  and  some  of  the  hard  soldering  processes  are  also  oftea 
termed  brazing  ;  both  brazing  and  hard  soldering  are  usually  done  in  the  open  fire  on 
the  braziers'  hearth.  When  soldering  work  of  copper,  iron,  brass,  &c.,  the  solder 
generally  used  is  a  fusible  brass,  and  the  work  to  be  soldered  is  prepared  by  filing  or 
scraping  perfectly  clean  the  edges  or  parts  to  be  united.  The  joints  are  then  put  in 
proper  position,  and  bound  securely  together  with  binding  wire  or  clamps ;  the  gnmu- 
lated  solder  and  powdered  boras  are  mixed  in  a  cup  with  a  very  little  water,  and  spread 

u 


98  SoLDEKiNQ — Hard. 

along  the  joint  to  be  united  with  a  strip  of  sheet  metal  or  a  small  spoon.  The  work  is 
then  placed  upon  a  clear  fii'e,  and  heated  gradually  to  evaporate  the  water  used  in 
uniting  the  solder  and  borax,  and  also  to  drive  off  the  water  contained  in  the  crystallized 
borax,  which  causes  the  borax  to  boil  up  with  an  appearance  of  froth.  If  the  work  is 
heated  hastily,  the  boiling  of  the  borax  may  displace  the  solder,  and  for  this  reason  it  is 
better  to  roast  or  boil  the  borax  before  mixing  with  the  solder.  When  the  borax  ceases 
to  boil,  the  heat  is  increased  ;  and  when  the  metal  becomes  a  faint  red,  the  borax  fuses 
quietly,  like  glass,  and  shortly  after,  as  the  heat  of  the  metal  is  increased  to  a  bright  red, 
the  solder  also  fuses,  which  is  indicated  by  a  small  blue  flame  from  the  burning  of  the 
zinc.  Just  at  this  time  the  work  should  be  jarred  slightly  by  being  tapped  lightly  with 
the  poker  or  hammer,  to  put  the  solder  in  vibration  and  cause  it  to  run  into  the  joint. 
For  some  work  it  is  not  necessary  to  tap  it  with  the  poker,  for  the  solder  is  absorbed 
into  the  joint  and  nearly  disappears  without  tajiping.  In  order  to  do  good  work,  it  is 
necessary  to  apply  the  heat  as  uniformly  as  possible,  so  as  to  have  the  solder  melt 
uniformly.  This  is  done  by  moving  the  work  about  in  the  fire.  As  soon  as  the  work 
has  been  properly  heated,  and  the  solder  has  flushed,  the  work  should  be  removed 
from  the  fire,  and,  after  the  solder  has  set,  it  may  be  cooled  in  cold  water  without 
injury. 

Tubes  to  be  soldered  are  generally  secured  by  binding  wire  twisted  together  around 
the  tube  with  the  pliers.  All  tubes  that  are  soldered  upon  the  open  fire  are  soldered  from 
within,  for  if  they  were  soldered  from  the  outside  the  heat  would  have  to  be  trans- 
mitted across  the  tube  with  greater  risk  of  melting  the  lower  part  of  the  tube,  the  air  in 
the  tube  being  a  bad  conductor  of  heat ;  and  it  is  necessary  that  both  ends  of  the  tube 
should  be  open,  so  as  to  watch  for  the  melting  of  the  solder.  lu  soldering  long  tubes, 
the  work  rests  upon  the  flat  plate  of  the  braziers'  hearth,  and  portions  equal  to  the 
length  of  the  fire  are  soldered  in  succession.  The  common  tubes  or  gas-pipes  are 
soldered  or  welded  from  the  outside.  This  is  done  by  heating  the  tube  in  a  long  air 
furnace,  completely  surrounded  by  hot  air,  by  which  means  the  tube  is  heated  more 
uniformly  than  in  the  open  fire.  After  the  tubes  have  been  heated  to  the  welding  heat, 
they  are  taken  out  of  the  furnace,  and  drawn  through  clamps  or  tongs  to  unite 
the  edges,  and  are  then  run  through  grooved  rollers  2  or  3  times,  and  the  process  is 
complete.  The  soldering  or  welding  of  iron  tubes  requires  much  less  precaution  in 
point  of  the  heat  than  some  of  the  other  metals  or  alloys,  for  there  is  little  or  no  risk  of 
fusing  it. 

In  soldering  light  ironwork,  such  as  locks,  hinges,  &c.,  the  work  is  usually  covered 
with  a  thin  coating  of  loam  to  j^revent  the  iron  from  being  scaled  off  by  the  heat. 
Sheet  iron  may  be  soldered  at  a  cherry-red  heat  by  using  iron  filings  and  pulverized 
borax  as  a  solder  and  flux.  The  solder  and  flux  are  laid  between  the  irons  to  be 
soldered,  and  the  whole  is  bound  together  with  binding  wire,  heated  to  redness,  taken 
from  the  fire,  and  laid  upon  the  anvil ;  the  2  irons  are  united  by  a  stroke  upon  the  set 
hammer.  Steel  or  heavy  iron  may  be  united  in  the  same  way  at  a  very  low  heat.  For 
soldering  iron,  steel,  and  other  light-coloured  metals,  as  well  as  brasswork  that  requires 
to  be  very  neatly  done,  the  silver  solder  is  generally  used  on  account  of  its  superior 
fusibility  and  combining  so  well  with  most  metals,  without  gnawing  or  eating  away 
the  sharp  edges  of  the  joints.  Silver  solder  is  used  a  great  deal  in  the  arts,  and  from 
the  sparing  or  careful  way  in  which  it  is  used,  most  work  requires  little  or  no  finish  after 
soldering,  so  that  the  silver  solder,  although  expensive,  is  in  reality  the  cheapest  solder  in 
the  long  run.  For  silver  soldering,  the  solder  is  rolled  into  thin  sheets  and  then  cut 
into  narrow  strips  with  the  shears.  The  joints  or  edges  to  be  united  are  first  coated  with 
pulverized  borax,  which  has  been  previously  heated  or  boiled  to  drive  off  the  water  of 
crystallization.  The  small  strips  of  solder  are  tlien  placed  with  forceps  upon  the  edges 
or  joints  to  be  united,  and  the  work  is  heated  upon  the  braziers'  hearth.  The  process  of 
silver  soldering  upon  the  larger  scale  is  essentially  the  same  as  the  operation  of  brazing. 


Soldering — Soft.  09 

For  hard  solJerius:  small  work,  such  as  drawing  instruments,  jewellery,  buttons,  &c.,  tlio 
blowpipe  is  almost  exclusively  used,  and  the  solder  employed  is  of  the  finest  or  best 
quality,  such  as  gold  or  silver  solder,  which  is  always  drawn  into  thin  sheets  of  very  fino 
wire,  and  it  is  sometimes  pulverized  or  granulated  by  fding  ;  but  if  solder  is  pulverized 
very  fine,  a  greater  degree  of  heat  is  required  to  fuse  a  minute  particle  of  metal  than 
to  fuse  a  large  piece. 

In  soldering  jewellery,  the  jeweller  usually  applies  the  borax  or  other  flux  in  solution 
with  a  very  small  camel-hair  brush.  The  solder  is  rolled  into  very  thin  sheets  and  then 
clipped  into  minute  particles  of  any  desired  shape  or  size,  which  are  so  delicately  applied 
to  the  work  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  file  or  scrape  off  any  portion  of  them,  none  bein"- 
in  excess.  The  borax  or  other  flux  nsed  in  the  operation  is  removed  by  rubbing  the  work 
with  a  rag  that  has  been  moistened  with  water  or  dilute  acids. 

Soft  Soldering. — Soft  soldering  is  the  art  of  soldering  or  uniting  2  of  tlie  fusil)le 
metals  or  2  pieces  of  the  same  metal.  The  solder  used  is  a  more  soft  and  fusiljle  alloy 
than  the  metals  united,  and  the  mode  of  applying  the  heat  is  consequently  different  from 
that  employed  in  hard  soldering.  The  soft  solders  are  prepared  in  different  forms  to  suit 
the  different  'classes  of  work  for  which  they  are  intended.  Thus  for  tin  soldering,  the 
solder  is  cast  into  bars  of  10  or  12  in.  long  by  1  in.  wide,  and  by  some  it  is  cast  into 
cakes  10  or  12  in.  long  by  3  or  4  in.  wide.  Plumbers'  solder  is  generally  cast  into  small 
ingots  or  cakes,  2  in.  square  or  more,  according  to  the  work  for  which  they  are  intended, 
and  size  of  pot  they  are  to  bo  melted  in.  Some  of  the  very  fusible  solders  that  are 
destined  for  very  light  work  are  trailed  from  the  ladle  upon  an  iron  plate,  so  as  to  draw 
the  solder  into  thin  or  large  bars,  so  that  the  size  of  the  solder  may  always  suit  the  work 
tliat  it  is  used  upon. 

In  soft  soldering,  it  is  very  essential  that  the  parts  to  be  united  should  be  perfectly 
clean  and  free  from  metallic  oxides,  and  for  this  reason  they  are  generally  wet  with  a 
little  zinc  chloride  before  applying  the  solder ;  and  when  the  metal  is  old  or  very  dirty, 
it  must  be  scraped  on  the  edges  intended  to  be  united  before  applying  the  solder. 
When  soldering  leaden  pipe,  sheet  lead,  &c.,  the  plumber  first  smears  a  mixture  of  size 
and  lampblack  around  the  intended  joint  to  prevent  the  melted  solder  adhering  to  the 
metal  at  the  point  where  it  is  not  wanted.  The  parts  to  be  united  are  then  scraped 
quite  clean  with  the  shave-hook,  and  the  clean  metal  is  rubbed  over  with  tallow.  The 
wiped  joints  are  usually  made  without  using  the  soldering-iron.  The  solder  is  heated 
in  the  plumbers'  pot  rather  beyond  its  melting-point,  and  poured  plentifully  upon  the 
joint  to  heat  it.  The  solder  is  then  moulded  into  the  proper  shape,  and  smoothed  with 
cloth  or  several  folds  of  thick  bed-ticking,  which  is  well  greased  to  prevent  burning, 
and  the  surplus  solder  is  removed  by  the  cloth.  In  forming  the  striped  joint,  the 
soldering-iron  and  cloth  are  both  used  at  the  commencement  in  moulding  the  solder  and 
heating  the  joint.  Less  solder  is  poured  on  when  forming  this  joint  than  when  forming 
the  wiped  joint,  and  a  smaller  quantity  remains  upon  the  work.  Striped  joints  are  not 
so  neat  in  appearance  as  wiped  joints,  but  they  are  often  claimed  to  be  sounder,  from 
the  solder  having  been  left  undisturbed  when  in  the  act  of  cooling ;  but  in  wiped  joints, 
the  body  of  solder  is  heavier,  and  the  shrinkage  of  it  around  the  pipe  is  suiBcient  to 
unite  with  the  pipe.  In  forming  joints  in  leaden  pipe^the  cloth  is  always  used  to  support 
the  fluid  solder  when  poured  on  the  pipe. 

Light  leadwork  that  requires  more  neatness  than  the  ordinary  plumbing  is  usually 
soldered  with  the  common  tinners'  soldering-iron.  This  is  made  of  a  square  piece  of 
copper  weighing  3  or  4:  oz.  to  3  or  4  lb.,  according  to  the  size  of  the  work  it  is  intended 
for.  This  piece  of  copper  is  drawn  down  to  a  long  square  point,  or  to  a  flat  wedge,  and  is 
riveted  into  an  iron  shank  fitted  to  a  wooden  handle.  The  copper  bit  or  soldermg-iroi; 
is  then  heated  in  the  tinners'  firepot  with  charcoal  to  dull  redness,  and  is  then  screwed 
in  the  vice  and  hastily  filed  to  a  clean  metallic  surface.  It  is  next  rubbed  with  a  piece 
of  sal-ammoniac,  or  on  some  powdered  rosin,  and  then  upon  a  few  drops  of  solder  in  the 

H  2 


100  Soldering — Soft. 

bottom  of  the  soldering-pan.  In  tiiis  way  tlie  soldering-iron  is  thoroughly  coated  ■with 
tin,  and  is  then  ready  fur  use.  In  soldering  tin-plate  work,  the  edges  are  slightly 
lapped  over  each  other,  and  the  joint  or  seam  is  strewed  with  powdered  rosin,  which  is 
usually  contained  in  a  small  hox  set  in  tlie  soldering-pan.  Tlie  soldering-iron,  wliich 
has  been  heated  in  the  tirepot,  is  then  drawn  over  the  cake  of  solder ;  a  few  drops 
are  melted  and  adhere  to  the  soldering-iron,  and  are  distributed  by  it  along  the  joint  or 
seam.  In  large  work,  the  seams  are  first  tacked  together,  or  united  by  drops  of  solder 
EO  as  to  hold  the  seams  in  proper  position  while  being  soldered ;  but  this  is  seldom 
done  in  small  work,  which  can  be  easily  held  together  with  the  hands.  Two  soldering 
tools  are  generally  employed,  so  that  while  one  is  being  used  for  soldering,  the  other  is 
being  reheated  in  the  firepot,  thus  avoiding  the  delay  of  waiting  for  the  tool  to  heat. 
The  temperature  of  the  tool  is  very  important :  if  it  is  not  hot  enough  to  melt  the  solder, 
it  must  be  returned  to  the  fire ;  and  if  it  gets  too  hot,  the  tinning  will  be  burnt  oft", 
the  solder  will  not  hang  to  it,  and  the  tool  must  be  retinned  before  it  can  be  used.  In 
soldering  tinware,  the  tool  is  usually  passed  only  once  over  the  work,  being  guided 
by  the  contact  with  the  fold  or  ledge  of  the  seam ;  but  when  the  operator  is  not  an 
expert,  he  usually  runs  the  tool  backward  and  forward  over  the  work  2  or  3  times.  This 
makes  slow  work. 

Sheet  copper,  in  common  work,  is  soldered  with  the  soldering-iron  in  the  same 
manner  as  sheet  tin  ;  but  the  finer  or  more  important  work  is  brazed  or  hard  soldered. 
In  soft  soldering  copper,  as  well  as  sheet  iron,  the  flux  generally  used  is  powdered 
sal-ammoniac,  or  a  solution  of  sal-ammoniac  and  water.  A  piece  of  cane,  the  end  of 
which  is  split  into  filaments  to  make  a  stubby  brush,  is  used  for  laying  the  solution  on 
the  work,  and  powdered  rosin  is  subsequently  applied.  Some  workmen  mix  the  powdered 
sal-ammoniac  and  rosin  together  before  applying  it  to  the  work.  This  they  claim  u 
better  than  putting  them  on  separately ;  but  so  long  as  the  metals  are  w^ell  defended 
from  oxidation,  either  of  the  modes  is  equally  good,  for  the  general  principle  is  the 
same  in  both.  Zinc  is  the  most  difficult  metal  to  solder,  and  the  joints  or  seams  are 
seldom  so  neatly  formed  as  in  tin  or  copper.  Zinc  will  remove  the  coating  of  tin  from 
the  soldering  tool  in  a  very  short  time.  This  arises  from  the  superior  afl^inity  of  copper 
for  zinc  than  for  tin,  and  the  surface  of  the  tool  is  freed  from  tin,  and  is  coated  with 
zinc.  Sal-ammoniac  is  sometimes  used  for  a  flux  in  soldering  zinc,  but  the  most 
common  flux  employed  for  zinc  is  zinc  chloride,  which  is  made  by  dissolving  fragments 
of  zinc  in  hydrochloric  acid  diluted  with  about  an  equal  amount  of  water.  This  solution 
is  put  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  and  small  strips  of  zinc  are  dropped  into  it  imtil 
they  cease  to  be  dissolved.  The  solution  is  then  ready  for  use ;  it  is  likewise  resorted 
to  for  almost  all  the  other  metals,  as  it  can  be  employed  without  such  strict  necessity 
for  clean  surfaces  as  when  some  of  the  other  fluxes  are  availed  of. 

In  soft  soldering,  the  soldering-iron  is  only  used  for  thin  sheet  metals,  because, 
in  order  to  unite  2  metals  by  soldering,  their  temperature  must  be  raised  to  the  melting- 
point  of  the  solder,  and  a  heavy  body  of  metal  cannot  be  sufiiciently  heated  with  the 
soldering-iron  without  making  the  latter  too  hot,  which  is  apt  to  burn  off  the  coating 
of  tin,  or  to  cause  it  to  be  absorbed  by  the  copper,  as  in  superficial  alloying,  and  the  solder 
will  not  adhere  to  the  tool,  and  cannot  be  spread  along  the  joint  by  it.  In  soft  soldering 
heavy  work,  the  work  is  first  filed  or  scraped  perfectly  clean  at  the  points  to  be  soldered,  and 
is  dipped  into  a  bath  of  liquid  solder,  which  is  covered  with  a  little  melted  sal-ammoniac 
to  prevent  oxidation,  and  also  to  act  as  a  flux  for  uniting  the  metals.  In  dipping 
the  work  into  tiie  bath,  it  flrst  comes  into  contact  with  the  flux,  and  is  coated  by  it 
before  it  is  subjected  to  the  heat ;  when  dipped  into  the  solder,  the  tin  readily  adheres 
to  it ;  and  after  heavy  pieces  of  metal  have  been  tinned  in  this  way,  or  by  the  process  of 
dry-tinning  with  mercury,  they  may  be  soldered  with  the  soldering-iron.  "When  tinning 
thin  pieces  of  brass  or  copper  alloys  for  soldering,  it  is  usually  done  by  rubbing  a  few 
drops  of  solder  over  the  part  to  be  tinned  with  the  soldering-iron ;  and  if  tinned  by 


•  Soldering — Soft.  101 

dipping  into  a  bath,  it  must  be  quickly  dipped,  or  tlicrc  is  a  risk  of  tlio  Ihin  shcest  being 
melted  by  the  solder.  "When  tinning  iron  or  steel,  the  work  must  be  allowed  to  remain 
in  the  bath,  for  some  time,  so  as  to  be  thorouirhly  heated  bj-  the  bath,  or  the  tin  will 
not  be  completely  muted  to  the  iron  or  steel,  and  may  peel  off  when  cold.  Large  itieces 
of  iron  or  steel  that  are  inconvenient  to  dip  into  a  bath  are  tinned  by  heatin"-  in  an 
open  fire,  and  rubbing  the  solder  on  w  ith  tlie  soldering-iron,  using  cither  sal-ammoniao 
or  rosin  as  a  flux.  When  tinning  in  this  way,  the  lowest  heat  that  will  fuse  the  solder 
should  be  used. 

Hard  solder  differs  from  soft  solder  in  tliat  the  "  hard  "  ia  an  alloy  of  silver  and  brass 
■while  the  "  soft"  is  of  bismuth,  lead,  &c. ;  the  mode  of  working  differs  also.  "With  hard 
solder,  an  intense  and  glowing  heat  is  absolutely  necessary  to  cause  fusion  of  the  metals, 
but  \^ith  soft  solder  a  comparatively  low  heat  will  suffice.  It  must  be  evident  that  by 
the  former  mode,  where  fusion  takes  place,  there  is  a  more  complete  union  made  than 
by  the  latter,  where  there  is  little  more  than  cohesion.  The  latter  mode  of  repairing- 
has,  however,  these  advantages,  that  as  many  articles  are  built  up,  so  to  speak,  of  pieces, 
and  in  such  ways  that  only  experienced  workmen  can  handle  them  satisfactorily,  the 
amateur  may  attempt  repairing  them  with  greater  confidence  and  assurance  of  success 
and  he  has  no  need  to  provide  himself  with  a  variety  of  chemicals,  for  the  purpose  of 
restoring  the  colour  to  the  article  that  has  been  rendered  unsightly  by  the  heat.  Apart 
from  these  advantages  there  are  others,  as  soft  soldering  may  be  accomplished  by  the 
blowpipe,  the  soldering  "  bit,"  or  actual  contact  with  the  flame.  Preference  is  given  to 
one  method  by  one  worker,  to  another  by  another;  no  absolute  rule  can  be  laid  down; 
all  three  modes  can  be  used  as  the  necessities  of  the  work  in  hand  may  require. 
Eosin,  sal-ammoniac,  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid  and  zinc,  and  in  some  cases  fats,  are 
used  as  a  flux.  Generally  speaking,  hydrochloric  acid  (spirits  of  salts)  killed  by  zinc  will 
answer  all  purposes  :  to  make  the  solution,  procure  a  pennyworth  of  spirits  of  salts,  and 
place  it  in  an  open  glass  or  glazed  earthenware  vessel ;  and  having  a  number  of  small 
pieces  of  zinc,  throw  in  a  few.  As  they  become  consumed,  throw  in  more  until  all 
chemical  action  has  ceased.  So  soon  as  the  zinc  is  put  in,  a  violent  action  commences, 
and  it  is  well  to  set  the  vessel  down,  as  it  becomes  intensely  hot,  and  emits  a  pungent 
vapour  which  it  is  wise  not  to  inhale.  When  all  turbulence  has  ceased,  strain  off  the 
clear  liquid  and  add  twice  its  quantity  of  clear  water,  decanting  all  into  a  stoppered 
or  well-corked  bottle.  A  piece  or  two  of  zinc  may  be  dropped  in  to  kill  any  remaining 
salts.  A  soldering  bit  may  be  made  by  taking  a  piece  of  stout  brass  wire,  say,  rather 
thinner  than  a  common  wood  penholder,  and  about  G  in.  long,  and  hammering  one 
end  into  the  form  of  an  abrupt  spear-point ;  inserting  the  other  into  a  wooden  handle. 
Solder  of  a  pure  and  easy-flowing  kind  should  be  procured ;  preference  being  given 
to  that  sold  by  dealers  in  jewellers'  requisites.  A  pair  of  tweezers  or  long  slender 
pliers  should  alsQ  be  got.  Armed  with  these,  no  fear  of  burnt  fingers  need  be 
entertained. 

As  an  example  to  illustrate  the  operation,  we  may  take  the  movable  top  of  a  silver- 
plated  candlestick.  It  often  happens  that  a  too-low  burning  candle  mt-lts  the  solder 
away  from  the  connections.  To  repair  this,  carefully  remove  all  dirt  and  grease  from 
the  parts  in  contact,  and  scrape  them  bright  with  a  knife  or  other  tool.  Then  take 
the  '•  bit"  and  file  the  end  clean  ;  dip  it  in  the  zinc  solution,  and,  holding  the  afterpart 
in  the  gas  flame,  run  a  little  solder  all  over  the  tip  to  "  tin  "  it.  Next,  run  a  bead  of 
solder  on  the  end ;  then,  taking  either  part  of  the  broken  top  in  the  tweezers,  apply, 
by  means  of  a  peg  or  piece  of  brass  wire,  a  little  of  the  solution  to  the  part  where 
the  solder  is  required.  Proceed  to  warm  the  metal  top  in  the  edge  of  the  flame,  at  the 
same  time  holding  the  "  bit "  obliquely  in  the  gas  and  in  contact  with  the  top.  The 
solder  will  quickly  melt,  and  attach  to  it,  and  whilst  in  a  molten  state  must  be  thinly 
distributed  all  roimd  on  that  part  only  which  has  to  be  connected  with  the  socket. 
This  has  to  be  "  tinned  "  in  the  same  way.     This  done,  lay  aside  the  "  bit'  and  take  the 


102  Soldering — Soft. 

blowpipe.  Holding  the  top  inverted,  place  the  socket  in  its  position,  and  after  putting 
a  little  more  solution  to  the  parts,  direct  a  small  flame  all  round  the  joint,  turning  the 
article  about  to  do  this.  If  the  top  has  an  ornamental  filled  edge  to  it,  keei)  the  heat 
as  much  as  possible  away  from  that  part,  or  the  filling,  which  is  only  lead  or  solder, 
will  run  out.  A  sufficient  heat  having  been  got,  the  solder,  at  the  points  of  contact, 
will  melt  and  run  together.  When  it  lias  run  all  round,  press  the  socket  gently  down, 
and  hold  until  the  solder  is  seen  to  "set,"  and  the  union  is  then  completed.  Cool, 
and  swill  in  water.  If  there  is  an  excess  of  solder,  and  it  has  run  out  into  a  bead,  a 
sharp  knife-edge  will  detach  it,  and  an  oiled  leather  buff"  will  remove  the  stain.  A 
little  cleaning  with  rouge  will  finish  the  work.  Experience  only  in  these  matters  teaches 
one  how  much  or  how  little  solder  is  required :  use  too  little  rather  than  too  much  at 
first.  Do  not  let  the  solution  spatter  upon,  or  come  in  contact  with,  or  vaporize  near  to 
steel  tools,  or  they  will  soon  have  a  coating  of  rust  upon  them. 

Generalities. — (a)  Apparatus.  Blowpipes  and  Lamps. — The  blowpipe  and  an 
alcohol  lamp  are  largely  used  in  hard  soldering,  temi^ering  small  tools,  and  by  chemists 
and  mineralogists  as  an  important  means  of  analysis,  &c.,  and  for  these  uses  the 
blowjiipe  has  received  very  great  attention,  both  from  mechanics  and  distinguished 
philosophers.  Most  of  the  small  blowpipes  are  supplied  with  air  from  the  lungs  of  the 
operator,  and  the  larger  ones,  or  where  they  are  brought  into  general  use,  are  supplied 
v/ith  air  from  a  bellows  moved  with  the  foot,  or  from  a  vessel  in  which  the  air  has  been 
condensed  by  a  syringe,  or  from  a  small  rotary  fan.  The  ordinary  blowpipe  is  a  light 
brass  or  tin  tube  about  10  or  12  in.  long,  and  |  to  J  in.  in  diameter  at  the  end  for  the 
mouth  and  j\j  in.  or  less  at  the  jet  end.  The  small  end  is  slightly  curved,  so  that  the 
flame  may  be  thrown  immediately  imder  the  observation  of  the  operator.  There  are 
several  other  kinds  of  blowpipe  for  the  mouth,  which  are  fitted  with  various  contrivances, 
such  as  a  series  of  apertures  of  difierent  diameters,  joints  for  portability  and  for  placing 
the  jet  at  difi'erent  angles,  and  with  a  ball  for  collecting  the  condensed  vapour  from 
the  lungs ;  but  none  of  these  is  in  common  use.  The  blowpipe  may  be  supplied  with 
air  from  the  lungs  with  much  more  effect  than  might  be  expected,  and,  with  a  little 
practice,  a  constant  stream  can  be  maintained  for  several  minutes  if  the  cheeks  of  the 
operator  are  kept  fully  distended  with  wind,  so  that  their  elasticity  alone  will  serve  to 
impel  a  part  of  the  air,  while  the  ordinary  breathing  is  carried  on  through  tlie  nostrils 
for  a  fresh  supply. 

The  heat  created  by  the  blowpipe  is  so  intense  that  fragments  of  almost  all  the 
metals  may  be  melted  when  they  are  supported  upon  charcoal,  with  the  heat  from  a 
common  tallow  or  wax  candle.  The  most  intense  heat  from  the  blowpipe  is  the  pointed 
flame,  and  the  hottest  part  of  the  flame  is  the  extreme  jDoint  of  the  inner  or  blue  flame. 
Large  particles  of  ore  or  metals  that  require  less  heat  are  held  somewhat  nearer  to  the 
candle  or  lamp,  so  as  to  receive  a  greater  portion  of  the  flame,  and  when  a  very  mild 
degree  of  heat  is  wanted  on  a  small  piece  of  metal  it  is  held  farther  away.  By  thus 
increasing  or  decreasing  the  distance  between  the  candle  or  lamp  and  the  object  to  be 
melted,  any  desirable  degree  of  heat  may  be  obtained.  When  only  a  minute  portion  of 
metal  is  to  be  heated,  the  pointed  flame  is  used  with  a  mild  blast;  but  when  it  is  desir- 
able to  heat  a  large  surface  of  metal,  as  in  soldering  and  brazing,  a  much  larger  flame 
is  used.  This  is  produced  by  using  a  lamp  with  a  large  wick,  plentifully  supplied  with 
oil,  which  produces  a  large  flame.  The  blowpipe  used  has  a  larger  opening  than  the 
one  employed  for  the  pointed  flame,  and  is  held  at  a  little  distance  from  the  flame  and 
blown  vigorously,  so  as  to  spread  it  out  over  a  large  surface  of  the  work.  This  is  called 
the  bush  or  sheet  flame.  The  work  to  be  brazed  or  soldered  by  this  flame  is  generally 
supported  upon  charcoal. 

When  melting  metals  with  the  blowpijDe,  the  metal  to  be  melted  is  laid  upon  a  flat 
piece  of  charcoal,  which  has  previously  been  scooped  out  slighly  hollow  in  the  centre  to 
prevent  the  metal  from  running  off  when  melted.     If  it  is  desirable  to  run  the  metal  into 


Soldering — Blowpipes  and  Lamps. 


103 


a  mould  when  melted,  a  small  groove  or  lip  is  cut  in  (lie  charcoal,  and  when  Ihc  metal 
is  sufficiently  heated  it  is  poured  into  the  mould.  In  this  way,  jewellers  melt  most  of 
their  gold,  silver,  &c.,  when  making  rings  and  other  jewellery.  Tlio  cupel  is  also  used 
for  melting  metals  in  M'ith  the  blowpipe,  but  it  is  not  so  good  as  the  charcoal,  for  it  is 
liable  to  break  from  being  heated  unevenly,  and  spill  the  metals.  Several  different 
kinds  of  stationary  or  bench  blowpipes  are  used  by  jewellers,  braziers,  &-c. 

Two  examples  of  the 
152.  ^^^^-  mouth  blowpipe  are  shown 

in  Fig.  152,  the  form  a 
liaving  a  movable  nozzle 
which  may  be  screwed  on 
and  off,  thus  admitting  of 
the  use  of  a  jet  with  the 


]54. 


r3 


most  suitable  sized  orifice.     The  flange  h  is  convenient  for  holding  the  blowpipe  in  the 
mouth. 

Lamps  or  their  equivalents  show  a  variety  of  forms.      The   most    primitive  yet 
efficient  method  of  obtaining  a  flame  is  to  tie  a  bundle  of  dry  reeds,  coated  with  tallow 


156. 


by  immersion  in  melted  suet,  in  a  paper  wrapper,  and  siick  it  in  a  hole  iu  a  piece  of 
wood,  as  in  Fig.  153.  Sjnrit  lamps  differ  according  to  the  material  burned  in  them  and 
the  degree  of  heat  required  from  them.    A  handy  little  lamp  for  delicate  objects  is 


104 


Soldering — Blowpipes  and  Lamps. 


shown  in  Fig.  154.     One  made  by  Griffin  for  burning  a  mixture  of  wood  spirit  and  tur- 
pentine (4  volumes  to  1)  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  155.     Fletcher's  lamp  (Fig.  15G)  for  the 
same  mixture  has  the  spout  made  large  enough  to  accommodate  5  or  G  folds  of  1-in 
Boft  cotton  wick.   All  these  lamps  should  be  cajjped  when  not  iu  use 


Figs.  157  and  158 


159. 


represent  respectively  the  fixed  and  adjustable  forms  of  the  patent  self-acting  soldering 
lamps  with  blowpipes  attached.     Fig.  159  is  a  Bunsen  gas-burner. 

Blowers. — When  the  work  exceeds  the  capacity  of  the  mouth  blowpipe,  or  when  it 
is  too  continuous  to  be  done  with  the  mouth  alone,  a  mechanical  blower  must  be  used, 
and  the  selection  of  this  to  suit  the  work  required  is  a  matter 
of  considerable  importance.  The  temperature  of  a  given  flame, 
the  fuel  combustion  being  equal,  is  greater  in  inverse  proportion 
to  its  size.  The  smaller  a  flame  becomes  when  the  air  blast  is 
applied,  the  hotter  it  is,  and  the  more  work  it  will  do,  provided 
the  air  is  not  supplied  in  excessive  quantity.  Other  things 
being  equal,  a   high-pressure   blast  gives  the  most  poweiful 

153. 


flame,  and  the  pressure  of  the  air  supplied  is  therefore  a  matter  of  serious  importance. 
An  average  adult  can,  with  an  effort,  give  an  air  pressure  in  a  blowpipe  equal  to  about 
36  in.  of  water  pressure,  or  1^  lb.  on  the  sq.  in.  The  average  pressure  is,  however,  about 
half  this,  or  rather  less,  the  maximum  being  only  obtained  by  a  severe  strain,  which 
cannot  be  continued.  A  fan  worked  by  the  foot  will  give  an  air  pressure  equal  to 
about  i  to  1  in.  of  water.  A  fan  worked  by  jTOwer  will  give  air  at  1  to  5  in.  of  water 
pressure,  depending  on  its  speed  and  construction.  An  average  smiths'  bellows  about 
5  in.  pressure.  Small  heavily-weighted  circular  belloM's  about  8  to  10  in.  pressure. 
Eoot's  blower  driven  by  power,  24  in.  i>re3sure.     Fletcher's  foot  blower  No.  2,  15  in. 


Soldering— Blowpipes  and  Lamps.  105 

pressure.  Fletcher's  foot  blower  Nos.  3  and  5,  30  in.  iirossnro.  Fletcher's  foot  blower 
No.  4,  45  in.  pressure.     Cotton  and  Johnson's  foot  blower  (variable),  5  to  20  in.  pressure. 

The  temperature  of  a  blowpipe  flame  may  Ije  estimatod  from  tlio  above,  bcinj^  in 
close  i^roportion  to  the  pressure  of  air  supplied,  and  it  may  l)e  taken  ns  a  rou"h  rule  in 
brazing  or  hard  soldering  with  gas,  that,  given  an  air  pressure  equal  to  15  in.  of  water, 
a  blowpipe,  having  an  air  jet  of  -i-in.  bore,  will  braze  work  up  to  h  lb.  total  weight. 
One  with  an  air  jet  of  i-in.  bore  will  braze  up  to  about  2  11).  total  weight,  i.e.  2  brass 
weights,  each  1  lb.,  could  be  securely  brazed  together  with  a  blowpipe  with  J-in.  boro 
air  jet,  and  supplied  with  air  at  a  pressure  equal  to  15  in.  of  water,  or  10  oz.  on  tho 
sq.  in.  It  will,  of  course,  be  remembered  that  tho  areas  given  are  those  of  the  air  jet  or 
point  at  which  the  blast  leaves  the  blowpipe,  and  the  area  of  the  gas  supply  is  that  of 
the  space  between  the  air  tube  and  the  gas  tube  outside  it.  The  area  of  taps  and  pipes 
to  supply  these  must,  of  course,  be  larger,  to  prevent  friction  as  much  as  possible. 
When  anything  like  a  high  power  is  required,  it  is  of  the  first  necessity  that  any  elastic 
or  flexible  tube  used  shall  bo  perfectly  smooth  inside.  A  length  of  G  or  8  ft.  of  india- 
rubber  tube,  with  wire  inside,  will  reduce  a  gas  supply  or  a  pressure  of  blast  to  about 
one  half.  Practically  this  amounts  to  requiring  apparatus  double  the  size  for  the  same 
work,  and  it  therefore  does  not  pay  to  use  rough  tubing.  Applying  the  rule  to  other 
shapes  of  work,  it  may  be  taken  that  a  blowpipe  which  will  braze  a  block  of  2  lb.  total 
weight,  when  the  work  is  supported  on  a  good  non-conductor,  will  braze  brass  plate  up 
to  A  in.  or  -^^  in.  thick.  Its  capability  of  brazing  iron  is  not  so  great,  as  iron  does  not 
take  up  the  heat  of  the  blowpipe  so  readily  as  brass  does.  When  the  blowpipe  is 
eupplemeuted  by  either  a  bed  of  burning  coke  or  by  a  non-conducting  jacket  round  the 
work,  the  power  of  any  blowpipe  may  bo  extended  almost  without  limit,  as  little  of  the 
actual  work  of  heating  the  body  of  metal  is  done  by  the  direct  blowpipe  flame. 

In  the  construction  of  blowpipes  for  gas  they  should  be  so  proportioned  as  to  give  tho 
niaxinnnn  effect  for  the  minimum  of  fuel  and  blast.  To  do  this  the  air  pressure  available 
must  be  an  important  factor.  Speaking  roughly,  but  still  sufficiently  near  to  make  a 
correct  rule  to  work  by,  a  blowpipe  requires  1  of  gas  to  8  of  air.  If  the  gas  is  supplied 
at  a  pressure  eqnal  to  1  in.  of  water,  and  the  air  at  8  times  that  pressure,  the  area  of  the 
gas  and  air  pipes  should  be  equal,  to  get  the  best  efiect.  If  the  air  supply  is  equal  to 
16  in.  of  water  pressure,  the  gas  pipe  must  be  double  the  area  of  the  air,  and  so  on  in 
proportion.  Of  course  the  air  end  gas  supplies  can  be  adjusted  by  taps  easily,  but  in  the 
first  construction  of  a  blowpipe  for  large  work,  this  rule  must  be  adhered  to.  Any 
departure  from  it  reduces  the  power  of  tlie  blowpipe,  and  ignorance  of  this  simple  rule 
has  frequently  caused  failures  which  the  makers  of  blowpipes  have  been  unable  to 
explain. 

It  is  often  an  advantage  to  build  up  a  blowpipe  quickly  for  some  special  work,  and 
the  method  and  rules  for  construction  are  here  given,  bearing  in  mind  always  that  a  high- 
pressure  blast  gives  the  most  compact  and  highest  temperature  flame,  without  having 
any  actually  greater  quantity  of  heat  in  the  flame  produced. 

At  day,  pressure  =  10-lOths  on  the  gas  supply,  a  i-in.  jripe  with  a  J-in.  bore  tap  will 
Bupply  about  IJ  cub.  ft.  per  minute,  or  75  cub.  ft.  per  hour.  A  1-in.  bore  pipe  and  tap 
will  supply  about  5  cub.  ft.  per  minute.  About  25  cub.  ft.  of  gas  equals  1  lb.  of  coal  in 
fuel  value,  and,  therefore,  a  J-in.  gas  pipe  will  supply  at  the  rate  of  1  lb.  of  coal,  in  a 
gaseous  form,  in  20  minutes.  To  burn  this  in  a  blowpipe,  an  air  supply  of  10  cub.  ft. 
per  minute  is  required,  and  given  the  available  blast  pressure  the  area  of  tho  air  jet 
necessary  is  easily  found. 

For  the  construction  of  large  blowpipes  for  special  work,  the  stock  fittings  can 
generally  be  utilized,  and  an  efficient  blowpipe  built  up  in  a  few  minutes,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  160.  Nothing  more  is  necessary  than  3  short  bits  of  tube,  a  T  coupling  and 
diminishing  socket,  or  straight  union.  No  taps  are  necessary  on  tho  blowpipe,  if  not  at 
hand,  as  if  an  elastic  tube  is  used  the  flame  can  be  perfectly  controlled  by  squeezing  the 


106 


Soldering — Blowpipes  and  Lamps. 


tubes  between  the  fingers,  holding  them  in  the  same  way  as  the  reins  are  held  in  driving 
a  horse.  If  a  diminishing  socket  is  not  at  hand,  the  end  of  the  T-piece  can  be  plugged 
up  and  the  air  tube  fastened  into  this  plug,  and  it  will  be  a  convenience  if  an  elbow  is 
put  on  the  gas  inlet  close  to  the  T)  so  as  to  turn  the  gas  pipe  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  air  pipe.     In  this  form  it  makes  a  handy  and  convenient  blowpipe. 

For  any  except  very  small  work,  some  mechanical  blower  is  absolutely  necessary. 
Those  who  do  not  care  to  go  to  the  expense  of  any  of  the  apparatus  usually  sold,  can 
produce  a  good  make-shift  with  one  or  two  pairs  of  common  house  bellows.  If  an 
upholsterers'  or  sofa  spring  is  placed  between  the  handles  so  as  to  render  the  opening  of 
the  bellows  automatic,  the  pressure  of  the  foot  on  the  top  board  will  give  a  strong  blast 
of  air.  This,  although  intermittent,  acts  very  well  for  a  large  proi^ortion  of  work,  and  a 
full-sized  pair  of  house  bellows  will  supply  a  blowpipe  with  an  air  jet  of  full  -j  or  ^  in. 
bore.  A  continuous  blast,  at  all  events  for  soldering  and  brazing,  is  not  at  all  necessary, 
unless  the  maximum  possible  power  is  required.  To  obtain  a  continuous  blast  from  this 
arrangement  several  ways  may  be  adopted.  It  is  of  course  necessary  to  have  a  reservoir, 
which  is  always  under  pressure,  and  some  means  must  be  adopted  to  prevent  the  air  in  the 
reservoir  blowing  back  into  the  bellows,  whilst  they  are  being  lifted  between  the  strokes. 

If  a  square  tin  or  zinc  vessel  is  made,  with  a  sloping  partition,  shown  at  b  (Fig.  1Q1\ 

160. 


161. 


^as  JnleO 


the  partition  slightly  open  at  the  bottom,  and  the  vessel  half  filled  with  water,  the  air 
when  blown  by  the  bellows  through  the  pipe  c,  bubbles  up  through  the  water,  which 
makes  the  bottom  of  the  pipe  c  tight  against  the  return  of  the  air.  As  the  air  accumu- 
lates in  the  close  part,  it  presses  the  water  a  under  the  partition  to  the  other  side,  causing 
a  difference  in  level,  which  exerts  a  continued  pressure  on  the  air  pipe  on  the  top.  The 
deeper  this  vessel  the  heavier  the  air  pressure  which  can  be  obtained,  as  this  is  ruled  by 
the  difference  in  level  between  the  two  water  surfaces.  This  is  the  only  means  of  getting 
a  continuous  pressure  without  a  valve.  The  next  easiest  way  is  to  get  a  second  pair  of 
bellows,  plug  up  the  hole  underneath  the  inlet  valve  at  the  bottom,  and  in  this  plug 
insert  a  pipe  leading  from  the  first  pair  of  bellows.  The  second  pair  then  forms  the 
reservoir,  the  air  being  taken  from  the  nozzle  to  supply  the  blowpipe,  and  the  necessary 
pressure  must  be  obtained  by  weights  on  the  top  board  or  by  a  strong  spiral  spring  rest- 
ing on  the  top  board.  The  rule  with  house  bellows  is  that  they  are  made  in  a  wholesale 
rough  way,  and  very  few  are  anything  like  air-tight.  They  should  be  carefully  selected 
for  the  purpose  by  opening  fully,  stopping  the  nozzle  with  the  finger,  and  pressing  the 
handles  heavily  together.  Many  will  be  found  to  close  almost  as  quickly  with  the 
nozzle  stopped  as  with  it  open,  and,  of  course,  these  are  quite  useless  for  the  purpose. 


Soldering — Supports,  Tools. 


107 


Supports. — Work  to  be  brazed  needs  to  be  supported  on  a  bed  of  some  refractory 
material.  Often  a  fire-brick  or  piece  of  fire-luiup  is  used  for  heavy  work,  or  powdered 
pumice  or  charcoal  for  lighter  work.  A  fire-brick  forms  a  convenient  basis,  and  may  be 
hollowed  out  to  receive  a  dough-like  compound  of  1  part  fine  fire-clay  and  2  parts  charcoal 
dust  combined  by  adding  a  little  stiflf  rice-flour  paste,  as  Edwinson  suggests.  Or 
pumice  may  replace  the  fire-clay.  In  this  dough  the  article  is  embedded,  and  all  is  dried 
gently  before  the  brazing  begins.  Freeman  has  introduced  a  new  and  improved  heat 
deflector,  for  use  with  the  blowpipe,  as  a  support  for  tli  Work  whilst  it  is  being  brazed 
or  soldered.  This  article  is  made  of  a  very  light  porous  clay,  specially  prepared,  and  is 
corrugated,  so  as  to  allow  the  heat  to  pass  entirely  underneath  the  article  to  bo  soldered. 
It  is  superior  as  a  support  to  that  of  an  ordinary  fire-brick,  it  does  not  burn  like  com- 
position supports,  it  does  not  crackle  or  spit  like  charcoal,  nor  crumble  away  like  pumice. 
The  article  has  been  tested  by  many  of  the  leading  electroplate  and  jewellery  manu- 
facturers of  Birmingham,  who  speak  highly  in  their  testimonials  of  its  efficiency. 
Blocks  of  the  material  may  be  had  in  disc  form  14  in.  in  diameter,  or  in  lumps  12^  in. 
square  at»3s.  each. 


162. 


163. 


C: 


<^ 


165. 


16C. 


c 


Tools.— Some  of  the  tools  incidental  to  soldering  are  illustrated  above.    Fig.  162  is 
a  hornbeam  dresser  for  flattening  metal ;  Figs.  1G3,  1G4,  bossing  mallets ;  Figs.  165 


108 


SoLDEEiNG — Tools,  Heartli. 


166,  copper  bits;  Figs.  167  to  170,  soldering  ami  Lossing  irons;  Fig.  171,  a  ladle; 
Fig.  172,  a  shave-hook;  Fig.  173,  a  boxwood  chase  wedge;  Fig.  171,  a  boxwood 
turnpin. 


113. 


1G9. 


nt. 


i:o. 


i^^:^:^^:>^<^C&. 


171. 


1T2. 


Braziers'  Hearth. — lu  soldering  or  brazing  large  work  of  copper,  silver,  &c.,  an  open 
fire  is  used,  called  the  braziers'  hearth.  For  large  and  long  work,  this  hearth  is  made 
with  a  flate  iron  plate  about  4  ft.  by  3,  which  is  supjiorted  by  4  legs,  and  stands  on  the 
floor  at  a  suiHcient  distance  out  from  the  wall,  to  that  the  operator  can  get  all  around  it. 
In  the  centre  of  this  i>late  is  a  depression  about  6  in.  deep  and  2  ft.  long  by  1  wide,  for 
containing  the  fuel  and  fire.  The  fire  is  depressed  in  this  way  so  that  the  surface  of  the 
plate  may  serve  for  the  support  of  large  work,  such  as  long  tubes,  large  plates,  &c.  The 
rotary  fan  is  commonly  used  for  the  blast.  The  twyer  iron  is  similar  to  those  for  the 
common  blacksmiths'  forge,  but  with  a  larger  opening  for  admitting  the  blast  to  the  fire. 
The  nose  or  toi)  of  this  twyer  iron  is  fitted  loosely  into  grooves,  so  as  to  admit  of  easy 
renewal,  as  they  are  burned  out  in  a  very  short  time,  and  must  be  replaced  to  do  good 
work.  The  fire  is  sometimes  used  the  full  length  of  the  hearth,  in  which  case  a  long 
or  continuous  twyer  is  employed.  Occasionally  2  sf  parate  fires  are  made  on  the  same 
hearth.  In  this  case,  they  are  separated  by  a  loose  iron  plate.  The  hood  or  mouth  of 
the  stack  is  suspended  from  the  ceiling  over  the  hearth  with  counterpoise  weights,  so  that 
it  may  be  raised  or  lowered,  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the  work.  The  common 
blacksmiths'  forge  fire  is  frequently  used  for  brazing.  It  is  temporarily  converted  into 
a  braziers'  hearth  by  being  built  hollow  around  the  fire,  and  the  fire  removed  from  the 
wall  or  flue,  out  into  the  centre  of  the  hearth.  But  the  brazing  operation  injures  the 
fuel  so  that  it  cannot  be  again  used  for  ordinary  forging  of  iron  or  steel.  For  want 
of  either  the  braziers'  hearth  or  the  blacksmitlis'  forge,  the  ordinary  grate  made  be  used, 
or  it  is  better  to  employ  a  brazier  or  cliafing  dish  containing  charcoal,  aud  urge  the  fire 
with  a  hand-bellows,  which  should  be  blown  by  an  assistant,  so  that  the  operator  may 
have  both  hands  at  liberty  to  manage  the  work  and  fuel.  The  best  fuel  for  brazing  is 
charcoal,  but  coke  and  cinders  are  generally  used.  Fresli  coals  are  highly  injurious  to 
the  work,  on  account  of  tlie  sulphur  they  contain,  and  soft  or  bituminous  coal  cannot  be 
used  at  all  until  it  is  well  charred  or  converted  into  cinders.  Lead  is  equally  as  injurious 
in  the  fire  for  brazing  as  for  welding  iron  and  steel,  or  in  forging  gold,  silver,  or  copper,  for 
the  lead  is  oxidized  and  attaches  itself  to  the  metals  that  are  being  brazed  or  welded,  and 
prevents  the  union  of  the  metals,  and  in  all  cases  it  renders  tlie  metal  brittle  and 
unserviceable.     There  are  many  kinds  of  work  which  require  the  application  of  heat 


Soldering — Hearth ;  Hints. 


109 


175. 


having  the  intensity  of  the  forge  fire  or  the  furnace,  hut  in  a  nnniher  of  these  cases  it  ia 
only  desirable  to  heat  a  small  portion  of  tho  work,  and  avoid  soiling  the  surface  of  tlio 
remainder,  and  also  to  have  the  work  under  the  observation  and  guidance  of  the  operator 
as  in  brazing  or  soldering  small  articles  of  jewellery,  silver  plate,  &c.  In  these  cases, 
the  blowpipe  with  pointed  flame  is  generally  used,  and  in  many  cases  the  work  is  sup- 
IKjrted  upon  charcoal  so  as  to  concentrate  the  heat  upon  it. 

Heating  the  Iron.— Fig.  175  shows  a  simple  form  of  lamp  for  heating  tho  soldering- 
iron  :  a  is  the  casing ;  h,  lamp  and  uptake  ;  c,  flame ;  d,  bafllc-platu ;  e,  to»  of  etove  ; 
/,  tilt ;  g,  wires ;  h,  place  for  the  bit.  Make  tlie 
tilt  just  high  enough  for  the  proper  heating  of 
the  bit,  and  let  it  rise  1  in.  higher  at  tho  back. 
Adjust  the  lamp,  &c.,  that  tho  article  is  not  covered 
with  a  deposit  of  carbon  (soot). 

Tlie  following  is  a  simple  and  useful  adjunct 
to  the  "  solderer,"  in  order  to  do  away  with  the 
nuisance  caused  by  the  smoke  from  an  ojdinary 
gas-burner.  Take  a  piece  of  sheet  tin — say  7  in. 
by  7  in. ;  turn  it  round  into  a  cylinder,  and  rivet. 
(The  small  brass  nails,  to  be  had  at  any  iron- 
monger's, are  handy  ;  make  holes  with  a  bradawl 
and  snip  ofl'  the  tack  to  the  desired  length,  and 
rivet ;  4  will  be  plenty  in  cylinder.)  Vandyke  one 
end  all  round,  turn  down  a  flange  at  the  other 
end,  make  a  circular  cover  for  this  end,  and  fill 
full  of  holes  by  means  of  a  fine  sprig  bit ;  rivet 
this,  then,  on  to  flange  with  4  tacks ;  make  a  holo 
to  receive  an  ordinary  gas-burner — say,  2  in. 
from  the  bottom  or  vandyked  end,  and  solder  the 

burner  (the  new  brass  ones  are  the  handiest).  Now  procure  a  piece  of  vulcanized  rubber 
pipe  of  I  in.  bore,  draw  over  the  burner,  and  also  over  an  adjacent  burner  in  the  shop, 
and  turning  on  the  gas  you  have  a  beautiful  blue  and  smokeless  flame,  with  great  heat. 

Fletcher,  of  Warrington,  sells  veryuseful  little  implements  for  heating  the  soldering- 
iron  by  a  suitably  arranged  gas-jet. 

(Jj)  Hints. — (1)  The  soldering  of  2  metallic  surfaces  together  implies  something  moro 
than  mere  mechanical  union,  and  probably  depends  in  some  measure  ujwn  the  forma- 
tion of  au  alloy  between  the  solder  and  the  metals  joined  by  it :  hence  the  necessity  for 
clean  contact,  and  therefore  perfectly  bright  inoxidizod  surfaces.  To  ensure  this  condi- 
tion, various  solutions  are  used  just  at  the  moment  of  soldering.  The  most  common  is 
hydrochloric  acid  "  killed  "  with  zinc  (i.  e.  in  which  zinc  is  dissolved  until  the  acid  takes 
up  no  more),  forming  zinc  chloride,  which  runs  over  the  surface  exposed  to  it,  removing 
any  existing  oxide,  and  preventing  its  further  formation  by  the  action  of  the  air.  Sal- 
ammoniac  (ammonium  chloride)  sometimes  reijlaces  the  zinc  chloride,  or  is  used  in 
conjunction  with  it.  Powdered  rosin  applied  to  the  heated  metallic  surface  forms  a 
protective  vamish  which  excludes  the  air  and  prevents  oxidation.  With  the  same  object, 
borax  (sodium  biborate)  is  mingled  with  granulated  hard  solder  just  before  use,  either 
by  crushing  the  borax  and  mixing  dry,  or  by  dissolving  the  borax  in  water  and  making 
a  paste  of  the  solution  and  the  powdered  solder. 

(2)  "  Hard  "  or  "  strong  "  solder  is  commonly  known  as  "spelter,"  a  term  properly 
applied  to  commercial  zinc  ingots.  For  some  kinds  of  work,  commercial  si^eltcr  is  not 
so  well  suited  as  other  brasses ;  rbr  ordinarily  it  consists  of  equal  weights  of  zinc  and 
copper,  and  in  certain  cases  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  harder  solder  than  is  obtained  by 
these  proportions.  The  admixture  of  copper  and  zinc  produces  a  series  of  alloys 
differing  considerably  in  their  qualities,  and  when  tin  is  introduced,  tho  increase  or 


110  Soldering — Hints. 

decrease  of  the  zinc  and  tin  produces  a  compound  metal,  the  properties  of  which  are 
■widely  different  according  to  tharelative  quantities  of  the  ingredients  used  in  its  pro- 
duction. Spelter  when  home-made  is  best  prepared  by  melting  the  copper  and  zinc  in 
separate  crucibles,  the  copper  being  in  a  crucible  large  enough  to  hold  the  zinc  as  well. 
When  both  metals  are  thoroughly  melted,  the  zinc  is  poured  into  the  copper  crucible, 
the  two  being  stirred  well,  so  as  to  ensure  thorough  admixture,  when  the  alloy  is  poured 
out  on  to  a  bundle  of  birch  twigs  or  pieces  of  coarse  basket-work,  supported  over  a  tub 
of  water,  the  object  being  to  obtain  the  solder  in  the  form  of  fine  grains  with  an  irregular 
crystallization.  If,  when  taken  from  the  water,  the  spelter  is  not  sufficiently  uniform  in 
size  of  f^rain,  it  is  passed  through  a  sieve,  and  the  large  particles  are  crushed  in  a  cast- 
iron  mortar  or  any  suitable  appliance,  and  again  passed  through  the  sieve,  for  fineness 
and  uniformity  of  size  are  essential  to  the  accomplishment  of  some  examples  of  brazing 
in  a  thoroughly  satisfactory  manner.  Manufacturers  of  hard  solder,  however,  usually 
cast  it  into  ingots,  delaying  the  cooling  in  order  to  develop  as  much  as  possible  the 
crystallization,  which  is  found  to  facilitate  the  subsequent  crushing  and  sifting  of  the 
spelter.  The  term  "  brazing  "  is  often  applied  to  the  operation  of  "  hard  soldering,"  from 
the  fact  that  the  solder  used  is  really  a  brass. 

(3)  The  solder  found  in  commerce  generally  is  known  as  "  coarse,"  "  common,"  and 
"  fine " ;  and  tlie  respective  proportions  of  the  metals  are  supposed  to  be — for  coarse, 
2  parts  lead  to  1  of  tin ;  for  common,  equal  parts  ;  and,  for  fine,  2  parts  tin  to  1  of  lead. 
These  proportions  can  generally  be  detected  in  the  manufactured  article,  for  coarse 
solder  exhibits  on  its  surface  small  circular  spots,  caused  liy  a  partial  separation  of  the 
metals  on  cooling  ;  but  these  are  wanting  when  the  tin  exceeds  the  lead,  as  in  fine  solder. 
In  the  ordinary  solder  of  commerce,  it  is  very  rare  that  the  tin  exceeds  the  lead,  and 
No.  1,  or  hard  solder,  of  the  shops,  will,  as  a  rule,  be  found  to  vary  between  1|  and  2  of 
lead,  to  1  of  tin.  The  commoner  stuff— that  which  plumbers  use  for  making  wiped 
joints  in  leaden  pipes — contains  2|  to  3  parts  lead  and  1  of  tin. 

(4)  Solder  will  sometimes  get  contaminated  with  zinc,  burnt  tin,  lead,  iron,  &c., 
which  causes  it  to  "  work  short,"  "  set,"  or  crystallize,  contrary  to  the  general  rule. 
This  is  known  by  the  solder  quickly  curdling  or  setting  and  working  rough,  with  the 
tin  separating,  and  looking  like  so  much  sawdust,  except  in  colour,  which,  if  disturbed 
when  cooling,  is  a  kind  of  grey-black.  This  is  often  caused  by  overheating  the  metal, 
viz.  by  making  it  red  hot  or  by  dipping  brasswork  into  the  pot  for  tinning,  and  also 
when  soldering  brasswork  to  lead,  when,  if  brasswork  be  dipped  into  the  jiot  too  hot,  the 
zinc  leaves  the  copper  and  the  tin  takes  it  up,  because  tin  and  zinc  readily  mix.  A 
small  portion  of  zinc  will  also  cause  the  lead  and  tin  to  crystallize  or  separate.  If 
you  have  any  idea  that  there  is  zinc  in  your  solder  (the  least  trace  is  quite  sufficient), 
heat  it  to  about  800°  F.  (427°  C),  or  nearly  red  hot,  only  just  visible  in  the  dark  (if 
visible,  or  red  hot,  in  the  day  time,  it  will  be  at  least  1100°  F. :  red-hot  irons  do  not 
improve  solder).  Throw  in  a  lump  of  brimstone  (sulphur),  which  melts  at  226°  F. 
(108°  C),  but  at  a  greater  heat,  between  this  and  430°  F.  (221°  C)— just  below  the 
melting-point  of  plumbers'  solder,  it  tliickens,  and  from  480°  to  G00°  F.  (249°  to  315°  C.) 
remelts,  and  again  becomes  thinner.  At  773°  F.  (412°  C.)  the  zinc  melts,  and  being 
lighter  than  lead  or  tin,  has  a  chance  to  float,  especially  with  the  aid  of  sulphur.  The 
sp.  gr.  of  lead  is  11 '45;  tin,  7"3;  zinc,  6"8  to  7  (just  enough  to  rise);  and  sulphur, 
1  •  98.  The  last  named  readily  mixes  with  the  zinc,  &c.,  and  carries  the  lot  of  foreign 
matter  to  the  surface.  It  tdso  brings  up  all  the  oxidized  lead  and  tin  in  the  form  of  a 
whitish  powder  called  "  putty  powder,"  which  may  be  in  the  pot,  or  makes  it  fly  to  the 
iron.  Skim  the  solder  well,  and  after  the  heat  is  brought  down  to  about  400°  F 
(204°  C),  or  just  below  working-point,  stir  the  lot  well  up  in  plenty  of  tallow,  which 
will  free  the  sulphur,  and  your  solder  will  be  clean.  A  good  lump  of  rosin  will  improve 
it ;  and  add  a  little  tin.  If  you  have  very  much  zinc  present,  the  best  way  will  be  to 
granulate  the  solder  as  follows : — Just  at  setting  point,  turn  it  out  of  the  pot  and  break  it 


Soldering — Hints.  Ill 

np  with  the  dresser,  like  so  much  mould  or  sand.  Put  it  into  nn  earthcrnwaro  Lasin  or 
jar,  or  back  into  the  pot,  and  cover  it  with  hydrochloric  acid ;  kt  it  soak  for  a  day  or  so, 
then  well  wash  the  lot,  and  servo  it  as  above.  This  will  effectually  take  tlic  zinc  out. 
Afterwards  add  a  little  more  tin  to  compensate  for  that  destroyed  by  the  excessive  heat, 
and  the  acid.     A  little  arsenic  very  readily  carries  zinc  through  the  solder. 

Overheating  solder  renders  it  "  burnt,"  i.  e.  much  of  the  various  metals  present  is 
oxidized,  producing  a  cloggy  dull  mass;  this  is  remedied  by  the  process  just  described 
which  eliminates  the  injurious  oxides.  When  there  is  only  a  small  quantity  of  bad 
solder,  it  is  best  to  make  it  up  into  fine  solder,  or  uso  it  for  repairing  zinc  roofs.  Do 
not  put  bought  fine  solder  into  plumbers'  solder,  as  it  may  contain  all  sorts  of  metal. 
(P.  J.  Davies.) 

(5)  Soldering  zinc  and  galvanized  iron. — Zinc  may  be  soldered  as  readily  as  tin  by 
using  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  (i  its  bulk  of  rain-water  added)  as  a  flux  instead  of  rosin 
and  by  taking  care  to  keep  the  soldering-iron  well  heated. 

(G)  For  soldering  without  the  use  of  an  iron,  the  parts  to  be  joined  are  made  to  fit 
accurately,  either  by  filing  or  on  a  lathe.  The  surfaces  are  moistened  with  soldering 
fluid,  a  smooth  piece  of  tinfoil  is  laid  on,  and  the  pieces  are  pressed  together  and  tightly 
wired.  The  article  is  then  heated  over  the  fire  by  means  of  a  lamjj  until  the  thifoil 
melts.  In  this  way  2  pieces  of  brass  can  be  soldered  together  so  nicely  that  the  joint  can 
scarcely  be  found. 

(7)  For  soldering  brass  to  platinum,  put  a  piece  of  thick  brass  wire  in  a  handle,  and 
flatten  and  file  the  end  like  the  point  of  a  soldering  bit ;  dip  this  end  in  soldering  fluid, 
and,  holding  it  in  the  flame  of  gas  or  lamp,  run  a  little  solder  on  it ;  now,  having  put 
Bome  fluid  on  the  platinum,  which  will  require  to  be  supported  with  a  fine  pair  of  tongs, 
place  it  near  the  flame,  but  not  in  it,  at  the  same  time  heating  the  brass  wire  in  the  flamo 
with  the  other  hand,  and  as  soon  as  the  solder  melts  it  will  run  on  to  the  platinum  ;  you 
must  jjut  very  little  on,  and  take  care  the  solder  does  not  run  to  the  other  side.  Having 
applied  soldering  fluid  or  rosin  to  the  brass,  hold  the  two  together  in  any  convenient 
manner,  and  warm  them  in  the  flamo  till  the  solder  runs.  It  is  best  to  use  rosin  for 
electrical  work,  unless  the  work  can  be  separated  and  thoroughly  cleaned. 

(8)  Soldering  brass  wire. — For  making  a  chain,  procure  a  piece  of  hard  wood  or 
metal,  the  cross  section  of  which  will  be  the  same  shape  as  the  intended  links.  The 
wire  must  be  wound  on  this — then,  with  a  fine  saw,  cut  through  each  link  and  form  the 
chain  (or  a  part  thereof).  Have  a  large  piece  of  pumice  or  charcoal  (preferably  the 
latter),  with  a  nice  flat  surface,  and  arrange  the  chain  on  it  ready  for  soldering,  the  points 
of  each  link  being  turned  the  same  way  ;  the  solder  must  be  hammered  thin,  and  cut 
into  very  small  pieces.  Get  a  piece  of  borax,  and  grind  it  on  a  slate  with  water ;  now, 
with  a  small  camel-hair  pencil,  touch  each  joint  with  the  moist  borax,  and  with  the  point 
of  the  pencil  pick  up  a  piece  of  solder  and  place  it  over  the  joint.  When  every  link  has 
been  so  treated,  heat  them  with  the  blowpipe  till  the  solder  runs  ;  do  not  attempt  to  heat 
them  all  at  once,  but  direct  the  flame  (and  your  attention)  to  one  link  after  another,  till 
all  are  soldered  —then  boil  them  in  water,  to  which  is  added  a  little  sulphuric  acid.  For 
this  purpose  you  should  use  a  copper  or  porcelain  "  pickle  pan ";  for  solder,  take  a 
mixture  of  1  part  brass  and  2  of  silver,  melted  together  and  rolled  or  hammered  very  thin. 
In  order  to  make  neat  joints,  the  solder  must  be  cut  very  small,  and  only  put  the  boras 
just  where  you  wish  the  solder  to  run.  The  charcoal  or  pumice-block  you  can  grind  flat 
on  the  hearthstone,  or  use  an  old  file  for  the  purpose ;  an  ordinary  blowpipe,  which  you 
can  buy  for  M.,  will  answer  every  purpose.  You  can  also  buy  the  silver  solder  ready 
for  use.     Spelter  solder  can  be  used  for  this  purpose,  but  is  not  so  convenient. 

(9)  Soldering  brass  to  steel.— (a)  Clean  the  surface  of  the  steel,  and  with  a  fine  brush 
coat  the  steel  with  a  solution  of  copper  sulphate.  The  iron  reduces  the  copper  to  the 
metallic  condition,  in  which  condition  it  firmly  adheres  to  the  steel ;  then  solder  in  the 
usual  way.    (b)  Take  a  suitable-sized  piece  of  tinfoil,  and  wet  in  a  strong  solution  of 


112  SoLDEKiNG — Hints. 

commercial  sal-ammnniac ;  place  this  between  the  surfaces  to  be  soldered,  and  apply  a  liot 
iron  or  gas-flame.     The  surfaces  do  not  require  trimming:. 

(10)  Mending  cracked  bell. — The  crack  is  first  soldered  with  tin,  and  the  bell  is 
heated  to  dull  redness  or  nearly  so  for  a  little  time.  The  tin  has  the  property,  when 
heated  above  its  melting-point  to  nearly  redness,  of  rapidly  dissolving  copper,  an  alloy 
being  thereby  formed  in  the  crack  of  nearly  the  same  composition  as  the  bell  itself,  and 
which,  being  in  absolute  metallic  union  with  it,  is  quite  as  brittle  and  as  sonorous  as  the 
other  portions  of  the  bell. 

(11)  Soldering  iron  and  steel. — For  large  and  heavy  pieces  of  iron  and  tteel,  copper 
or  brass  is  used.  The  surfaces  to  be  united  are  first  filed  off,  in  order  that  they  may  bo 
clean.  Then  they  are  bound  together  with  steel,  and  upon  the  joint  a  thin  strip  of  sheet 
copper  or  brass  is  laid,  or,  if  necessary,  fastened  to  it  with  a  wire.  The  part  to  be  soldered 
is  covered  with  a  paste  of  clay,  free  from  sand,  to  the  thickness  of  1  in.,  the  coating  being 
applied  to  the  width  of  a  hand  on  each  side  of  the  piece.  It  is  then  laid  near  a  fire,  so 
that  the  clay  may  dry  slowly.  The  part  to  be  soldered  is  held  before  the  blast,  and 
heated  to  whiteness,  whereby  the  clay  vitrifies.  If  iron  is  soldered  to  iron,  the  piece 
must  be  cooled  off  in  water.  In  soldering  steel  to  steel,  however,  the  piece  is  allowed  to 
cool  slowly.  The  semi-vitrified  clay  is  then  knocked  off,  and  the  surface  is  cleaned  in  a 
proper  manner.  By  following  the  hints  given,  it  will  be  found  that  a  durable  and  clean 
soldering  is  obtained.  If  brass,  instead  of  copper,  is  used,  it  is  not  necessary  to  heat  so 
strongly ;  the  former  recommends  itself,  therefore,  for  steel.  Articles  of  iron  and  steel  of 
medium  size  are  best  united  with  hard  or  soft  brass  solder.  In  both  cases  the  seams  are 
cleanly  filed  and  spread  over  with  solder  and  borax,  when  the  soldering  seam  is  heated. 
Hard  brass  solder  is  prepared  by  melting  in  a  crucible  8  parts  brass,  and  adding  1  of 
previously  heated  zinc.  The  crucible  is  covered  and  exposed  to  a  glowing  heat  for  a  few 
minutes,  then  emptied  into  a  pail  with  cold  water,  the  water  being  strongly  agitated 
with  a  liroom.  Thus  the  metal  is  obtained  in  small  grains  or  granules.  Soft  brass  solder 
is  obtained  by  melting  together  6  parts  brass,  1  of  zinc  and  1  of  tin.  The  granulation  is 
carried  out  as  indicated  above.  Small  articles  are  best  soldered  with  hard  silver  solder  or 
soft  solder.  The  former  is  obtained  by  alloying  equal  parts  of  fine  silver  and  soft  brass.  In 
fusing,  the  mass  is  covered  with  borax,  and  when  cold,  the  metal  is  beaten  out  to  a  thin 
sheet,  of  which  a  sufficiently  large  and  previously  annealed  piece  is  placed  with  borax 
upon  the  seams  to  be  united  and  heated.  Soft  silver  solder  differs  from  hard  silver  solder 
only  in  that  the  former  contains  -^^^  of  tin,  which  is  added  to  it  during  fusion.  Yery  fine 
articles  of  iron  and  steel  are  soldered  with  gold,  viz.  either  with  pure  gold  or  hard  gold 
solder.  The  latter  can  be  obtained  by  fusion  of  1  part  gold,  2  of  silver,  and  3  of  copper. 
Fine  steel  wire  can  also  be  soldered  with  tin,  but  the  work  is  not  very  durable.  Hard 
and  soft  brass  solders  are  used  for  uniting  cojjper  and  brass  to  iron  and  steel,  silver  solder 
for  silver,  hard  gold  solder  for  gold. 

(12)  Soldering  silver. — The  best  solder  for  general  purposes,  to  be  employed  in 
soldering  silver,  consists  of  19  parts  (by  weight)  silver,  10  of  brass,  and  1  of  copper, 
carefully  melted  together,  and  well  incorporated.  ■  To  use  this  for  fine  work,  it  should  be 
reduced  to  powder  by  filing ;  the  borax  should  be  rubbed  up  on  a  slate  with  water,  to  the 
consistency  of  a  cream.  This  cream  should  then  be  applied  with  a  tine  brush  to  the 
surfaces  intended  to  be  joined,  between  which  the  powdered  solder  (or  wire)  is  placed,  and 
the  whole  is  supported  on  a  small  block  of  charcoal  to  concentrate  the  heat.  In  the 
hands  of  a  skilful  workman,  the  work  can  be  done  with  such  accuracy,  as  to  require  no 
scraping  or  filing,  it  being  only  needful  to  remove  the  borax  when  the  soldering  is  complete, 
by  immersion  in  "  pickle." 

Silver  soldering  as  applied  to  silversmiths'  work,  is  an  art  which  requires  great  caro 
and  practice  to  perform  it  neatly  and  properly.  The  solder  should  in  every  way  be  well 
suited  to  the  particular  metal  to  which  it  is  to  be  aj^plied,  and  should  possess  a  powerful 
chemical  affinity  to  it ;  if  this  is  not  the  case,  strong,  clean,  and  invisible  connections 


Soldering — Hints.  113 

cannot  be  effected,  and  that  is  partly  the  cause  of  roughness  in  goods,  and  not,  as  may 
more  frequently  be  supposed,  from  the  want  of  sldll  on  tlie  part  of  the  workman.  Tlie 
best  couuectioos  are  made  when  the  metal  and  solder  agree  as  nearly  as  possible  in 
uniformity  as  regards  fusibility,  hardness,  and  malleability.  Soldering  is  more  perfect 
and  more  tenacious  as  the  point  of  fusion  of  tlie  solder  rises.  Thus  tin,  which  greatly 
increases  the  fusibility  of  its  alloys,  should  not  bo  used  excepting  when  a  very  easy 
running  solder  is  wanted,  as  in  soldering  silver  which  has  been  alloyed  with  zinc.  Solders 
made  with  tin  are  not  so  malleable  and  tenacious  as  those  prepared  without  it.  Solders 
made  from  silver  and  copper  only  are,  as  a  rule,  too  infusible  to  be  applied  to  the  "cneral 
run  of  silver  goods.  Solders  are  manufactured  of  all  degrees  of  hardness,  the  hardest  beinw 
an  alloy  of  silver  and  copper ;  the  next  silver,  copper,  and  zinc ;  tho  most  fusible,  silver, 
copper,  and  tin,  or  silver,  brass,  and  tin.  Arsenic  is  sometimes  used  to  promote  fusion 
but  its  poisonous  vapours  render  its  use  inadmissible.  In  applying  solder,  of  whatever 
composition,  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  edges,  or  parts  to  be  united,  should  bo 
chemically  clean  ;  and  for  the  purpose  of  protecting  these  parts  from  the  action  of  tho  air 
and  oxidation  during  the  soldering  process  they  are  covered  with  a  flux,  always  borax 
which  not  only  effects  the  objects  just  pointed  out,  but  greatly  facilitates  the  flow  of  tho 
solder  to  the  required  places.  Silver  may  be  soldered  with  silver  of  a  lower  quality,  but 
easy  running  solder  may  be  made  of  13  dwt.  fine  silver,  G  dwt.  brass;  the  composition 
of  brass  being  so  uncertain,  it  is  best  to  fuse  zinc  and  copper  with  the  silver,  and  the 
following  proportions  make  a  very  easy  running  solder :  12  dwt.  fine  silver,  6  dwt.  pure 
copper,  1  dwt.  zinc.  Brass  sometimes  contains  lead,  which  burns  away  in  soldering  and 
must  be  carefully  guarded  against.  Solder  for  filigree- work  is  prepared  by  reducing 
easy  flowing  solder  filings  and  mixing  it  with  burnt  boras  powdered  fine.  In  this  state  it 
is  sprinkled  over  the  work  to  be  soldered,  or  the  jxarts  to  be  soldered  are  painted  with 
wet  borax,  and  the  solder  filings  are  sifted  on  and  adhere  to  the  borax.  The  flux  which 
adheres  to  the  work  after  soldering  is  removed  by  boiling  the  article  in  a  pickle  of  sul- 
phuric acid  and  water,  1  part  to  30. 

(13)  Soldering  glass  to  metal. — This  may  be  effected  by  first  coating  the  glass  with 
lead,  as  is  sometimes  done  to  give  a  bright  reflecting  surface.  Small  flat  pieces  of  glass 
are  painted  over  on  one  side  with  chalk  or  colcothar  and  water,  and  then  left  to  dry. 
They  are  placed  with  the  coated  side  downwards  on  the  bottom  of  a  flat  cast-iron  tray 
about  1  ft.  square,  surrounded  by  a  vertical  border  of  1  to  IJ  in.,  and  are  gradually  heated 
in  a  large  muffle  to  a  temperature  somewhat  above  the  melting-point  of  lead.  The  tray 
is  withdrawn,  and  melted  lead  is  immediately  poured  into  it  sufficient  to  cover  the  glass, 
wliich  is  held  down  by  pieces  of  wire.  A  slightly  oscillating  movement  is  given  to  the 
tray,  so  as  to  cause  the  molten  lead  to  flow  gently  backwards  and  forwards.  After  a  short 
time,  a  plug  is  taken  out  of  the  corner  of  the  tray,  which  is  tilted  to  let  the  lead  run  off  as 
completely  as  possible.  The  pieces  of  glass  will  now  be  covered  with  a  firmly-adherent 
film  of  lead.  The  lead  employed  should  be  of  good  quality  ;  and  in  order  to  prevent  it 
from  becoming  mixed  with  any  oxide  which  may  have  formed  on  its  surface,  the  tray  is 
provided  with  a  gutter-like  arrangement,  leaving  only  a  slit  for  the  passage  of  the  lead. 
The  tray  is  suspended  at  one  end  by  a  chain,  and  held  by  tongs  at  tho  other.  Glass 
buttons  thus  backed  with  a  lead  coating  have  their  shanks  soldered  on  (Dr.  Percy).  Solder 
may  also  be  made  to  adhere  to  glass  by  first  coating  the  glass  surface  with  amalgam. 

(14)  Soldering  platinum  and  gold.— To  make  platinum  adhere  firmly  to  gold  by 
soldering,  it  is  necessary  that  a  small  quantity  of  fine  or  IS-carat  gold  shall  bo  sweated 
into  the  surface  of  the  platinum  at  nearly  a  white  heat,  so  that  the  gold  shall  soak  into 
the  face  of  the  platinum  ;  ordinary  solder  will  then  adhere  firmly  to  the  face  obtained  in 
this  manner.  Hard  solder  acts  by  partially  fusing  and  combining  with  the  surfaces  to  be 
joined,  and  platinum  alone  will  not  fuse  or  combine  with  any  solder  at  a  temperature 
anything  like  the  fusing  point  of  ordinary  gold  solder. 

(15)  Mending  tin  saucepan.— The  article  is  first  scoured  out  with  strong  soda  water, 

z 


114  Soldering — Hints. 

and  the  hole  is  scraped  quite  clean.  If  smnll  enough,  it  is  covered  v?ith  a  drop  of  solder, 
applied  after  the  spot  has  been  moistened  with  "killed  spirits."  If  this  plan  will  not  suffice, 
a  larger  space  must  be  cleansed  and  a  small  patch  of  tin  laid  on.  Wlien  the  bottom  is 
seriously  impaired,  the  quickest  and  best  method  is  to  cut  it  off  and  replace  it  by  a  new  one. 

(16)  Soldering  brass. — All  kinds  of  brass  may  be  soldered  with  Bath  metal  solder 
(70  copper,  21  zinc)  or  soft  spelter,  using  borax  as  a  flux.  A  good  pilan  is  to  spread  on  a 
little  paste  of  borax  and  water  and  lay  a  bit  of  tinfoil  on  this,  then  heating  till  the  tin 
melts  and  runs,  and  thus  coats  the  surface.  Work  previously  tinned  in  this  way,  can  be 
joined  neatly  and  easily. 

(17)  Soldering  pewters  and  compo  pipes. — These  require  powdered  rosin  as  a  flux, 
■with  very  thin  strips  of  the  more  fusible  solders,  care  being  taken  that  the  soldering- 
iron  is  not  too  hot. 

(IS)  Laying  sheet  lead. — In  laying  sheet  lead  for  a  flat  roof,  tlie  joints  between  the 
sheets  are  made  either  by  "  rolls,"  "  overlaps,"  or  soldering.  la  joining  by  rolls,  a  long 
strip  of  wood  2  in.  square,  flat  at  the  base  and  rounding  above,  is  placed  at  each  seam ; 
the  edge  of  one  sheet  is  folded  round  the  rod  and  beaten  down  close,  and  then  the 
corresponding  edge  of  the  next  sheet  is  folded  over  the  other.  In  overlapping,  the 
adjacent  edges  of  the  2  sheets  are  turned  up  side  by  side,  folded  over  each  other,  and 
closely  beaten  down.     Soldering  is  not  adopted  when  the  other  plans  can  be  carried  out. 

(19)  Mending  leaden  pipe. — When  a  water  pipe  is  burst  by  frost,  thcdamaged  portion 
must  be  cut  out  and  replaced  by  a  length  of  new  pipe,  in  the  following  manner.  The 
ends  to  be  joined  are  sawn  off"  square,  then  the  open  end  of  the  lower  section  is  enlarged 
by  inserting  a  boxwood  turnpin  and  driving  it  down  by  light  blows  till  the  opening  is 
large  enough  to  admit  the  lower  end  of  the  new  length,  which  is  rasped  thinner  all 
round  to  facilitate  this  operation.  The  top  end  of  the  new  length  and  the  open  end  of 
the  upper  section  are  then  served  the  same  way.  The  surfaces  to  be  joined  are  scraped 
qnite  bright,  either  by  a  shave-hook  or  by  a  pocket-knife,  and  then  fitted  together,  thus 
forming  a  couple  of  circular  ditches,  as  it  were.  Into  these  is  sprinkled  a  little  powdered 
rosin  to  keep  the  surfaces  bright,  and  then  molten  solder  is  poured  in  from  a  ladle  till  the 
ditches  are  quite  full.  Adhesion  between  the  solder  and  the  pipes  is  then  brought  about 
by  passing  the  point  of  a  hot  soldering-iron  round  the  ditches,  the  heat  of  the  iron  being 
sufficient  to  liquefy  the  solder  and  just  fuse  the  surface  of  the  lead,  but  it  must  not  be  so 
hot  as  to  melt  the  lead. 

(20)  Gas  for  blowpipe  work. — Fletcher,  of  Warrington,  the  well-known  inventor 
of  so  many  improved  appliances  for  the  employment  of  gas  in  the  workshoi),  has 
published  some  interesting  remarks  on  the  use  of  the  blowpipe.  Where  available,  there 
is  no  fuel  to  equal  gas  for  general  blowpipe  work,  and  in  using  the  blowpipe  with  gas,  it 
is  usual  to  cut  a  notch  or  groove  in  the  upper  side  of  the  open  end  of  a  |-iu.  brass  tube,  so 
as  to  allow  the  top  of  the  blowpipe  to  rest  in  it,  pointing  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
opening  iu  the  gas  pipe.  The  blowpipe  tip  should  then  be  placed  in  the  notch,  and  a 
wire  bound  round  both  in  such  a  manner  that  the  blowpipe  is  held  firmly  in  position, 
and  still  can  be  easily  drawn  out  backwards.  This  arrangement  forms  a  carrier  for  the 
blowpipe,  which  leaves  the  hands  at  liberty,  and  enables  the  whole  attention  to  be 
directed  to  the  work.  A  short  length  of  tube  made  like  this  could  be  carried  in  the 
tool-bag,  and  connected  to  any  available  gas  supply. 

For  hard  soldering,  where  the  solder  used  melts  at  a  heat  approaching  redness,  and 
sometimes  at  a  still  higher  temperature,  the  same  form  of  blowpipe  and  the  same  source 
of  heat  are  commonly  used,  except  that  as  the  work  is  usually  done  in  fixed  workshops, 
the  sources  of  heat  do  not  require  to  be  portable,  and  are  therefore  usually  confined  to 
gas,  or,  where  this  is  not  available,  to  a  lamp,  having  fixed  on  the  upper  side  of  the  wick 
tube,  m  a  convenient  position,  a  support  of  wire,  or  other  material,  to  carry  the  front  of 
the  blowpipe.  Sometimes  the  blowpipe  is  made  as  a  simple  straight  tube,  sliding  in  a 
ioose  "ollar,  the  blowpipe  in  this  case  being  about  3  or  4  in.  long.    At  the  opi30iite  end 


Soldering — Hints.  115 

of  the  jet  is  fixed  about  14  or  IG  in.  of  small  indiarubbcr  tubing  (feeding-bottle  tube), 
■which  is  used  for  blowing.  The  sliding  motion  of  tlie  blowpipe  is  necessary,  bo  that  the 
jet  can  either  be  drawn  back,  giving  a  large  rougli  flare  for  general  beating,  or  it  can  be 
pushed  into  the  flame,  so  as  to  take  up  part  only  and  give  a  finely  pointed  jet  on  any  part 
where  the  solder  requires  to  be  fused.  When  gas  is  used,  the  sliding  motion  of  the  blow- 
pipe is  not  necessary,  as  the  flame  can  be  altered  equally  well  by  the  gas  tap,  and  it  is 
therefore  usual  to  make  gas  blowpipes  with  fixed  jets. 

Another  form  has  the  blowpipe  coiled  as  a  spiral  round  the  gas  tube,  both  gas  and 
air  being  heated  before  burning  by  a  Bunsen  burner  underneath.  This  gives  a  very 
much  greater  power  for  small  work,  but  possesses  no  advantage  whatever  for  large 
flumes.  On  the  contrary,  when  the  maximum  bulk  of  work  is  to  be  heated  with  a  mouth 
blowpipe,  a  better  result  is  obtained  with  a  cold  blast  of  air,  and  the  advantage  of  the 
hot  blast  is  only  perceived  when  a  small  pointed  flame  is  used.  When  this  blowpipe  is 
used  for  soldering,  the  bullc  of  the  work  should  be  heated  up  first  with  the  cold  blast, 
and  the  lower  Bunsen  turned  on  a  fesv  seconds  before  the  small  pointed  flame  is  required 
for  finishing  the  soldering.  The  hot  blast  has  one  advantage  peculiar  to  itself  in  addition 
to  the  high  temperature  of  the  small  flame ;  it  requires  no  chamber  for  condensed  mois- 
ture. The  moisture  of  the  breath,  instead  of  appearing  as  occasional  splashes  of  wet  on  the 
work,  at  critical  times,  is  converted  into  steam,  and  goes  to  assist  the  blast  from  the  lungs. 

(21)  Blowpipe  brazing. — For  brazing,  where  powdered  or  grain  spelter  (a  very 
fusible  brass)  is  used,  the  borax  is  mixed  as  a  powder  with  a  spelter,  usually  with  a  little 
water,  but  sometimes  the  work  to  be  brazed  is  made  hot  and  dipped  into  the  dry  powder 
mixture,  which  partially  fuses  and  adheres.  In  either  case,  care  is  requisite  not  to  burn 
or  oxidize  the  grains  of  the  sjDolter  with  the  blowpipe  flame,  or  it  will  not  run  or  adhere 
to  the  surface  to  be  brazed  ;  and  for  such  small  work  as  can  be  done  with  the  mouth 
blowpipe,  it  is  better  to  discard  spelter  entirely,  and  use  eitlier  common  silver  snider  (an 
alloy  of  1  silver  and  2  tinned-brass  pins),  or  what  is  still  better  an  alloy  of  13  parts 
copper  and  11  fine  silver.  If  fine  silver  is  not  easily  to  be  got,  the  same  alloy  can  be  made 
by  equal  weights  of  copper  and  coin  silver.  The  solder  should  be  rolled  into  thin  sheets, 
cut  into  small  bits  of  the  shapes  and  sizes  required,  and  put  into  a  small  saucer,  contain- 
ing a  rather  thin  pasty  mixture  of  powdered  borax  and  water.  The  surfaces  of  the  joint 
to  be  soldered  should  be  brushed  with  this  mixture,  using  a  small  camel-hair  brush,  the 
bit  of  solder  being  put  in  its  position  either  with  the  brush  or  a  fine  pair  of  tweezers. 
The  heat  of  the  blowpipe  must  then  be  ajDplied  very  slowly.  The  borax  dries  up  and 
swells  enormously,  frequently  lifting  the  solder  along  with  it.  The  borax  then  sinks 
down  again  and  begins  to  fuse.  There  is  now  no  risk  of  blowing  the  solder  away,  and  the 
full  blast  can  be  at  once  applied,  directing  the  flame  principally  round  the  solder  so  as  to 
heat  the  body  of  the  work.  When  hot  enough,  the  solder  begins  to  fuse  and  adhere  to 
the  work,  and  the  flame  must  now  be  instantly  reduced  to  a  small  point,  and  directed  on 
the  solder  only,  which  usually  fuses  suddenly.  The  instant  the  solder  runs,  the  blast 
must  be  stopped  by  the  tip  of  the  tongue,  or  in  delicate  work  mischief  may  be  done  which 
may  take  hours  to  make  good. 

One  great  difficulty  with  beginners  is  in  soldering  two  or  more  parts  in  exact  positions 
relatively  to  each  other,  these  parts  being  of  such  a  form  tliat  they  cannot  be  held  in 
position.  The  way  to  overcome  the  difficulty  is  this :  With  a  stick  of  beeswax,  the  end 
of  which  has  been  melted  in  a  small  flame,  stick  the  parts  together  as  required.  The 
was  is  sufficiently  soft  when  cold  to  admit  of  the  most  exact  adjustment  of  parts,  and  it 
must  surround  the  parts  only  which  are  to  be  soldered.  Make  a  mixture  of  about  equal 
parts  of  plaster-of-paris  and  clean  sand,  and  stir  this  uj)  in  a  cup  or  basin  with  sulticient 
water  to  make  a  paste,  turn  it  out  on  to  a  sheet  of  paper,  and  bed  the  work  to  be  soldered 
into  it,  taking  care  that  the  part  covered  with  was  shall  be  freely  exposed.  When  this 
is  set  hard,  say  in  about  10  minutes,  slowly  warm  it  over  a  Bunsen  flame,  or  near  a  fii'C 
(if  suddenly  heated  it  will  break  up) ;  wipe  the  aielted  was  oflf  with  a  small  ball  cf  wool ; 

i2 


116  Soldering — Hints. 

apply  the  borax  aud  solder  as  before  mentioned,  and  continue  the  slow  beating  up  until 
the  wliole  mass  is  hot  enough  to  comjilete  the  soldering  with  the  blowpipe.  If  a  light 
bit  has  only  to  be  carried  or  held  in  position  after  fixing  with  wax,  as  before  mentioned, 
a  bridge  or  arm  may  be  made  between  the  pieces  with  a  verj'^  stiti'  paste  made  of  common 
whiting  and  water,  or  a  mixture  of  clay,  whiting,  and  water.  Tliis,  being  only  small  iu 
bulk,  dries  much  more  quickly  than  the  plaster  and  sand,  but  it  requires  also  very  slow 
heating  at  first,  so  as  to  drive  the  moisture  out  gradually,  otherwise  it  explodes  as  steam 
is  formed  inside,  and  the  whole  work  has  to  be  recommenced.  The  Indian  jewellers  in 
making  filagree  work  use  clay  alone  for  holding  the  parts  together,  but  it  is  very  slow 
in  drying,  and  requires  much  more  care  in  use  tlian  either  of  the  forms  given. 

When  soldering,  the  work  has  to  be  supported  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can  be  turned 
about  and  its  positions  altered  quickly,  more  especially  when  a  fixed  blowpipe  is  used, 
and  for  this  pmpose  it  is  common  to  use  either  a  lump  of  pumice  or  a  small  sheet-iron 
pau  with  a  handle,  and  filled  with  broken  pumice,  broken  charcoal,  and  plaster-of-jmris, 
or  other  non-conductor.  The  best  material  is  willow  charcoal,  and  the  best  result  can 
be  obtained  by  its  use,  as,  burning  with  the  heat  of  the  blowpipe,  it  gives  oif  heat  aud 
assists  the  workman,  giving  a  greater  power  than  when  any  other  support  is  used.  Oak 
charcoal  is  not  admissible,  as  it  crackles  and  disturbs  the  work.  For  a  permanent 
support,  which  does  not  burn  away  to  any  practical  extent,  the  best  is  a  mixtui'o  of 
finely-iMwdered  willow  charcoal  and  a  little  china  clay,  made  into  a  stiff  paste  with  a 
rice-flour  starch,  and  rammed  into  a  mould.  These  are  to  be  bought  in  manj-  shapes, 
and  are  the  most  convenient  for  all  jiurposes. 

Speaking  generally  of  the  mouth  blowpipe,  the  most  practised  users,  as  a  maximum 
feat,  might,  with  gas,  soft  solder  a  3-in.  lead  pipe,  or,  with  a  lamp,  do  the  same  with  a 
IJ-in.  pipe.  In  hard  soldering  (with  silver  solder  or  spelter),  it  is  usually  as  much  as 
can  be  done  to  solder  properly  any  work  weighing  over  3  oz.,  if  gas  is  used ;  or  about 
half  this  weight  with  a  lamp;  although  in  exceptional  cases,  using  a  charcoal  support, 
these  weights  may  be  exceeded,  and  more  especially  if  the  bulk  of  the  work  is  heated 
up  by  a  fire  or  other  means  so  as  to  admit  of  an  extra  strain  being  put  on  the  lungs  for 
a  short  time  for  finishing  only.  It  is  a  common  practice  for  heavy  or  awkwardly-shaped 
work — where  the  heat  is  liable  to  be  conducted  away  quickly — to  support  the  work  on  a 
bed  of  burning  coke  or  charcoal,  using  the  blowpipe  only  for  running  the  solder  whilst 
tlie  body  of  metal  is  heated  by  the  burning  coke.  By  this  assistance  the  capacity  of 
any  blowpipe  is  doubled,  or  more  tlian  doubled,  and  when  the  work  to  be  done  is  beyond 
the  capacity  of  tlie  blowpipes  available,  this  remedy  is  a  valuable  one. 

SHEET-METAL  WORKING.— By  the  term  "  sheet  metals  "  is  meant  those 
jnetals  and  alloys  which  are  used  in  thin  plates  or  sheets,  such  as  brass,  coj^per,  lead,  tin, 
zinc,  tinned  iron  (tin  plate),  and  thin  sheet  iron.  The  arts  of  making  gold,  platinum, 
and  tin  foils,  and  platinum  vessels  for  chemical  operations,  are  obviously  embraced  iu 
the  term,  but  these  trades  are  too  special  to  warrant  description  here. 

The  combined  strength,  durability,  lightness,  and  clean  smooth  surface  of  sheet 
metal,  render  it  particularly  useful  in  a  vast  number  of  articles  where  these  qualities 
are  desirable.  Another  most  important  property  possessed  by  the  majority,  especially 
copper  aud  tin,  is  that  of  assuming  various  shapes  without  fracture  by  simple  hammering. 

Striking  out  the  Patterns. — As  the  metal  is  procurable  only  in  flat  sheets  of 
various  dimensions  and  thicknesses,  some  knowledge  of  geometry  is  required  to  deter- 
mine how  the  flat  piece  is  to  be  marked  and  cut  in  order  to  produce  the  shape  decided 
on  for  the  finished  article. 

There  is  scarcely  any  end  to  the  variety  and  intricacy  of  pattern  which  may  bo 
introduced  into  sheet-metal  goods ;  but  when  the  surface  is  very  irregular  it  becomes 
necessary  to  employ  machines  for  stamping  out  the  design,  or  rolls  for  impressing  it  on 
the  metal.  Apparatus  designed  fur  these  purposes  will  be  described  further  on ;  but 
many  simple  articles  can  be  constructed  without  such  aid.    In  measuring  the  metal  in 


Sheet-Metal  Working. 


117 


sheet  to  make  an  article  of  any  desiied  dimensions,  allowanco  imist  bo  made  for  the 
auiount  of  metal  used  up  in  forming  the  joint,  when  tliat  is  to  bo  of  the  lapped  kind. 
Whore  the  edges  only  abut  against  eacli  otlier,  no  such  allowanco  is  needed.  It  is 
generally  between  }  and  i  in.  per  joint,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the  metal  used  and 
tlie  strength  required  in  the  joint.  Before  cutting  out  tlie  piece  of  sheet  metal  cor- 
responding to  the  dimensions  aimed  at,  it  is  well  to  make  a  pattern  in  stout  browa 
jiapcr,  and  fold  it  up  so  as  to  make  a  counterpart  of  the  article  in  view.  Unlbresceu 
errors  can  then  easily  bo  rectified,  and  tlie  metal  cut  exactly  to  the  corrected  pattern, 
without  risk  of  waste.  The  following  diagrams  and  examples  illustrate  the  manner  of 
striking  out  tlie  metal  for  many  objects  of  general  application. 

Relations  of  Circles. — The  diameter  of  a  circle  is  0"31831  times  the  circumference  ; 
the  circumference  is  3'HIG  times  the  diameter;  the  area  (external  surface)  is  the 
diameter  multiplied  by  itself  (squared)  and  by  0" 785-4;  the  diameter  multiplied  by 
0-SSG2  equals  the  side  of  a  square  of  the  same  area  ;  the  side  of  a  square  multiplied  by 
1'12S  equals  the  diameter  of  a  circle  of  the  same  area;  the  diameter  multiplied  by  tho 
circumference  equals  the  surface  of  a  globe. 

Cones. — The  solidity  of  a  cone  equals  i  the  product  of  the  area  of  the  base  multiplied 
by  the  perpendicular  height ; 
tho  convex  surface  equals  half 
the  product  of  the  circum- 
ference of  the  base  (diameter 
X  3-141G)  multiplied  by  the 
slant  height ;  the  slant  surface 
of  a  truncated  (the  top  cut  off) 
cone  equals  half  the  product  of 
the  sum  of  the  circumferences 
of  the  2  ends  multiplied  by  the 
slant  height. 

To  strike  out  a  sheet  to 
cover  a  whole  cone,  describe  an 
arc  equal  in  length  to  the 
desired  circumference,  and  at 

17.3. 


the  radius  cf  the  required  height.  In  Fig.  170,  a  is  the  desired  cone,  having  a  circum- 
ference at  the  base  e  of  15  in.,  and  a  height  d  e  oiB  in. ;  then  the  length  between  b  c 
must  be  15  in.,  and  the  length  between  (Z  e  8  in. 


118 


Sheet-Metal  Working. 


When  only  a  frustrum  of  a  cone  is  required,  as  for  instance  a  funnel  fitted  over  a  pipe 
end,  or  the  shoulder  top  of  a  can,  the  same  law  holds  good  ;  but  in  this  case  a  second 
arc  must  be  described  equal  in  length  to  the  smaller  circumference.  Thus,  in  Fig.  177, 
supposing  the  ring  a  to  have  a  larger  circumference  of  12  in.  at  the  base,  and  a  smaller 
circumference  of  10  in.  at  the  top,  -with  a  height  of  7  in. ;  then  2  arcs  have  to  be 
desfl'ibed  at  radii  7  in.  apart,  from  the  centre  h  (whicli  is  the  point  where  the  sides  of  a 
would  cut  each  other  if  prolonged),  the  larger  arc  c  measuring  12  in.  long,  and  the 
smaller  d  10  in.  Fig.  178  is  another  example  where  the  shoulder  has  a  much  shallower 
slope,  and  when  consequently  the  inner  arc  d  is  much  smaller  than  the  outer  c. 

Cylindrical  Tubes. — The  width  of  sheet  required  to  form  a  cylinder  is  ascertained  by 
multiplying  the  desired  diameter  of  the  cylinder  by  3  ■1416  ;  the  diameter  of  a  cylinder 
made  from  asheetof  known  width  will  be  the  product  of  that  width  multiplied  by  0*  31831. 

Among  the  most  frequent  operations  in  sheet-metal  working  is  the  adjustment  of 
cylindrical  pipes  to  each  other  at  various  angles,  and  in  various  positions. 

If  it  be  desired  to  join  2  pipes  of  equal  diameter  nt  right  angles  to  each  other, 
proceed  as  in  Figs.  179,  180.     The  T-pi<^ce  a  will  fit  the  outline  of  the  main  pipe  6,  as 

180. 


€U 


a> 


^ 


Cb 


shown.  To  strike  out  this  f-piece,  take  a  sheet  having  the  same  width  as  the  distance 
between  c  d,  and  the  same  length  as  tlie  circumference  of  the  T-piece.  Divide  the 
circumference  into  halves  by  the  line  e  ;  then  draw  tlie  line/  at  the  level  of  the  contact 
line  of  the  main  pipe  b ;  finally  describe  2  curves  g  commencing  at  the  point  h  on  tlio 
line  e,  touching  the  line  /,  and  terminating  at  the  points  c.  These  curves  g  must  be 
sketched  in,  as  they  do  not  form  correct  arcs  of  a  circle,  but  are  somewhat  deeper.  The 
seam  joining  the  edges  c  d  will  be  on  one  of  the  long  sides  of  the  T-piece.  The  exact 
delineation  of  the  curve  g  may  be  attained  by  dividing  the  half-eircumference  into  a 
number  of  equidistant  spaces  by  vertical  lines,  which  are  numbered  or  lettered  ; 
equivalent  lines  then  drawn  at  the  same  distances  and  of  the  same  lengths  on  the  sheet^ 
indicate  the  sweep  of  the  curve. 

Tools. — For  small  operations,  the  tools  required  may  be  said  to  consist  simply  of 
a  mallet,  shears,  and  a  few  shapes  for  moulding  on ;  but  many  useful  little  machines 

181. 


have  been  introduced  into  the  trar'ie,  and  elTect  considerable  saving  in  labour.  The 
ordinary  boxwood  tinmen's  mallet  should  have  the  paul  rounding  at  one  end  and  flat  at 
the  other.     Tinmen's  pliers  are  shown  in  Fig.  181. 


Sheet-Metal  Working. 


119 


Cutting  Tools, — Shears  are  made  in  several  patterns,  according  to  tlie  stoutness  and 


tonglmess  of  the  material  to  be 
platers'  hand  shears ;  Figs.  183, 
and  both  are  intended  for  use 
in  a  fixed  position  on  a  bench. 
Fig.  185  is  a  guillotine  shears. 
Fig.  186  is  a  machine  for  cutting 
edges  true.  Fig.  187  is  a 
machine  for  cutting  out  circles. 
Fig.  188  is  a  pair  of  follies  for 
punching  holes.  Fig.  189  repre- 
sents a  contrivance  for  cuttin2: 


cut.     Fig.  182   rei)rcsents   the  common  form  termed 
184,  are  respectively  called  stock  and  block  shears, 


183 


185. 


circular  holes  of  considerable  size,  by  the  aid  of  an  ordinary  carpenters'  brace ;  a  is  a 
thumb-screw;  6,  a  bar  of  |-in.  square  steel;  c,  cutting  edge,  which  may  be  modified 
to  suit  the  material  under  treatment ;  d,  pivot. 


120 


Sheet-Metal  Working. 


Flattening  Tooh. — Fig.  190  is  a  flattening  mill  for  sheet  metal;  and  Fig.  191  is  a 
pair  of  tinmen's  rolls. 

Folding  Tools. — Fig.  192  is  a  folding  or  hatchet  stake,  which  may  be  replaced  by  a 
strip  of  iron  with  a  sharp  edge,  over  which  the  margins  of  sheets  are  bent.    Fig.  193  is 


186. 


187. 


W:::3 


188. 


a  taper  stake  used  for  folding  tubes  of  tapering  form  ;  a  parallel  stake  is  also  required 
for  cylinders.  Fig.  194  is  a  pair  of  folding  rollers.  Fig.  195  is  a  machine  for  turning 
over  edges  and  running  a  whe  through  the  rim  formed  to  give  it  strength.     Fig.  196  is 


Sheet-Metal  "Working. 


121 


a  machine  for  closing  the  bottoms  of  vessels.  Fig.  197  is  a  burring  machine.  Fig.  198 
is  a  tea-kettle  bottom  stake:  Fig.  199,  a  funnel  stake  ;  Fig.  200,  a  side  stake  ;  Fig.  201, 
a  tinmen's  and  braziers'  horse ;  Fig.  202,  a  saucepan  belly  stake. 


189. 


102 


ISl. 


193. 


Forming  Tools. — Fig.  203  is  an  iron  or  boxwood  block  recessed  in  the  centre,  by  which 
Clips  or  dishes  of  copper  and  tin  maybe  shaped  in  one  piece.  Fig.  204  is  a  fluting  block, 
which  is  used  on  the  same  principle  to  make  corrugated  patterns.     When  extensive 


122 


Sheet-Metal  Working. 


194. 


195. 


^=^=^^3 


193. 


;l 


Sheet-Metal  Wokking. 


123 


203. 


202. 


204. 


203. 


203. 


20G. 


VBZO 


124 


Sheet-Metal  Working. 


operations  are  carried  on,  machines  replace  these  simple  contrivances.  Fig.  205  is  a  small 
and  Fig.  206  a  large  swaging  machine  ;  Fig.  207  is  a  grooving  machine.  Fig.  208  is  a 
creasing  iron;  Fig.  209,  a  block  hammer;  Fig.  210,  a  concave  hammer;  Fig.  211,  a 
rivet  set;  Fig.  212,  a  groove  punch;  Fig.  213,  a  hollow  prmch  ;  Fig.  214,  a  teapot 
neck  tool ;  Fig.  215,  a  kettle  lid  swage. 


209.  210. 


212.  213.  2U 


215. 


Working  the  Metals.— Tiiere  arc  3  distinct  ways  of  working  sheet  metal  into 
objects  of  use  or  ornament,  characterized  by  the  manner  of  securing  continuity  of  surface 
and  absence  of  holes  :  these  may  be  termed  seamless,  soldered,  and  riveted  goods. 

Seamless  Goods. — Some  metals,  especially  copper  and  block  tin,  lend  themselves  so 
well  to  hammering  processes,  and  manifest  sucli  a  tendency  to  assume  various  bent  forms 
withijut  either  creasing  or  cracking,  under  the  inliueuce  of  repeated  blows  judiciously 
delivered,  that  this  is  the  general  way  of  working  with  them.  The  piece  of  sheet  metal 
of  the  required  size  is  placed  on  the  mould  whose  form  it  is  to  acquire,  and  very  care- 
fully, gradually,  and  equally  hammered  till  it  assumes  the  desired  shape.  The  metal 
appears  to  have  the  iwwer  of  redistributing  its  constituent  molecules,  so  that  the  portion 
expanded  by  the  blows  draws  upon  the  unhammered  parts  and  maintains  a  uniform 
thickness.  A  hemispherical  bowl  may  be  made  in  this  way  from  a  ilat  sheet  by  gradu- 
ally beating  it  into  the  recess  in  Fig.  203  by  means  of  the  round  end  of  the  mallet.  A 
dish  with  fluted  sides  may  be  formed  from  another  sheet  by  hammering  a  margin  of  tlio 
same  width  as  tlie  desired  sides  in  the  hollows  of  Fig.  204,  the  bottom  of  the  dish  being 
subsequently  flattened  down  by  hammering  a  hard  block  on  it.  Obviously  tlie  process 
must  be  gradual  and  tlie  blows  equally  distributed  in  order  to  secure  symmetry  in  the 
finished  article.  Highly  ornamental  work  maybe  done  with  suitable  moulds  and  dies; 
but  in  the  case  of  copper,  if  the  impressions  are  deep,  the  metal  will  require  frequent 
annealing  by  beating  it,  as  the  blows  or  stamps  rapidly  render  it  brittle  and  liable  to 
crack. 

There  is  another  kind  of  seamless  work  produced  by  a  spinning  process.  The  metal 
or  rather  alloy  best  adapted  to  it  seems  to  be  Britannia  metal  or  pewter.  A  sheet  of 
this  metal  is  mounted  in  a  lathe,  either  by  drilling  a  hole  through  and  screwing  it,  or 
by  pinching  it  between  wooden  blocks.  When  fixed  so  that  it  can  rotate  freely,  pressure 
is  applied  to  the  side  of  the  plate  by  means  of  an  oiled  or  greased  burnishing  tool  with 
a  smooth  blunt  surface,  the  curve  in  the  sheet  increasing  as  the  pressure  is  augmented. 
In  this  way  a  circular  cup  is  gradually  produced  without  the  least  sign  of  a  crease  or 
inequality  in  the  surface.  By  using  sectional  moulds  capable  of  being  taken  to  pieces, 
most  complicated  patterns,  such  as  teapots,  feet  of  candlesticks,  &c.,  can  be  made,  by  gradu- 
ally pressing  the  rotating  metal  till  it  tightly  embraces  the  mould,  which  is  then  removed. 
More  elastic  metals  may  be  used  if  duly  annealed,  provided  they  possess  sufficient 
malleability. 

Seamed  Goods. — Seamed  goods,  whether  to  be  soldered  or  riveted,  may  be  described 
under  one  head,  as  they  differ  only  in  the  manner  of  securing  the  seam. 

Pipes. — These  are  among  the  simplest  articles  constructed  out  of  sheet  metal.     The 


Sheet-Metal  Working. 


125 


strip  must  be  cut  according  to  the  directions  already  given  for  cylinders,  idlowing 
sufHcient  margin  for  tlie  joint,  wliatevcr  kind  may  be  chosen.  The  strip  is  then  bent 
throughout  its  length  into  a  tubular  form  by  encircling  it  around  a  stout  circular  pole  of 
suitable  dimensions,  and  the  seam  made  in  one  of  the  methods  illustrated  in  Fi"-.  216. 

It  should  be  stated,  however,  that  in  the  case  of  the  bent  joints,  the  edges  must  bo 
turned  before  bending  the  slicet  into  a  cylinder  ;  this  is  effected  by  haramerin"-  the  ed"G 
over  the  hatchet  stake  with  a  mallet.     In  Fig.  216,  a  is  a  simple  lapped  joint  adapted  for 

216. 


articles  demanding  no  great  strength,  and  secured  by  soldering  down  the  edge ;  in  6, 
the  2  edges  are  hooked  into  each  other,  as  it  were,  then  hammered  down  and  soldered  ; 
in  c,  an  extra  strip  is  liooked  into  the  2  edges,  hammered  down  to  assume  the  form  shown 
ill  d  by  means  of  the  punch  e,  and  secured  by  thin  soldering  inside.  These  joints  all 
refer  to  tinned  iron  (tiu  plate) ;  in  the  case  of  copper  and  brass  the  edges  would  only  abut 
instead  of  overlapping.  Sheet  zinc  may  be  bent  to  any  desired  shape,  but  will  not 
retain  the  acquired  form  unless  it  is  heated  to  a  temperature  not  exceeding  that  of  boilin"- 
water,  say  200°  to  212°  F.  (93°  to  100°  C).  Sheet  brass  may  be  cut  and  worked  like 
zinc  and  tin.  The  same  may  be  said  of  lead,  which,  however,  has  too  little  rigidity  for 
many  purposes;  pewter  often  replaces  it  as  being  less  soft  and  capable  of  takino-  a 
polish. 

Cups. — Cups  differ  from  cylinders  in  the  addition  of  a  bottom  and  the  necessity  for 
strengthening  the  upper  edge  or  rim.  The  sheet  is  set  out  as  already  described  to  form 
the  upright  or  sloping  sides,  with  allowance  for  a  lapped  joint,  and  a  disc  is  cut  out  for 
the  bottom  about  J  in.  too  large  all  round.  Before  converting  the  sheet  into  a  cylinder 
or  frustrum  of  a  cone,  tlie  margins  must  be  prepared.  The  upper  margin  is  provided 
with  a  rim  by  turning  down  about  i  in.  of  the  edge,  by  the  aid  of  a  mallet  and  hatchet 
stake,  in  such  a  manner  that  the  actual  edge  of  the  metal  shall  lie  quite  close  against 
the  outside  surface  of  the  article,  while  the  rim  retains  a  fullness  and  rotundity.  If  the 
article  is  of  a  size  to  require  this  rim  to  possess  considerable  strength  or  rigidity,  tliis 
feature  is  gained  by  enclosing  a  piece  of  wire,  of  suitable  gauge,  within  the  rim.  Care 
is  needed  to  make  the  turnover  of  the  same  width  exactly  all  round,  otherwise  the  rim 
will  present  an  uneven  surface.  Wiring  facilitates  the  operation  of  making  a  rim,  but 
has  sometimes  to  be  dispensed  with,  as,  for  instance,  when  a  cover  is  to  tit  tightly 
over — in  canisters  for  storing  goods,  for  example.  The  next  step  is  to  prepare  the  lower 
margin  for  receiving  the  bottom,  which  may  be  done  either  before  or  after  the  sheet 
(with  its  rim  formed  and  wired)  is  bent  to  a  cylindrical  form.  In  the  former  case,  the 
margin  is  held  on  the  hatchet  stake,  and  about  a  in.  is  hammered  out  at  right  angles  all 
round,  so  as  to  form  a  flange  or  foot  to  the  cylinder ;  in  the  latter  case,  the  perfected 
cylinder  is  slipped  over  a  round  bar  held  in  a  vice,  and  supported  with  the  lower  margin 
lasting  on  the  bar,  so  that  blows  with  a  hammer  on  the  outside  will  turn  the  margin 
slightly  outwards,  when,  the  bend  being  thus  commenced,  the  cylinder  is  stood  on  end, 
and  the  hammering  gradually  proceeded  with  till  a  riglit  angle  is  attained.  The  foot 
of  tlie  cylinder  may  either  be  turned  over  the  disc  forming  the  bottom,  or  it  may  have 
the  disc  turned  over  it  instead,  the  latter  being  the  easier  method.  To  make  a  folded 
seam,  with  the  bottom  turned  up  over  the  foot,  stand  the  cylinder  centrally  on  the  disc, 
and  mark  the  margin  extending  beyond  it.  Then  remove  tlio  cylinder  and  proceed  to 
turn  up  a  flange  on  the  disc  by  holding  it  on  a  flat  circular  surface  as  near  the  right  si^e 


126  Sheet-Metal  Working. 

as  possible,  and  gradually  hammering  it  down.  When  many  articles  of  the  same  size 
are  to  be  made,  a  hard  cylindrical  block  of  the  correct  dimensions  is  very  useful.  After 
the  disc  has  had  its  margin  turned  up  saucer-wise,  the  cylinder  is  replaced  in  it,  and 
the  margin  of  the  disc  is  closely  hammered  down  upon  the  foot  of  the  cylinder  ;  solder 
run  along  the  seam  completes  the  joint.  This  folded  joint  is  unsurpassed  for  strength, 
but  it  demands  more  metal  and  more  time  for  its  production,  and  hence  is  generally 
replaced  by  the  following  modification.  The  completed  cylinder,  without  any  foot  or 
flange  at  the  bottom  margin,  is  stood  on  the  disc,  which  has  already  been  converted  into 
a  saucer,  and  the  edge  of  this  saucer  is  soldered  to  the  upright  wall  of  the  cylinder 
all  round. 

Square  boxes. — The  sheets  to  form  boxes  and  trays  of  rectangular  shape  may  be  cut 
in  different  ways,  according  to  where  it  is  admissible  to  have  a  soldered  seam.  Thus 
the  bottom  may  be  made  separately  from  the  sides,  having  a  little  flange  turned  on  the 
mar"-in  to  be  attached  by  a  horizontal  seam  to  the  sides,  which  latter  may  consist  of  one 
long  strip,  bent  to  suit  the  corners  and  with  only  one  vertical  seam  to  join  the  2  ends ; 
or  the  bottom  and  sides  luay  be-all  in  one  piece,  with  triangular  slips  cut  out  at  the 
corners  to  allow  of  the  turning  up,  when  there  will  be  a  vertical  seam  at  each  corner, 
and  no  horizontal  seam. 

Eiveting. — This  simple  operation  consists  in  punching  holes  in  fhe  overlapping  sheet 
metal,  inserting  rivets  of  corresponding  composition,  and  hammering  out  the  ends  to 
form  second  heads.  A  riveted  joint  can  seldom  be  made  watertight ;  but  in  some  cases 
it  is  very  useful  on  the  score  of  its  strength,  and  inside  soldering  can  be  added  to  fill 
interstices  and  complete  the  joint. 

CARPENTRY. — The  term  "  carpentry  "  is  here  employed  in  its  widest  sense, 
embracing  what  is  more  properly  known  as  "joinery."  The  former  is  strictly  applied  to 
the  use  of  wood  in  architectm-al  structures,  as  for  instance  the  joists,  flooring,  and 
rafters  of  a  house,  while  the  latter  refers  to  the  conversion  of  wood  into  articles  of 
utility  which  are  not  remarkable  for  beauty  of  design  or  delicacy  of  finish.  It  is  eminently 
convenient  to  discuss  the  united  arts  of  carpentry  and  joinery  under  a  single  head,  as 
they  are  really  so  closely  connected  as  to  present  no  real  difference. 

The  art  of  the  carpenter  may  be  divided  into  3  distinct  heads — (1)  a  consideration 
of  the  kinds,  qualities,  and  properties  of  the  woods  to  be  worked  upon  ;  (2)  a  description 
of  the  tools  employed,  and  how  to,  use  them  and  keep  them  in  order;  and  (3)  the 
rudimentary  principles  of  constructing  fabrics  in  wood,  with  examples  showing  their 
application  in  various  ways.     The  subject  will  be  dealt  with  in  this  order. 

Woods. — It  will  be  well  to  begin  with  an  enumeration  of  the  woods  used  in 
carpentry — (other  woods  will  be  found  described  under  the  arts  in  which  they  are  used, 
e.  g.  Carving) — leaving  such  matters  as  relate  to  all  woods  in  general  till  afterwards. 
They  will  be  arranged  in  alphabetical  order.  The  terms  used  in  describing  the 
characters  of  the  various  woods  may  be  explained  once  for  all.  The  "  cohesive  force  " 
is  the  weight  required  to  pull  asunder  a  bar  of  the  wood  in  the  direction  of  its  length ; 
the  figures  denoting  the  strength,  toughness,  and  stiffness,  are  in  comparison  with  oak, 
which  is  taken  as  the  standard,  and  placed  at  100  in  each  case  ;  the  "crushing  force" 
is  the  resistance  to  compression;  the  "  breaking-weight  "  is  the  weight  required  to  brealv 
a  bar  1  in.  sq.  supported  at  two  i^oints  1  ft.  apart,  with  the  weight  suspended  in  the 
middle. 

Acacia  or  American  Locust-tree  (Rohinia  pseudo-acacia). — This  beautiful  tree,  of 
considerable  size  and  very  rapid  growth,  inhabits  the  mountains  of  America,  from  Canada 
to  Carolina,  its  trunk  attaining  the  mean  size  of  32  ft.  long  and  23  in.  (iiam.  The 
seasoned  wood  is  much  valued  for  its  durability,  surpassing  oak.  It  is  admirable  for 
building,  posts,  stakes,  palings,  treen-ails  for  ships,  and  otlier  purposes.  Its  weiglit  is 
49-56  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  10,000-13,000  lb. ;  and  the  strength,  stifihess,  and 
toughness  of  young  unseasoned  wood  are  respectively  95,  98,  and  92.     The  wood  is 


Caepentry — Woods.  127 

greenisli-ycllow,  ■with  reddish-brown  veins.  Its  structure  ig  alternately  neatly  compact 
and  very  porous,  distinctly  marking  the  annual  rings  ;  it  has  no  large  medullary  rays. 

Ake  (Ihdonea  viseosa). — A  small  tree,  6-12  ft.  high.  Wood  very  hard,  variegated 
black  and  white ;  used  for  native  clubs ;  abundant  in  dry  woods  and  forests  in  New 
Zealand. 

Alder  (Alnus  glutinosa). — This  small  tree  inhabits  -wet  grounds  and  river-banks  in 
Europe  and  Asia,  seldom  exceeding  40  ft.  high  and  2iin.  diam.  The  wood  is  extremely 
durable  in  water  and  wherever  it  is  constantly  wet ;  but  it  soon  rots  on  exposure  to  the 
weather  or  to  damp,  and  is  much  attacked  by  worms  when  dry.  It  is  soft,  works 
easily,  and  carves  well ;  but  it'is  most  esteemed  for  piles,  sluices,  and  pumps,  and  has  been 
much  cultivated  in  Holland  and  Flanders  for  such  purposes.  Its  weight  is  34-50  lb.  a 
cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  5000-13,900  lb. ;  strength,  SO ;  stiffness,  63 ;  toughness,  101. 
The  wood  is  white  when  first  cut,  then  becomes  deep-red  on  the  surface,  and  eventually 
fades  to  reddish-yellow  of  different  shades.  The  roots  and  knots  are  beautifully  veined. 
It  is  wanting  in  tenacity,  and  shrinks  considerably.  The  roots  and  heart  are  used  for 
cabinet-work. 

Alerce-wood  (Callitris  quadrivalvis). — This  is  the  celebrated  citrus-wood  of  the 
ancient  Eomans,  the  timber  of  the  gum  sandarach  tree.  The  wood  is  esteemed  above 
all  others  for  roofing  temples  and  for  tables,  and  is  employed  in  the  cathedral  of  Cordova. 
Among  the  luxurious  Komans,  the  great  merit  of  the  tables  was  to  have  the  veins 
arranged  in  waving  lines  or  spirals,  the  former  called  "  tiger  "  tables  and  the  latter 
"  panther."  Others  were  marked  like  the  eyes  on  a  peacock's  tail,  and  otliers  agait 
appeared  as  if  covered  with  dense  masses  of  grain.  Some  of  these  tables  were  4-4J  ft. 
diam.  The  specimens  of  tlie  tree  now  existing  in  S.  Morocco  resemble  small  cypresses, 
and  are  a|3parently  shoots  from  the  stumps  of  trees  that  have  been  cut  or  burnt,  though 
possibly  their  stunted  habit  may  be  due  to  sterility  of  soil.  The  largest  seen  by  Hooker 
and  Ball  in  1S7S  were  in  the  Ourika  valley,  and  were  about  30  ft.  high.  The  stems  of 
the  trees  swell  out  at  the  very  base  into  roundish  masses,  half  buried  in  soil,  rarely 
attaining  a  diameter  of  4  ft.  It  is  tbis  basal  swelling,  whether  of  natural  or  artificial 
origin,  which  affords  the  valuable  wood,  exi^orted  in  these  days  from  Algiers  to  Paris, 
where  it  is  used  in  the  richest  and  most  expensive  cabinet-work.  The  unique  beauty 
of  the  wood  will  always  command  for  it  a  ready  market,  if  it  be  allowed  to  attain 
sufBcient  size. 

Alerse  {Libocedrus  tetragona). — This  is  a  Chilian  tree,  affording  a  timber  which  is 
largely  used  on  the  S.  Pacific  coast  of  America,  and  an  important  article  of  commerce. 
It  gives  spars  80-90  ft.  long,  and  800-1500  boards.  Its  grain  is  so  straight  and  even 
that  shingles  sj^lit  from  it  appear  to  have  been  planed. 

Apple  [Australian]  (^Angophora  suhvelutina). — The  so-called  apple-tree  of  Queensland 
yields  planks  20-30  in.  in  diameter,  the  wood  being  very  strong  and  durable,  and  much 
used  by  wheelwrights  and  for  ships'  timbers. 

Ash  (Fraxinus  excelsior). — The  common  ash  is  indigenous  to  Europe  and  N.  Asia, 
and  found  throughout  Great  Britain.  The  young  wood  is  more  valuable  than  the  old  ; 
it  is  durable  in  the  dry,  but  soon  rots  by  exposiu'e  to  damp  or  alternate  wetting,  and  is 
very  subject  to  worm  when  felled  in  full  sap.  It  is  difficult  to  work  and  too  flexible  for 
building,  but  valuable  in  machinery,  wheel-carriages,'  blocks,  and  handles  of  tools. 
The  weight  is  34-52  lb.  a  cub.  ft.;  cohesive  force,  0300-17,000  lb.  ;  strength,  119; 
stiffness,  89  ;  toughness,  160.  The  colour  of  the  wood  is  brownish-white,  with  longi- 
tudinal yellow  streaks ;  the  annual  layers'  are  separated,  by  a  ring  full  of  pores.  The 
most  striking  characteristic  possessed  by  ash  is  that  it  has  apparently  no  sapwood  at  all 
— thatjis  to  say,  no  difference  between  the  rings  can  be  detected  until  the  tree  is  very 
old,  when  the  heart  becomes  black.  The  wood  is  remarkably  tough,  elastic,  flexible, 
and  easily  worked.  It  is  economical  to  convert,  in  consequence  of  the  absence  of  sap. 
Very  great  advantage  is  found  in  reducing  ash  logs  soon  after  they  are  felled  into  plank 


128  Cakpentey — Woods. 

or  boarJ  for  seasoning,  since,  if  left  for  only  a  short  time  in  the  round  state,  deep  shakes 
open  from  the  surface,  which  involve  a  very  heavy  loss  when  brought  on  later  for 
conversion.  Canadian  and  American  ash,  of  a  reddish-white  colour,  is  imported  to  this 
country  chiefly  for  making  oars.  These  varieties  have  the  same  characteristics  as  English 
ash,  but  are  darker  in  colour.     The  Canadian  variety  is  the  better  of  the  two. 

Assegai-wood  or  Cape  Lancewood  {Curtisia  fag Inea).— This  tree,  the  oomUehe  of  the 
African  natives,  gives  a  very  tough  wood,  used  for  wheel-spokes,  shafts,  waggon-rails, 
spears,  and  turnery,  weighing  5G  lb.  a  cub.  ft. 

Beech  {Fagus  mjlvatica). — The  common  beech  inhabits  most  temperate  parts  of 
Europe,  from  Norway  to  tlic  Mediterranean,  and  is  plentiful  in  S.  Russia.  It  is  most 
abundant  in  the  S.  and  Midland  counties  of  England,  growing  on  chalky  soils  to  100  ft. 
liigh  and  4-6  ft.  diam.  Wood  grown  in  damp  valleys  becomes  brittle  on  drying ;  it  is  very 
liable  to  destruction  by  worms,  decays  in  damp  situations,  less  in  a  dry  state,  but  least  of 
■all  when  constantly  under  water.  It  is  thus  most  useful  for  piles,  and  for  knees  and 
planking  of  sliips.  Its  uniform  texture  and  hardness  make  it  very  valuable  for  tools  and 
common  furniture.  It  is  also  used  for  carriage-panels  and  wooden  tramways.  Its  weight 
is  43-53  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  6070-17,000  lb. ;  strength,  103 ;  stiffness,  77 ; 
toughness,  13S. 

Beech  [American]. — Two  species  of  Fagus  are  common  in  N.  America, — the  white 
(JF.  sylvestris),  and  the  red  {F.  ferruginea).  The  perfect  wood  of  the  former  is  frequently 
only  8  in.  in  a  trunk  18  in.  diam.,  and  it  is  of  little  use  except  for  fuel.  The  wood  of 
the  latter,  which  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the  N.-E.  States,  Canada,  New 
Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia,  is  stronger,  tougher,  and  more  compact,  but  so  liable  to 
insect  attacks  as  to  be  little  used  in  furniture ;  yet  it  is  very  durable  when  constantly 
immersed  in  water. 

Beech  [Australian]  (Gmelina  Leichhardlii)  attains  a  height  of  SO  to  120  ft.  and  yields 
planks  24  to  42  in.  wide ;  its  wood  is  valuable  for  decks  of  vessels,  &c.,  as  it  is  said 
neither  to  expand  nor  contract,  and  is  exceedingly  durable.  It  is  worth  100s.  to  120s. 
per  1000  ft.  super. 

Birch  {Betula  spp.). — The  common  birch  (B.  alba)  is  less  important  as  a  source  of 
wood  than  as  affording  an  empyreumatic  oil.  Its  wood  is  neither  strong  nor  durable, 
but  is  easily  worked,  moderately  hard,  and  of  straight  and  even  grain,  rendering  it 
useful  for  chair-making,  cabinet-making,  and  light  turnery.  The  American  red  birch 
{B.  rubra)  has  similar  uses.  The  black  or  cherry  birch  {B.  lenta  [iiigraj)  of  N.  America 
is  superior  to  all  others,  and  imported  in  logs  6-20  ft.  long  and  12-30  in.  diam.  for 
furniture  and  turnery.  Quebec  birch  is  worth  31.  5s.-4L  15s.  a  load.  There  is  a  so-called 
"  yellow  birch  "  in  Newfoundland,  known  also  as  "  witch-hazel." 

Birch  [White  or  Black-heart]  {Fagus  solandri). — A  lofty,  beautiful  evergreen  tree  100 
ft.  high,  trunk  4-5  ft.  diameter.  The  heart  timber  is  darker  than  that  of  Fagus  fusca 
and  is  very  durable.  This  wood  is  well  adapted  for  fencing  and  bridge  piles.  The 
tree  occurs  only  in  the  southern  part  of  the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand,  but  is 
abundant  in  tlie  South  Island  up  to  5000  ft. 

Blackwood  (A<'acia  melanoxijlon)  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  Australian  woods.  It  is 
extensively  used  in  tiie  construction  of  railway  carriages,  and  is  well  adapted  for  light 
and  heavy  framing  purposes,  gun-stocks,  coopers'  staves,  and  turners'  work,  and  in  this 
respect  contrasts  favourably  with  most  of  the  English  woods ;  and,  from  the  facility  with 
which  it  is  bent  into  the  most  difHcult  curves,  it  is  highly  prized  for  buggy  and  gig 
shafts,  &c.  Within  tlic  last  few  years  it  has  been  introduced  extensively  into  the  manu- 
facture of  the  finer  description  of  furniture,  such  as  drawing-room  suites,  and  is  found 
far  superior  to  walnut,  owing  to  its  strength  and  toughness.  Blackwood  resembles 
in  figure  different  woods,  such  as  walnut,  mahogany,  rosewood,  zebrawood,  &c. 
Formerly  mahogany  was  extensively  imported  for  the  purpose  of  manufacturing  billiard 
tables;   but   at  the  present  time  blackwood  has  taken  the  place  of  mahogany  in  the 


Carpentry — Woods.  121} 

above-named  mnnufacture.  It  is  pronounced  to  be  far  superior  to  the  best  Spanisli 
mahogany  for  this  purpose  ;  owing  to  its  density  and  resisting  qualities,  it  is  actcil 
on  very  sliglitly  by  tlie  clianges  of  weather,  and  is  capable  of  taking  a  fine  polish. 
It  is  named  from  the  dark-brown  colour  of  the  mature  wood,  which  becomes  black 
when  washed  with  lime-water.  In  moist  shaded  localities,  the  tree  grows  more 
rapidly,  and  the  wood  is  of  a  much  lighter  colour ;  hence  this  variety  is  called 
"Lightwood"  in  Hobart  Town,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other.  Diameter,  IJ  to 
4  ft.;  average,  about  2\  ft.  ;  height,  CO  to  130  ft.;  sp.  grav.,  about  0-855.  Found 
throughout  Tasmania,  but  not  abundantly  in  any  one  locality.  Price,  about  12s.  to 
14s.  per  100  ft.  super.,  in  the  log. 

Box  (Buxus  sempervirens). — The  common  evergreen  box  is  a  native  of  Europe  as 
far  as  52°  N.  lat.,  and  is  abundant  in  S.  and  E.  France,  Spain,  Italy,  the  Black 
Sea  coast,  Persia,  N.  India,  China,  and  Japan.  For  some  years  past  the  supply  of  this 
important  wood  has  diminished  in  quantity  and  risen  in  price.  It  is  mainly  derived  from 
the  forests  of  the  Caucasus,  Armenia,  and  the  Caspian  shores.  The  wood  of  the 
best  quality  comes  from  the  Black  Sea  forests,  and  is  principally  shipped  from  the 
port  of  Poti.  The  produce  of  the  Caspian  forests  known  in  the  trade  as  "  Persian,"  used 
also  to  be  exported  through  the  Black  Sea  from  Taganrog.  This  found  its  way,  after 
the  commencement  of  the  Kusso-Turkish  war,  via  the  Volga  canal,  to  St.  Petersburg. 
The  produce  of  the  Caspian  foj-ests  is  softer  and  inferior  in  quality  to  that  of 
the  Black  Sea.  It  is  a  large  article  of  trade  with  Eussia,  reaching  Astrakhan  and 
Nijni-Novgorod  in  the  sjiring,  and  being  sold  during  the  fair.  It  recently  amounted  to 
130,000  poods  (of  36  lb.).  True  Caucasian  boxwood  may  be  said  to  be  commercially 
non-existent,  almost  every  marketable  tree  having  been  exported.  The  value  of  the  yet 
unworked  Abkhasian  forests  has  been  much  exaggerated,  many  of  the  trees  being  either 
knotted  or  hollow  from  old  age,  and  most  of  the  good  wood  having  been  felled  by  the 
Abkhasians  previous  to  Russian  occupation.  The  boxwood  at  present  exported  from 
Eostov,  and  supposed  to  be  Caucasian,  comes  from  the  Persian  provinces  of  Mazanderan 
and  Ghilan,  on  the  Caspian.  Boxwood  is  characterized  by  excessive  hardness,  great 
weight,  evenness  and  closeness  of  grain,  light  colour,  and  capacity  for  taking  a  fine 
polish.  Hence  it  is  very  valuable  for  wood-engraving,  turning,  and  instrument-making. 
The  Minorca  box  (B.  halearica),  found  in  several  of  the  Mediterranean  islands,  and  in 
Asia  Minor,  yields  a  similar  but  coarser  wood,  which  probably  finds  its  way  into  com- 
merce.    The  approximate  value  of  Turkey  box  is  Q-201.  a  ton. 

Box  [Australian]  (Tristania  confertci)  grows  in  Queensland  to  10  ft.  in  height,  and 
35-50  in.  in  diameter ;  the  wood  is  invaluable  for  ship-building,  ribs  of  vessels  made 
from  it  having  been  known  to  last  unimpaired  upwards  of  30  years. 

Box  [Spurious]  {Eucalyptus  leucoxijlon)  is  a  valuable  Victorian  timber,  of  a  light-grey 
colour  and  greasy  nature,  remarkable  for  the  hardness  and  closeness  of  its  grain,  great 
strength,  tenacity,  and  durability  both  in  the  water  and  when  placed  on  the  groimd.  It 
is  largely  used  by  coachmakers  and  wheelwrights  for  the  naves  of  wheels  and  for  heavy 
framing,  and  by  millwrights  for  the  cogs  of  their  wheels.  In  ship-building  it  has 
numerous  and  important  applications,  and  forms  one  of  the  best  materials  for  treenails, 
and  for  working  into  large  screws  in  this  and  other  mechanical  arts. 

Tlie  Grey  Box  {_E.  dealbata']  is  another  species,  used  for  similar  purposes  to  the 
preceding, 

Broadleaf  {Griselinia  littoralis). — An  erect  and  thickly  branched  bush  tree,  50-60  ft. 
high;  trunk  3-10  ft.  diam.  Wood  splits  freely,  and  is  valuable  for  fencing  and  in  ship- 
building ;  some  portions  make  handsome  veneers.  Grows  chiefly  in  the  South  Island 
of  New  Zealand  and  near  the  coasts. 

Broadleaf  or  Almond  (Terminal ia  latifolia). — This  is  a  Jamaica  tree,  growing  6.0  ft 
high  to  the  main  branches,  and  3§-5  ft.  diam.  It  is  used  for  timbers,  boards,  shingles,  and 
staves.     Its  weight  is  48  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  crushing-force,  7500  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  750  lb. 


130  Oarpentet — Woods. 

Bullet-trce  (Mimusops  Balaia). — This  tree  is  found  in  the  W.  Indies  and  Central 
America.  Its  wood  is  very  hard  and  durable,  and  iitted  for  most  outside  work ;  it  is 
used  principally  for  posts,  sills,  and  rafters.  It  warps  much  in  seasoning,  splits  easily, 
becomes  slippery  if  used  as  flooring,  and  is  very  liable  to  attacks  of  sea-worms.  Its 
weight  is  65i  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  crushing-force,  14,330  lb. 

Bunya-bunya  {Araucaria  Bidicillii)  grows  to  the  height  of  100-200  ft.,  and  attains 
a  diameter  of  30-48  in.  This  noble  tree  inhabits  the  scrubs  in  tlie  district  between  the 
Brisbane  and  the  Burnett  rivers,  Queensland,  and  in  the  27th  parallel  it  extends  over  a 
tract  of  country  about  30  miles-in  length  and  12  in  breadth.  The  timber  is  strong  and 
good,  and  full  of  beautiful  veins,  works  with  facility,  and  takes  a  high  polish. 

Cedar  [Australian  Red]  (Cedrela  australis). — This  tree  is  a  native  of  Australia,  where 
it  has  been  almost  exterminated,  the  timber  being  found  so  useful  in  house-building  (for 
joinery,  doors,  and  sashes)  and  boat-building.  Its  weight  is  35  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  breaking- 
weight,  471  lb. 

Cedar  [Bermuda]  (Junijierus  hermudiana). — This  species  is  a  native  of  the  Bermudas 
and  Bahamas.  Its  wood  much  resembles  that  of  Virginian  Cedar,  and  is  used  fct 
similar  purposes,  as  well  as  for  ship-building.  It  is  extremely  durable  when  ventilated 
and  freed  from  sapwood.  It  lasts  150-  200  years  in  houses,  and  40  years  as  outside  ship- 
planking.     It  is  diiEcult  to  get  above  8  in.  sq.     Its  weight  is  46-47  lb.  a  cub.  ft. 

Cedar  [Lebanon]  (Abies  Cedrus  {_Cedrus  LibaniJ). — This  evergreen  tree  is  a  native  of 
Syria,  and  probably  Candia  and  Algeria.  The  trimk  reaches  50  ft.  high  and  34-39  in. 
diam.  The  wood  is  said  to  be  very  durable,  and  to  have  been  formerly  extensively  used 
in  the  construction  of  temples.  It  is  straight-gramed,  easily  worked,  readily  splits,  and 
is  not  liable  to  worm.  Its  weight  is  30-38  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  7400  lb.  a  sq. 
in. ;  strength,  C2  ;    stiffness,  28  ;  toughness,  106. 

Cedar  [New  Zealand]  (Libocedrus  Doniana  and  L.  Bidwillii). — Of  the  species,  the 
former,  the  Icawaka  of  the  natives,  is  a  fine  timber  tree  60-100  ft.  high,  yielding  heavy 
fine-grained  wood,  useful  in  fencing,  house-blocks,  piles,  and  sleepers.  It  weighs  30  lb. 
a  cub.  ft. ;  breaking-weight,  400  lb.  The  wood  runs  3  to  5  ft.  in  diameter,  and  is 
reddish  in  colour  ;  it  is  used  by  the  Maoris  for  carving,  and  is  said  to  be  excellent  for 
planks  and  spars.  The  second  species,  called  pahantea  by  the  natives,  reaches  60  to 
80  ft.  high  and  2  to  3  ft.  in  diameter.  In  Otago  it  produces  a  dark-red  free-working 
timber,  rather  brittle,  chiefly  adapted  for  inside  work.  The  timber  has  been  used  for 
sleepers  on  the  Otago  railways  of  late  years,  and  is  largely  employed  for  fencing 
purposes,  being  frequently  mistaken  for  Totara. 

Cedar  [Virginian  Eed]  {Juniperus  virginiana). — This  small  tree  (45  to  50  ft.  high  and 
8  to  18  in.  in  diameter)  inhabits  dry  rocky  hillsides  in  Canada,  the  United  States,  and  W. 
Indies,  'and  flourishes  in  Britain.  The  wood  is  mucli  used  in  America  for  wardrobes, 
drawers,  boxes,  and  furniture,  being  avoided  by  all  insects  on  account  of  its  strong 
odour  and  flavour.  It  is  light,  brittle,  and  nearly  uniform  in  texture.  It  is  very 
extensively  employe<l  for  covering  graphite  pencils,  being  imported  in  logs  6-10  in.  sq. 
It  weighs  40|  lb.  a  cub.  ft.  The  heartwood  is  reddish-brown,  the  sapwood  is  white, 
straight-grained,  and  porous.  It  possesses  about  %  the  strength  of  red  pine,  is 
easily  worked,  shrinks  little,  and  is  very  durable  when  well  ventilated.  A  resinous 
exudation  makes  freshly-cut  timber  hard  to  work. 

Cedar  [W.  Indian  or  Havanna]  {Cedrela  odorata). — This  tree  is  a  native  chiefly  of 
Honduras,  Jamaica,  and  Cuba,  having  a  stem  70  to  80  ft.  high  and  3  to  5  ft.  diam.,  and 
exported  in  logs  up  to  3-4  ft.  sq.  Its  wood  is  soft,  porous,  and  brittle,  and  used  chiefly 
for  cigar-boxes  and  the  inside  of  furniture.  It  makes  durable  planks  and  shingles.  Its 
weight  is  36  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  crushing-weight,  6600  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  400  lb.  The 
approximate  London  market  values  are  4-5^d.  a  ft.  for  Cuba  cedar,  and  4-6jd.  for 
Honduras,  &c. 

Ceda    Boom  (JViddringtonia  juniperoides), — This  tree  is  found  in  N.  and  W.  Cape 


Caepentry — Woods.  131 

■Colony,  and  its  wood  is  used  for  floors,  roofs,  and  other  building  puriioscs,  but  will  not 
stand  the  weather. 

Cherry  [Australian]  (Exocarpus  cupressiformis')  is  a  soft,  fine-grained  timber,  and 
forms  the  best  Australian  wood  for  carving.  It  reaches  a  height  of  20-30  ft.,  and  a 
diameter  of  9-15  in. ;  its  sp.  gr.  is  about  0*785.  It  is  used  for  tool-handles,  spokes,  gun- 
stocks,  &c. 

i  Chestnut  (Castanea  vesca). — This,  the  sweet  or  Spanish  chestnut,  is  said  to  be  a 
native  of  Greece  and  W.  Asia,  but  grows  wild  also  in  Italy,  France,  Spain,  N.  Africn, 
and  N.  America.  It  lives  to  1000  years,  but  reaches  its  prime  at  about  50,  when  the  stem 
may  be  40-60  ft.  long  and  3-6  ft,  diam.  The  wood  is  hard  and  compact:  when  young, 
it  is  tough  and  flexible,  and  as  durable  as  oak ;  when  old,  it  is  brittle  and  shaky.  It 
does  not  shrink  or  swell  so  much  as  other  woods,  and  is  easier  to  work  than  oak;  but 
soon  rots  when  built  into  walls.  It  is  valued  for  hop-poles,  palings,  gate-posts,  stakes, 
and  similar  purposes.  Its  weight  is  43-54  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  8100  lb.  ; 
strength,  GS ;  stiffness,  54 ;  toughness,  85.  The  wood  much  resembles  oak  in  appear- 
ance, but  can  be  distinguished  by  having  no  distinct  large  medullary  rays.  The  annual 
rings  are  very  distinct ;  the  wood  has  a  dark-brown  colour;  the  timber  is  slow  of  growth, 
and  there  is  no  sapwood. 

Cypress  (fiupressus  sempervirens). — This  tree  is  abundant  in  Persia  and  the  Levant, 
and  cultivated  in  all  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean,  thriving  best  in  warm  sandy 
or  gravelly  soil,  and  reaching  70-90  ft.  high.  Its  wood  is  said  to  be  the  most  durable  of 
all.  For  furniture,  it  is  stronger  than  mahogany,  and  equally  repulsive  to  insects.  In 
Malta  and  Candia,  it  is  much  used  for  building.     It  weighs  about  40-41  lb.  a  cub.  ft. 

Cypress  pine  (Callitris  columellaris)  is  a  plentiful  tree  in  Queensland,  attaining  a 
diameter  of  40  in.  It  is  in  great  demand  for  piles  and  boat-sheathing,  as  it  resists  the 
attacks  of  cobra  and  white  ants.  The  wood  is  worth  120s.  per  1000  ft.  super.  The  roots 
give  good  veneers. 

Dark  yellow  wood  (Rhus  rliodanthema)  grows  in  Queensland  to  a  moderate  size, 
affording  planks  up  to  24  in.  wide ;  the  wood  is  soft,  fine-grained,  and  beautifully 
marked,  and  is  highly  esteemed  for  cabinet  work,  being  worth  100  to  120s.  per  1000  ft. 
super. 

Deal  [White],  White  Fir,  or  Norway  Spruce  (Abies  excelsa). — This  tree  inhabits  the 
mountainous  districts  of  Europe,  and  extends  into  N.  Asia,  being  especially  prevalent  in 
Norway.  It  runs  to  80-100  ft.  high,  and  about  2-3  ft.  max.  diam.  The  tree  requires 
70-80  years  to  reach  perfection,  but  is  equally  durable  at  all  ages.  It  is  much  imported 
in  spars  and  deals,  the  latter  about  12  ft.  long,  3  in.  thick,  and  9  in.  wide.  The  wood 
glues  well,  and  is  very  durable  while  dry,  but  much  more  knotty  than  Northern  Pine. 
It  is  fine-grained  and  does  well  for  gilding  on,  also  for  internal  joinery,  lining  furniture, 
and  packing-cases.  A  principal  use  is  for  scaffolds,  ladders,  and  masts,  for  which 
purpose  it  is  largely  imported  from  Norway  in  entire  trunks,  30-60  ft.  long,  and  (j-S  in. 
max.  diam.  It  is  shipped  from  Christiania,  Friedrichstadt,  Drontheim,  Gottenburg, 
Riga,  Narva,  St.  Petersburg,  &c.  Christiania  deals  and  battens  are  reckoned  best  for 
panelling  and  upper  floors ;  Friedrichstadt  have  small  black  knots ;  lowland  Norway 
split  and  warp  in  drying ;  Gottenburg  are  stringy  and  mostly  used  for  packing-cases ; 
Narva  are  next  in  quality  to  Norway,  then  Riga;  St.  Petersburg  shrink  and  swell  even 
after  painting.  The  wood  is  generally  light,  elastic,  tough,  easily  worked,  and  extremely 
durable  when  properly  seasoned.  It  weighs  28-34  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force, 
SOOO-12,000  lb.  a  sq.  in.  ;  strength,  104  ;  stiffness,  104;  toughness,  104.  The  wood  is 
yellowish-white  or  brownish-red,  becoming  bluish  by  exposure.  The  annual  rings  are 
clearly  defined,  the  surface  has  a  silky  lustre,  and  the  timber  contains  many  hard  glossy 
knots.  It  is  soft,  warps  much  unless  restrained  while  seasoning,  and  lacks  durability  ; 
it  is  weaker  than  red  and  yellow  pine,  less  easily  worked,  and  apt  to  snap  under  a  sudden 
load.    It  is  a  nice  wood  for  dresser-tops,  shelves,  and  common  tables,  but  should  not  be 

K  2 


132  Carpentry — Woods. 

less  than  1  in.  thick,  on  account  of  warping.     The  knots  are  liable  to  turn  the  plane- 
iron. 

Dcndax  (Cedrus  Deodara). — This  tree  is  found  in  the  Himalayas  at  5000-12,000  ft., 
and  on  the  higher  mountains  from  Nepal  to  Kashmir,  measuring  150-200  ft.  high,  and 
over  30  ft.  circ.  Its  wood  is  extremely  valuable  for  all  carpentry,  and  most  generally 
used  in  the  Punjab  for  building.  Its  weight  is  37  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  breaking-weight, 
520  lb. 

Dogwood. — The  American  dogwood  (Cornus  florida)  is  a  tree  30  ft.  high,  common  in 
the  woods  of  many  parts  of  N.  America.  Its  wood  is  hard,  heavy,  and  close-grained,  and 
largely  used  locally  for  tool-handles  ;  it  has  been  imjiorted  into  England  with  some  success 
as  a  substitute  for  box  in  making  shuttles  for  textile  machinery.  The  black  dogwood  or 
alder  buckthorn  (Rhamnus  Frangula)  is  abundant  in  Asia  Minor,  and  affords  one  of  the 
best  wood  charcoals  for  gunpowder-making.  The  principal  uses  made  of  Bahama  dog- 
wood (Piscidia  Erythrina)  are  for  fellies  for  wheels  and  for  ship  timber.  From  its 
toughness  and  other  properties,  it  is  better  adapted  to  the  former  purpose  than  any  other 
of  the  Bahamian  woods.  The  tree  does  not  attain  any  considerable  size,  and  is  generally 
crooked ;  a  rather  soft,  open-grained,  but  very  tough  wood. 

Doom  or  Kameel  Boom  {Acacia  horrida). — Tliis  tree  is  a  native  of  S.  Africa,  and 
affords  small  timber  used  for  fencing,  spars,  fuel,  and  charcoal. 

Ebony  {Diospijros  spp.}. — The  best  and  most  costly  kind  of  ebony,  having  the 
blackest  and  finest  grain,  is  the  wood  of  D.  reticulata,  of  Mauritius.  The  E.  Indian 
species,  D.  Melanoxylon  and  D.  Ehenaster,  also  contribute  commercial  supplies,  and 
another  kind  is  obtained  from  D.  Ehenum,  of  Ceylon.  The  heartwood  of  the  trunk  of 
these  trees  is  very  hard  and  dense,  and  is  largely  used  for  fancy  cabinet-making,  mosaic 
work,  turnery,  and  small  articles.  The  approximate  London  market  values  are  5-20Z.  a 
ton  for  Ceylon,  and  3-12Z.  for  Zanzibar,  &c. 

'EA.m  (JJlmus  spp.). — Five  species  of  elm  are  now  grown  in  Britain: — The  common 
rough-leaved  {U.  campestrin)  is  frequent  in  scattered  woods  and  hedges  in  S.  England, 
and  in  France  and  Spain,  attaining  70-80  ft.  high,  and  4  ft.  diam.    Its  wood  is  harder  and 
more  durable  than  the  other  kinds,  and  is  preferred  for  coffins,  resisting  moisture  well. 
The  corked-barked  ( Z3''.  subcrosa)  is  common  in  Sussex,  but  the  wood  is  inferior.  The  broad- 
leaved  wych-elm  or  wych-hazel  (K  montami)  is  most  cultivated  in  Scotland  and  Ireland, 
reaching  70-80  ft.  high  and  3-4§  ft.  diam.     The  smooth-leaved  wych-elm  (Z7.  glabra)  is 
abundant  in  Essex,  Hertford,  the  N.  and  N.-E.  counties  of  England,  and  in  Scotland, 
growing  to  a  large  size.     The  wood  is  tough  and  flexible,  and  preferred  for  wheel-naves. 
The  Dutch  elm  {U.  major),  the  smallest  of  the  five,  is  indigenous  to  Holland ;  its  wood 
is  very  inferior.     Elm-trnnks  average  44  ft.  long  and  32  in.  diam.     The  wood  is  very 
durable  when  perfectly  dry  or  constantly  wet.     It  is  not  useful  for  general  buildiuo-  but 
makes  excellent  piles,  and  is  used  in  wet  foundations,  waterworks,  and  pumps ;  also  for 
wheel-naves,  blocks,  keels,  and  gunwales.     It  twists  and  warps  in  drying,  shrinks  con- 
siderably, and  is  difficult  to  work ;  but  is  not  liable  to  split,  and  bears  the  driving  of 
bolts  and  nails  very  well.     Its  weight  is  34-50  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  C070- 
13,200  lb. ;  strength,  82 ;  stiffness,  78  ;  toughness,  86.     The  colour  of  the  heartwood  is 
a  reddish-brown.     The  sapwood  is  j-ellowish-  or  brownish-white,  with  pores  inclined  to 
red.     The  medullary  rays  are  not  visible.     The  wood  is  porous  and  very  twisted  in 
grain ;  is  very  strong  across  the  grain  ;  bears  driving  nails  very  well ;  is  very  fibrous, 
dense,  and  tough,  and  offers  a  great  resistance  to  crushing.     It  has  a  peculiar  odour,  and 
is  very  durable  if  kept  constantly  under  water  or  constantly  dry,  but  will  not  bear 
alternations  of  wet  and  dry.     Is  subject  to  attacks  of  worms.     None  but  fresh-cut  logs 
should  be  used,  for  after  exposure,  they  become  covered  with  yellow  doaty  spots,  and 
decay  will  be  found  to  have  set  in.     The  wood  warps  very  much  on  account  of  the 
irregularity  of  its  fibre.     For  this  reason  it  should  be  used  in  large  scantling,  or  smaller 
pieces  should  be  cut  just  before  they  are  required ;  for  the  same  reason  it  is  difficult  to 


Carpentry — Woods.  133 

■work.  The  sapwood  •withstands  decay  as  -well  as  the  heart.  Elm  timber  should  bo 
stored  under  water  to  prevent  decay.  Three  species  of  elm  are  indigenous  to  N.  America, 
and  have  similar  uses  to  the  European  kinds:— The  common  American  (6'.  americana) 
grows  in  low  woods  from  New  England  to  Canada,  reaching  SO-100  ft.  high  ;  its 
wood  is  inferior  to  English.  The  Canada  rock  or  mountain  ( L'.  racemosa)  is  common 
to  Canada  and  the  N.  States;  the  wood  is  used  in  boat-building,  liut  is  very  liable  to 
shrink,  and  gets  shaky  by  exposure  to  sun  and  wind  ;  its  weight  is  47-55  lb.  a  cub.  ft. 
The  slippery  (V.fulca)  gives  an  inferior  wood,  though  much  used  for  various  purposes. 
Quebec  elm  is  valued  at  4.-51.  a  load. 

Eucalyptus. — Besides  the  chief  species  which  are  described  separately  under  their 
common  names,  almost  all  have  considerable  value  as  timber  trees  for  building, 
fencing,  and  general  purposes  throughout  Australia. 

Fir  [Silver]  (Picea  peciinata). — This  large  tree  (100  ft.  high,  and  3-5  ft.  diam.)  is  in- 
digenous to  Euroije,  Asia,  and  N.  America,  growing  in  British  plantations.  It  is  said 
to  attain  its  greatest  perfection  in  this  country  at  SO  years.  The  wood  is  of  good 
quality,  and  much  used  on  the  Continent  for  carpentry  and  ship-building.  Floors 
of  it  remain  permanently  level.  It  is  liable  to  attacks  of  the  worm,  and  lasts  longer 
ia  air  than  in  water.     It  weighs  about  25^  lb.  a  cub.  ft. 

Greenheart  or  Bibiri  {Xectandra  Bodice/  [leucanthaj). — This  celebrated  ship-building 
wood  is  a  native  of  British  Guiana,  and  has  been  largely  exported  from  Demerara 
to  English  dockyards.  It  gives  balks  50-GO  ft.  long  without  a  knot,  and  lS-24  in. 
sq.,  of  hard,  fine-grained,  strong,  and  durable  wood.  It  is  reputed  proof  against  sea- 
worms,  and  placed  in  the  first  class  at  Lloyd's;  it  is  very  difficult  to  work,  on 
account  of  its  splitting  with  great  force.  Its  weight  is  58-G5  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  crush- 
ing-weight,! 2,000  lb.;  breaking-weight,  1424  lb.  Tlie  section  is  of  fine  grain,  and 
very  full  of  fine  pores.  The  annual  rings  are  rarely  distinct.  The  heartwood  is  dark- 
green  or  chestnut-coloured,  the  centre  portion  being  deep  brownish-purple  or  almost 
black ;  the  sapwood  is  green,  and  often  not  recognizable  from  the  heart.  An  essential 
oil  causes  it  to  burn  freely.  It  comes  into  the  market  roughly  hewn,  much  bark  being 
left  on  the  angles,  and  the  ends  of  the  butts  are  not  cut  off  square. 

Gum  [Blue]  {Eucalyptus  Globulus). — This  Australian  and  Tasmauian  tree  is  of  rapid 
growth,  and  often  reaches  150-300  ft.  high  and  10-20  ft,  diam.  Its  wood  is  hard,  com- 
pact, difficult  to  work,  and  liable  to  split,  warp,  and  slirink  in  seasoning.  It  is  used  for 
general  carpentry  and  wheel-spokes.  Its  weight  is  €0  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  crushing-force, 
(J700  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  550-900  lb.  It  is  employed  in  the  erection  of  buildings,  for 
beams,  joists,  &c.,  and  for  railway  sleepers,  piers,  and  bridges.  It  is  also  well  adapted 
for  ship-building  purposes;  from  the  great  length  in  which  it  can  always  be  procured, 
it  is  especially  suitable  for  outside  planking,  and  has  been  used  for  masts  of  vessels, 
but,  owing  to  its  great  weight,  for  the  latter  purpose  has  given  place  to  Kaurie  ;  it  is 
also  bent  and  used  for  street  cab  shafts,  &c. 

Gum  [Red]  (Eucalyptus  rostrata),  of  Australia,  is  a  very  hard  compact  wood,  possess- 
ing a  very  handsome  curly  figure ;  it  is  of  light-red  colour,  and  suitable  for  veneering 
purposes  for  furniture  ;  it  is  largely  used  for  posts,  resembling  jarrah  in  durability.  Pro- 
perly selecteii  and  seasoned,  it  is  well  adapted  for  shiji-building,  culverts,  bridges, 
wharves,  railway  sleepers,  engine  bufiers,  &c. 

Gum  [White  or  Swamj:)]  Eucalyptus  viininah's). — This  tree  is  found  chiefly  in  Tas- 
mania, and  a  variety  called  the  Tuvart  occurs  in  "\V.  Australia.  The  wood  is  valued  for 
its  great  strength,  and  is  sometimes  used  in  ship-building,  but  more  in  house-building, 
and  for  puri^oses  where  weight  is  not  an  objection.  It  is  sound  and  durable,  shrinks 
little,  but  has  a  twisted  grain,  which  makes  it  difficult  to  work.  Its  weight  is  about 
70  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  crushing-force,  10,000  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  730  lb. 

Hickory  or  "White  Walnut  (Carya  IJuglans']  alba). — There  are  about  a  dozen  species  of 
hickory,  natives  of  N.  America,  forming  large   forest  trees.     Their  timber  is  coarse- 


13-i  Carpentry — Woods. 

grained,  and  very  strong,  tough,  and  heavy  ;  but  i3  unsuited  for  building,  as  it  does  not 
bear  exposure  to  the  weather,  and  is  much  attacked  by  insects.  It  is  extensively  used 
where  toughness  and  elasticity  are  required,  such  as  for  barrel-hoops,  presses,  handles, 
shafts  and  poles  of  wheel  carriages,  fishing-rods,  and  even  light  furniture.  The  most 
important  is  the  shell-bark,  scaly-bark,  or  shag-bark  (C.  alba),  common  throughout  the 
Alleglianies  from  Carolina  to  New  Hampshire,  growing  80-90  ft.  high  and  2-3  ft.  diam. 
Hickory  [Australian]  (^Acacia  snpporosa)  is  a  valuable  wood  for  many  purposes.  It 
is  exceedingly  tough  and  elastic,  and  would  make  good  gig  shafts,  handles  for  tools, 
gun-stocks,  &c.  Tall  straight  spars,  fit  for  masts,  can  be  obtained  50  to  100  ft.  long 
and  18  in.  in  diam. 

Hinau  (Elxocarpus  dentatu-i). — A  small  tree,  about  50  ft.  high,  and  18  in.  thick  in 
stem.  "Wood,  a  yellowish-brown  colour  and  close  grained,  very  durable  for  fencing  and 
piles.     Common  throughout  Xew  Zealand.     Makes  a  very  handsome  furniture  wood. 

Hinoki  (Jtttinogpora  ohtusa)  enjoys  the  highest  repute  in  Japan  for  building  pur- 
poses. The  tree  grows  with  amazing  rapidity  and  vigour,  and  its  wood  la  used  almost 
exclusively  for  the  structure  and  furniture  of  the  temples,  generally  unvarnished.  It 
gives  a  beautifully  white  even  grain  under  the  plane,  and  withstands  damp  so  well  that 
thin  strips  are  used  for  roofing  and  last  a  hundred  years.  The  wood  is  soft  enough  to 
take  the  impression  of  the  finger  nail. 

Hornbeam  {Carpimis  Betulus). — Notwithstanding  that  the  wood  is  remarkable  for 
its  close  grain,  even  texture,  and  consequent  strength,  it  is  seldom  used  for  structiu-al 
purposes.  To  a  certain  extent  this  is  attributable  to  the  tree  not  usually  growing  to 
a  very  large  size,  and  also  to  the  fact  that  when  it  does  it  is  liable  to  become  shaky. 
Hornbeam  has  of  late  been  much  more  largely  used  in  this  country  than  formerly,  it 
having  been  found  to  be  peculiarly  adapted  for  making  lasts  used  by  bootmakers.  This 
wood  being  sent  to  this  country  in  considerable  quantities  from  France,  led  to  the 
discovery  that  it  was  being  used  almost  exclusively  for  the  above  purpose,  and  that  it 
was  imported  in  sacks,  each  containing  a  number  of  small  blocks,  in  shape  of  the  rough 
outline  of  a  last.  The  advantage  over  other  woods,  and  even  over  beech,  which  has 
hitherto  been  considered  the  beat  wood  for  last-making,  is  that,  after  the  withdrawal  of 
nails,  the  holes  so  made  close  up,  whicli  is  not  the  case  with  most  other  woods.  The 
wood  is  white  and  close,  with  the  medullary  rays  well  marked,  and  no  sapwood.  Under 
vertical  pressure,  the  fibres  double  up  instead  of  breaking.     It  stands  exposure  well, 

Horoeka,  or  l\y  Tree  {Panax  crassifolium). — An  ornamental,  slender,  and  sparingly 
branched  tree.  The  wood  is  close-grained  and  tough.  Common  in  forests  throughout 
New  Zealand. 

Horopito,  Pepper  Tree,  or  Winter's  Bark  (Brimya  axillaris).— A.  small,  slender,  ever- 
green tree,  very  handsome.  Wood  very  ornamental  in  cabinet-work,  making  handsome 
veneers.     Grows  abundantly  in  forests  throughout  New  Zealand. 

Ironbark  {Eucalyptus  resini/era).— This  rugged  tree  is  found  in  most  parts  of  the 
Australian  continent,  frequently  reaching  100-150  ft.  high  and  3-6  ft.  diam.,  the  usual 
market  logs  being  20-40  ft.  long  and  12-18  in.  sq.  Its  wood  is  straight-grained,  very 
dense,  heavy,  strong,  and  durable,  but  very  difficult  to  work.  It  is  liable  to  be  shaky, 
and  can  only  be  employed  with  advantage  in  stout  planks  or  largo  scantlings.  Its 
weight  is  Gl^'lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  crushing-force,  9921  lb. ;  breaking-weight?  1000  lb.  It  forms 
one  of  the  hardest  and  heaviest  of  the  Australian  woods,  and  is  highly  prized  by  the 
coachmaker  and  wheelwright  for  the  poles  and  shafts  of  carriages  and  the  spokes  of 
wheels.  Its  greasy  nature  also  renders  it  serviceable  for  the  cogs  of  heavy  wheels,  and 
it  is  valued  for  many  purposes  in  ship-building. 

Ironwood  [Cape]  {Olea  unJulata). — This  S.  African  wood,  the  iarribooti  or  Tiooshe  of 
the  natives,  is  very  heavy,  fine-grained,  and  durable,  and  is  used  for  waggon-axles, 
wheel -cogs,  spokes,  telegraph-poles,  railway-sleepers,  and  piles.  This  is  the  '-black'* 
ironwood.     The  "  white"  (Veprls  lanceolata)  is  used  for  similar  purposes. 


Cakpentry — Woods.  135 

Jack,  or  Ceylon  Mahnjnnv  (Arforarpus  intefjrifolia). — This  nseful  tree  is  a  native  of 
the  E.  Archipelago,  and  is  widely  cultivated  in  Ceylon,  S.  India,  and  all  the  warm  parts 
of  Asia,  maiuly  as  a  shade-tree  for  coffee  and  other  crops.  Its  wood  is  in  very  general 
use  locally  for  making  furniture  ;  it  is  durable,  and  can  be  got  in  logs  21  ft.  long  and 
17  in.  diam.     Its  weight  is  42  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  breaking-weight,  COO  lb. 

Jack  [Jungle],  or  Anjilli  {Ariocarpus  hirsuta). — This  species  is  remarkable  for  size 
of  stem,  and  is  found  in  Bengal,  Slalabar,  and  Burma.  Its  wood  is  strong  and  close- 
grained,  and  considered  next  in  value  to  teak  for  ship-building.  Its  weight  is  3S— 19  lb. 
a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  13,000-15,000  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  740  lb. 

Jaral  (Lagerstriemia  regiiue')  is  a  valuable  timber  tree  of  Assam,  giving  a  light 
salmon-coloured  wood,  with  coarse  uneven  grain,  very  hard  and  durable,  and  not  liable 
to  rot  under  water.  It  is  used  chiefly  in  boat-builJing  and  for  house-posts.  Full-sized 
trees  run  35  ft.  high  and  7-8  ft.  in  girth,  fetching  61.-SI.  each. 

Jarrah,  Australian  Mahogany,  or  Flooded  or  Eed  Gum  (^Eucalyptus  marginata). — • 
This  tree  attains  greatest  perfection  in  W.  Australia,  reaching  200  ft.  high.  Its  wood  is 
hard,  heavy,  close-grained,  and  very  durable  in  salt  and  fresh  water,  if  cut  before  the 
rising  of  the  sap.  It  is  best  grown  on  the  hills.  It  resists  sea- worms  and  white  ants, 
rendering  it  specially  valuable  for  ships,  jetties,  railway-sleepers  and  telegraph-posts, 
but  shrinks  and  warps  considerably,  so  that  it  is  unfit  for  floors  or  joinery.  Logs  may 
be  got  20-40  ft.  long  and  11-24  in.  sq.  Its  weight  is  62i  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  crushing-force, 
7000  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  500  lb.  The  chief  objection  raised  against  it  is  that  it  is 
liable  to  "  shakes,"  the  trees  being  frequently  unsound  at  heart.  For  piles  it  should  be 
used  whole  and  unhewn;  there  is  very  little  sapwood,  and  the  outer  portion  of  the 
heartwood  is  by  far  the  harder,  hence  the  desirability  of  keeping  the  anntilar  rings  intact. 

Kaiwhiria  {Hedycarya  dentata). — A  small  evergreen  tree  20-30  ft.  high ;  the  wood  is 
finely  marked  and  suitable  for  veneering.  Grows  in  the  North  and  South  Island  of  Ne^v 
Zealand,  as  far  south  as  Akaroa. 

Kamahi  {Weinmannia  raceniosa'). — Alarge  tree  ;  trunk  2-4  ft.  diam.,  and  50  ft.  high. 
"Wood  close-grained  and  heavy,  but  rather  brittle ;  might  be  used  for  plane-making  and 
other  joiners'  tools,  block-cutting  for  paper  and  calico  printing,  besides  various  kinds  of 
turnery  and  wood-engraving.  Grows  in  the  middle  and  southern  parts  of  the  Xorthem 
Island  and  throughout  the  Southern  Island  of  Xew  Zealand.  It  is  chiefly  employed 
for  making  the  staves  of  barrels. 

Kanyin  {Dipterocarpus  alatus). — This  magnificent  tree  is  found  chiefly  in  Pegu  and 
the  Straits,  reaching  250  ft.  high.  Its  wood  is  hard  and  close-grained,  excellent  for  all 
house-building  purposes,  but  not  durable  in  wet.  Its  weight  is  45  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ; 
breaking-weight,  750  lb.  Another  species  (D.  turhinaius\  found  in  Assam,  Burma,  and 
the  Andamans,  is  similar,  and  much  used  by  the  natives  in  house-building. 

Kauri,  Cowrie,  or  Pitch-tree  (DaTni/jara  auitralis). — This  gigantic  conifer  is  a  native 
of  New  Zealand,  growing  80-140  ft.  high,  with  a  straight  clean  stem  4-8  ft.  diam.  The 
wood  is  close,  even,  fine-grained,  and  free  from  knots.  It  is  chiefly  used  and  weU 
adapted  for  masts  and  spars ;  also  for  joinery,  as  it  stands  and  glues  well,  and  shrinks 
less  than  pine  or  fir.  But  it  buckles  and  expands  very  much  when  cut  into  narrow  strips 
for  inside  motddings.  Its  weight  is  35-40  lb.  a  cub.  ft. :  cohesive  force,  9600-10,960  lb. 
a  sq.  in.  The  timber  is  in  high  repute  for  deck  and  other  planking  of  ships.  It  pos- 
sesses great  dtirability,  logs  which  had  been  btiried  for  many  years  being  found  in  soimd 
cojiditron,  and  used  a's  raUway  sleepers.  In  the  Thames  goldfield  it  supplies  the  mine 
props,  struts,  and  cap  pieces.  It  is  the  chief  timber  exported  from  New  Zealand.  Some 
of  the  largest  and  soundest  sticks  have  richly  mottled  shading,  which  appears  to  be^an 
abnormal  growth,  due  to  the  bark  being  entangled  in  the  ligneous  portion,  causing 
shaded  parts,  broad  and  narrow,  according  as  the  timber  is  cut  relative  to  their  planes  ; 
such  examples  form  a  valuable  furniture  wood.  The  heartwood  is  yellowish-white  fiine 
and  straight  in  grain,  with  a  silky  lustre  on  the  surface. 


136  Cakpentuy — Woods. 

Kohe-kolie  (Dysoxylum  spectahih). — A  large  forest  tree,  40-50  ft.  liigli.  Wood 
tough,  but  splits  freely,  and  is  considered  durable  as  piles  under  sea-water.  Grows  in 
the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand. 

Kohutuhutu  {Fuchsia  excorticata). — A  small  and  ornamental  tree,  10-30  ft.  high ; 
trunk  sometimes  3  ft.  in  diameter.  It  appears  to  furnish' a  durable  timber.  House  blocks 
of  this,  which  have  been  in  use  in  Dunediu  for  more  than  20  years,  arc  still  sound  and 
good.     Grows  throughout  New  Zealand. 

Kohwai  {Sophora  tetrajjtera). — A  small  or  middling-sized  tree.  Wood  red ;  valuable 
for  fencing,  being  highly  durable ;  it  is  also  adapted  for  cabinet-work.  It  is  used  for 
piles  in  bridges,  wharves,  &c.     Abundant  throughout  New  Zealand. 

Larch  [American  Black],  Tamarak,  or  Hackmatack  (Larix  pendula). — This  tree 
ranges  from  Newfoundland  to  Virginia,  reaching  80-100  ft.  high,  and  2-3  ft.  diam.  The 
wood  is  said  to  nearly  equal  that  of  the  Eurojiean  species. 

Larch  [Common  or  European]  (Larix  europxa). — This  species  is  a  native  of  the  Swiss 
and  Italian  Alps,  Germany,  and  Siberia,  but  not  of  the  Pyrenees  nor  of  Spain.  The  Italian 
is  most  esteemed,  and  has  been  considerably  planted  in  England.  The  tree  grows  straight 
and  rapidly  to  100  ft.  high.  The  wood  is  extremely  durable  in  all  situations,  such  as 
posts,  sleepers,  &c.,  and  is  preferable  to  pine,  pinaster,  or  fir  for  wooden  bridges.  But  it 
is  less  buoyant  and  elastic  than  Northern  Pine,  and  boards  of  it  are  more  apt  to  warp. 
It  burns  with  diiBculty,  and  makes  excellent  ship-timber,  masts,  boats,  posts,  rails,  and 
furniture.  It  is  peculiarly  adapted  for  staircases,  doors,  and  shutters.  It  is  more 
ditficult  to  work  than  Northern  Pine,  but  makes  a  good  surface,  and  takes  oil  or  varnish 
better  than  oak.  The  liability  to  warp  is  said  to  be  obviated  by  barking  the  trees  while 
growing  in  spring,  and  cutting  in  the  following  autumn,  or  next  year ;  this  is  also  said 
to  prevent  dry-rot.  The  wood  weighs  34-36  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  GOOO 
-13,000  lb. ;  strength,  103 :  stiffness,  79 ;  toughness,  134.  The  wood  is  honev-j'ellow 
or  brownish-white  in  colour,  the  hard  part  of  each  ring  being  of  a  redder  tinge,  silky 
lustre.  There  are  two  kinds  in  this  country,  one  yellowish-white,  cross-grained,  and 
knotty  ;  the  other  (grown  generally  on  a  poor  soil  or  in  elevated  positions)  reddish-brown, 
harder,  and  of  a  straighter  grain.  It  is  the  toughest  and  most  lasting  of  all  the  coniferous 
tribe,  very  strong  and  durable,  shrinks  very  much,  straight  and  even  in  grain,  free  from 
large  knots,  very  liable  to  warp,  stands  well  if  thoroughly  dry,  is  harder  to  work  than 
Baltic  fir,  but  the  surface  is  smoother,  when  worked.  Bears  nails  driven  into  it  better 
than  any  of  the  pines.  Used  chiefly  for  posts  and  palings  exi^osed  to  weather,  railway 
sleepers,  flooring,  stairs,  and  other  positions  where  it  will  have  to  withstand  wear. 

Lignum-vitre  {Guaiacum  officinale). — This  tree  grows  chiefly  on  the  south  side  of 
Jamaica,  and  affords  one  of  the  hardest  and  heaviest  woods,  extremely  useful  for  the 
sheaves  and  blocks  of  jDuUeys,  for  which  purpose  it  should  be  cut  with  a  band  of  sap- 
wood  all  round,  to  prevent  splitting.  Its  weight  is  73  lb.  a  cub.  ft.;  crushing-weight, 
9900  lb.  The  approximate  London  market  value  is  4-lOZ.  a  ton.  Lignum-vitre  grows 
on  several  of  the  Bahama  islands,  and  is  generally  exported  to  Eurojje  and  America. 
The  principal  use  made  of  it  in  the  Bahamas  is  for  hinges  and  fastenings  for  houses 
situated  by  the  sea  shore  or  in  the  vicinity  of  salt  ponds  on  the  islands,  where,  from  the 
quick  corrosion  of  iron  hinges,  &c.,  metal  is  seldom  used. 

Locust-tree  {Ilymenma  Cuurharil). — This  tree  is  a  native  of  S.  America,  and  is  found 
also  in  Jamaica.  Its  wood  is  hard  and  tough,  and  useful  for  house-building.  Its  weight 
is  42  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  crushing-force,  7500  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  750  lb. 

Jlahogany  {Swietenia  Mahogani). — This  tree  is  indigenous  to  the  W.  Indies  and 
Central  America.  It  is  of  comparatively  rapid  growth,  reaching  maturity  in  about 
200  years,  and  the  trunk  exceeding  40-50  ft.  long  and  6-12  ft.  diam.  The  wood  is  very 
durable  in  the  dry,  and  not  liable  to  worms.  Its  costliness  restricts  its  use  chietly  to 
furniture ;  it  has  been  extensively  employed  in  maclunery  for  cotton-mills.  It  shrinks 
very  little,  warps  and  twists  less  than  any  other  wood,  and  glues  exceedingly  welL^It 


Caepentry — Woods.  137 

is  imported  in  logs:  those  ^rom  Cuba,  Jamaica,  San  Domingo,  known  as  "  Spanish," 
are  about  20-26  in.  sq.  and  10  ft.  long;  those  from  Honduras,  2-4  ft.  sq.  and  1'1-li  ft. 
long.  The  weight  is  'S5-53  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  the  cohesive  force  is  75G0  lb.  in  Spanish,  and 
11,475  lb.  in  Honduras;  the  strength,  stiffness,  and  toughness  are  respectively  67,  7v5, 
and  61  in  Spanish,  and  96,  93,  and  99  in  Honduras.  The  tree  attains  its  greatest 
develoi:)ment  and  grows  most  abundantly  between  10°  N.  Lit.  and  the  Troj^ic  of  Cancer, 
flourishing  best  on  the  higher  crests  of  the  hills,  and  preferring  the  lighter  soils.  It 
is  found  in  abundance  along  the  banks  of  tlie  Usumacinta,  and  other  large  rivers 
flowing  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  as  well  as  in  the  larger  islands  of  the  "W.  Indies. 
British  settlements  for  cutting  and  shipping  the  timber  were  established  so  long  ago 
as  1638-40,  and  the  right  to  the  territory  has  been  maintained  by  Great  Britain,  chiefly 
on  account  of  the  importance  of  this  branch  of  industry.  The  cutting  season  usually 
commences  about  August.  It  is  performed  by  gangs  of  men,  numbering  20-50,  under 
direction  of  a  "  captain  "  and  accompanied  by  a  "  huntsman,'*  the  duty  of  the  latter 
being  to  search  out  suitable  trees,  and  guide  the  cutters  to  them.  The  felled  trees  of  a 
season  are  scattered  over  a  very  wide  area.  All  the  larger  ones  are  "  squared  "  before 
being  brought  away  on  wheeled  trucks  along  the  forest  roads  made  for  the  purpose.  By 
March-April,  felling  and  trimming  are  comi^leted ;  the  dry  season  by  that  time  permits 
the  trucks  to  be  wheeled  to  the  river-banks.  A  gang  of  40  men  work  6  trucks,  each 
requiring  7  pair  of  oxen  and  2  drivers.  Arrived  at  the  river,  the  logs,  duly  initialed,  are 
thrown  into  the  stream ;  the  rainy  season  follows  in  May-June,  and  the  rising  current 
carries  them  seawards,  guided  by  men  following  in  canoes.  A  boom  at  the  river-mouth 
stops  the  timber,  and  enables  each  owner  to  identify  his  property.  They  are  then  made 
up  into  rafts,  and  taken  to  the  whaiwes  for  a  final  trimming  before  shipment.  The 
cutters  often  continue  their  ojierations  far  into  the  interior,  and  over  the  borders  into 
Guatemala  and  Yucatan.  Bahama  mahogany  grows  abundantly  on  Andros  Island  and 
others  of  the  Bahama  group.  It  is  not  exceeded  in  durability  by  any  of  the  Bahama 
woods.  It  grows  to  a  large  size,  but  is  generally  cut  of  small  dimensions,  owing  to  the 
want  of  proper  roads  and  other  means  of  conveyance.  It  is  principally  used  for  bed- 
steads, &c.,  and  the  crooked  trees  and  branches  for  ship  timber.  It  is  a  fine,  hard, 
close-grained,  moderately  heavy  wood,  of  a  fine,  rich  colour,  equal  to  that  of  Spanish 
mahogany,  although  probably  too  hard  to  be  well  adapted  for  the  purj^oses  to  which 
the  latter  is  usually  ajjplied.  Honduras  is  best  for  strength  and  stiftuess,  while  Spanish 
is  most  valued  for  ornamental  purposes.  The  Honduras  wood  is  of  a  golden  or  red- 
brown  colour,  of  various  shades  and  degrees  of  brightness,  often  very  much  veined  and 
mottled.  The  grain  is  coarser  than  that  of  Spanish,  and  the  inferior  qualities  often 
contain  many  grey  specks.  This  timber  is  very  durable  when  kept  dry,  but  does  not  stand 
the  weather  well.  It  is  seldom  attacked  by  dry-rot,  contains  a  resinous  oil  whicli 
prevents  the  attacks  of  insects,  and  is  untouched  by  worms.  It  is  strong,  tough,  and 
flexible  when  fresh,  but  becomes  brittle  when  dry.  It  contains  a  very  small  proportion 
of  sap,  and  is  very  free  from  shakes  and  other  defects.  The  wood  requires  great  care 
in  seasoning,  does  not  shrink  or  warp  much,  but  if  the  seasoning  process  is  carried  on 
too  rapidly  it  is  liable  to  split  into  deep  shakes  externally.  It  holds  glue  very  well,  has 
a  soft  silky  grain,  contains  no  acids  injurious  to  metal  fastenings,  and  is  less  combustible 
than  most  timbers.  It  is  generally  of  a  plain  straight  grain  and  uniform  colour,  but 
is  sometimes  of  wavy  grain  or  figured.  Its  market  forms  are  logs  2-4  ft.  sq.  and 
12-14  ft.  in  length.  Sometimes  planks  have  been  obtained  6-7  ft.  wide.  Mahogany 
is  known  in  the  market  as  "  plain,"  "  veiny,"  "  watered,"  "  velvet-cowl,"  "  bird's-eye,"  and 
"festooned,"  according  to  the  appearance  of  the  vein-formations.  Cuba  or  Spanish 
mahogany  is  distinguished  from  Honduras  by  a  white,  chalk-like  substance  which  fills  its 
pores.  The  wood  is  very  sound,  free  from  shakes,  with  a  beautiful  wavy  grain  or  figure, 
and  capable  of  receiving  a  high  polish.  It  is  used  chiefly  for  furniture  and  ornamental 
purposes,  and  for   ship-building.     Mexican  shows    the  cliaracteristics    of   Honduras. 


138  Caepentey — Woods. 

Some  varlctiGS  of  it  are  figured.  It  may  be  obtained  in  very  largo  sizes,  but  the  wood 
is  spongy  in  the  centre,  and  very  liable  to  starsbakes.  It  is  imported  in  balks  15-36 
in.  sq.,  and  18-30  ft.  in  length.  St.  Domingo  and  Nassau  are  hard,  heavy  varieties,  cf 
deep-red  colour,  generally  -well  veined  or  figured,  and  used  for  cabinet-works.  They  are 
imported  in  very  small  logs,  3-10  ft.  long  and  6-12  in.  sq. 

Mahogany  [African]  {Swietenia  senegalensis).  —  This  hard  and  durable  wood  is 
brought  from  Sierra  Leone,  and  is  much  used  for  purposes  requiring  strength,  hardness, 
and  durability.  But  it  is  very  liable  to  premature  decay,  if  the  heart  is  exposed  in 
felling  or  trimming. 

Mahogany  [E.  Indian]. — Two  species  of  Sioietenia  are  indigenous  to  the  E.  Indies : — 
8.  fehrifuga  is  a  very  large  tree  of  the  mountains  of  Central  Hindostan ;  the  wood  is 
less  beautiful  than  true  mahogany,  but  much  harder,  heavier,  and  more  durable,  being 
considered  the  most  lasting  timber  in  India.  S.  cldoroxijlon  is  found  chiefly  in  the 
Circar  mountains,  and  attains  smaller  dimensions  ;  the  wood  more  resembles  box. 

Maire  {Santalum  Cuimincjhamii). — A  small  tree  10-15  ft.  high,  6-8  in.  diam. ;  wood 
hard,  close-grained,  heavy.  Used  by  the  natives  of  New  Zealand  in  the  manufacture 
of  war  implements.     Has  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  box  by  wood-engravers. 

Maire  [Black]  (Olea  GunningTiamii). — Grows  40-50  ft.  high,  3-i  ft.  diam. ;  timber 
close-f  rained,  heavy,  and  very  durable.  Much  of  this  very  valuable  timber  is  at  present 
destroyed  in  clearing  the  land. 

Maire-taw-hake  {Eurjenia  maire). — A  small  tree  about  40  ft.  high ;  trunk  1-2  ft, 
in  diam.;  timber  compact,  heavy,  and  durable.  Used  for  mooring-posts  and  jetty- 
piles  on  the  Waikato,  w^here  it  has  stood  well  for  7  years.  It  is  highly  valued  for  fencing. 
Common  in  swampy  laud  in  the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand. 

Make  {Arisiotelia  racemosa). — A  small  handsome  tree  G-20  ft.  high,  quick  growing. 
"Wood  very  light,  and  white  in  colour,  and  might  be  applied  to  the  same  purposes  as 
the  lime  tree  in  Britain ;  it  makes  good  veneers. 

Mango  {Mangifera  indica). — This  tree  grows  abundantly  in  India,  where  numerous 
varieties  are  cultivated,  as  also  in  Mauritius,  Brazil,  and  in  other  tropical  climates. 
Its  wood  is  generally  coarse  and  open-grained,  but  is  excellent  for  common  doors  and 
door-posts  when  well  seasoned  ;  it  is  light  and  strong,  but  liable  to  snap ;  it  is  durable 
in  the  dry,  but  decays  rapidly  when  exposed  to  weather  or  water,  and  is  much  attacked 
by  worms  and  ants.  Its  weight  is  41  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  7700  lb. ;  breaking- 
weight,  560  lb. 

Manuka  {Leptosperminn  ericoides). — A  small  tree  10-80  ft.  high,  highly  ornamental, 
more  especially  when  less  than  20  years  old.  The  timber  can  be  had  28-30  ft.  long,  and 
14  in.  diam.  at  the  butt,  and  10  in.  at  the  small  end.  The  wood  is  hard  and  dark 
coloured,  largely  used  at  present  for  fuel  and  fencing,  axe-handles  and  sheaves  of  blocks, 
and  formerly  by  the  natives  for  spears  and  paddles.  The  old  timber,  from  its  dark- 
coloured  markings,  might  be  used  with  advantage  in  cabinet-work,  and  its  great 
diirability  might  recommend  it  for  many  other  purposes.  Highly  valued  in  Otago  for 
jetty  and  wharf  piles,  as  it  resists  the  marine  worm  better  tlian  any  other  timber  found 
in  the  province.  It  is  extensively  used  for  house  piles.  The  lightest  coloxired  wood, 
called  "  white  manuka,"  is  considered  the  toughest,  and  forms  an  excellent  substitute 
for  hornbeam  in  the  cogs  of  large  spur  wheels.  It  is  abundant  in  New  Zealand  as  a 
scrub,  and  is  found  usually  on  the  poorer  soils,  but  is  rare  as  a  tree  in  large  tracts  to  the 
exclusion  of  other  trees. 

Maple  (Acer  saccharinum). — The  sugar-maple  is  liable  to  a  peculiarity  of  growth, 
which  gives  the  wood  a  knotted  structure,  whence  it  is  called  "  bird's-eye  maple."  The 
cause  of  this  structure  has  never  been  satisfactorily  explained.  The  handsome  appear- 
ance thus  given  to  the  wood  is  the  reason  of  its  value  in  furniture)  and  cabinet 
making. 

Mingi-Mingi  or  Yellowwood   (JJUarla  aviceunixfolia). — An  ornamental  shrub  tree, 


Carpentry — Woods.  •  139- 

trunk  2  ft.  diani.     Wood  close-grained,  with  yellow  markings,  which  render  it  desirable 
for  cabinet-work ;  good  for  veneers.     Occurs  in  Suuth  Island  of  New  Zealand, 

Miio  {Podocarpus  ferrufjinea). — This  is  a  New  Zealand  tree,  giving  brownish  wood 
20-30  ft.  long  and  15-30  in.  sq.,  useful  for  internal  carpentry  and  joinery,  and  weighing 
46  lb.  a  cub.  ft.  It  is  known  as  the  " bastard  black  pine " in  Otago,  the  wood  being  less- 
durable  than  tliat  of  the  matai  or  "  true  black  pine " ;  it  is  reddish,  close-grained  and 
brittle,  the  cross  section  showing  the  heartwood  star-shaped  and  irregular.  Tho 
wood  is  generally  thought  to  be  unfitted  for  piles  and  marine  works,  except  where  only 
partially  exposed  to  the  influence  of  sea-water,  when  it  is  reported  durable. 

Monoao  or  Yellow  Pine  {Dacrydium  Colensoi)  is  a  very  ornamental  tree,  20-80  ft.  higli, 
giving  a  light  and  yellow  wood,  which  is  one  of  the  strongest  and  most  durable  in  New 
Zealand.  Posts  of  this  wood  have  stood  several  hundred  years'  use  among  the  Maoris,, 
and  it  is  greatly  valued  for  furniture. 

Mora  {Mora  excelsa). — This  tree  is  a  native  of  British  Guiana  and  Trinidad,  growing 
luxuriantly  on  sand-reefs  and  barren  clays  of  the  coast  regions,  reaching  130-150  ft.  high, 
and  squaring  18-20  in.  Its  wood  is  extremely  tough,  close,  and  cross-grained,  being  one 
of  tho  most  difficult  to  split.  It  is  one  of  the  eight  first-class  woods  at  Lloyd's,  making 
admirable  keels,  timbers,  beams,  and  knees,  and  in  most  respects  superior  to  oak.  Its 
weight  is  57  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  crushing-force,  10,000  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  1212  lb.  The 
wood  is  of  a  chostuut-brown  colour,  sometimes  beautifully  figured.  It  is  free  from  dry- 
rot,  but  subject  to  starshake.     Its  market  form  is  logs  18-35  ft.  long  and  18-20  in.  sq. 

Muskwood  (Euryhia  argophylla)  grows  in  densely  scrubby  places  among  the  moun- 
tain ranges  of  Tasmania,  which  makes  it  difficult  to  get  out.  This  timber  never  grows 
very  high  ;  it  has  a  pleasant  fragrance,  is  of  a  beautiful  mottled  colour,  and  well  adapted 
for  veneering,  fancy  articles  of  furniture,  pianofortes,  &c.  Diam.  G-15  in.,  the  butt 
enlarging  towards  the  ground  to  IJ,  and  even  2J  ft. ;  height,  15-30  ft. ;  sp.  grav.,  about 
0  ■  G85.     Abundant  throughout  tlie  island. 

Mutti  {Terminalla  coriacea). — This  is  a  common  tree  of  Central  and  S.  India.  Its 
wood  is  hard,  heavy,  tough,  fibrous,  close-grained,  rather  difficult  to  work,  unafi"ected  by 
white  ants,  and  considered  extremely  durable.  It  is  used  for  beams  and  telegraph  posts. 
Its  weight  is  60  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  breaking-weight,  860  lb. 

Nageswar  {3Iesua  f erred)  is  a  valuable  Assam  timber,  harder  and  more  durable  than 
Jaral,  but  not  so  suitable  for  boat-building,  as  it  is  much  heavier,  and  difficult  to  work- 
Grows  till  80  years  old,  when  it  reaches  a  height  of  45  ft.  and  a  diam.  of  6  ft.,  such  trees 
being  worth  SZ. 

Nan-mu  (Persea  Nanmii). — That  portion  of  tho  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan  which 
lies  between  25°  and  26^  N.  lat.  produces  the  famous  nan-mu  tree,  which  is  highly 
esteemed  by  the  Chinese  for  building  and  coffins,  on  account  of  its  durability  and  pleasant 
odour.  It  is  imported  into  Shanghai  in  planks  measuring  8  ft.  long  and  13-14  in.  wide, 
for  which  the  higliest  price  is  200  dol.  (of  4s.  2d)  a  plank. 

Naugiia. — This  tree  is  generally  found  in  the  Pacific  Islands  on  desert  shores,  or  on 
the  brinks  of  lagoons,  where  its  roots  are  bathed  by  the  tide.  Its  wood  has  great  weight, 
intense  hardness,  and  closeness  of  gi'ain.  It  is  considered  a  valuable  substitute  for  box 
for  wood-engraving.     Blocks  18  in.  diam.  are  common. 

Neem  {MeUa  Azadirachtd). — This  is  a  common,  hardy,  and  quick-growing  Indian 
tree,  reaching  40-50  ft.  high,  and  20-24  in.  diam.  The  trunk  and  branches  are  cut 
into  short,  thick  planks,  much  used  for  lintels  of  doors  and  windows.  The  wood  is 
hard  and  durable,  but  attacked  by  insects.  Its  fragrant  odour  makes  it  in  request  by 
natives  for  doors  and  door-frames.  It  is  difficult  to  work,  takes  a  fine  polisli,  and  is 
good  for  joinery  where  strength  is  not  demanded ;  but  becomes  brittle  and  liable  to 
snap  when  dry.  Its  weight  is  51  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force  C940  lb. ;  breaking-weight, 
600  lb. 

Nci-nei  {DacrophyJlum  longifulium). — Wood  is  white,  marked  with  satin-like  specks,. 


140  Carpentry — AVoods. 

and  is  adapted  for  oabinet-vrork.  Grows  in  South  Island  of  New  Zealand,  and  in 
Lord  Auckland's  group  and  Campbell's  Island.  The  tree  in  the  vicinity  of  Dunedin 
attains  a  diam.  of  10-12  in. 

Oak   {Quircus  spp.). — The   most  comnaon    British   oak   is    Q.  pedunculata,   found 
throughout  Europe  from  Sweden  to  the  Mediterranean,  and  in  N.  Africa  and  Asia, 
Its  wood  is  tolerably  straight  and  fine  in  the  grain,  and  generally  free  from  knots.     It 
splits  freely,  makes  good  laths  for  plasterers  and  slaters,  and  is  esteemed  the  best  kind 
for  joists,  rafters,  and  other  purposes  where  a  stiff,  straight  wood  is  desirable.     The 
"  durmast"  oak  ((?.  puhescens)  has  the  same  range  as  the  preceding,  but  predominates 
in  the  German  forests.     Its  wood  is  heavier,  harder  and  more  elastic,  liable  to  warp, 
and  difficult  to  split.     Both  are  equally  valuable  in  ship-building.     Quantities  of  Oak 
timber  are  shipped  from  Norway,  Holland,  and  the  Baltic  ports,  but  are  inferior  to 
English-grown  for  sliip-buildiug,  though  useful  for  other  purposes.    A  third  kind  is  the 
cluster-fruited  or  "  bay"  oak  (Q.  sessilijlora).     Of  American  oaks,  the  most  important 
are  as  follows:   The  chestnut-leaved  (Q.  prinos)  gives  a  coarse-grained  wood,  very 
serviceable  for  wheel-carriages.     The  red  {Q.  rubra),  in  Canada  and  the  AUeghanies, 
affords  a  light,  spongy  wood,  useful  for  staves.     Tlie  wood  of  the  white  oak  {Q.  alba), 
ranging  from  Canada  to  Carolina,  is  tough,  pliable,  and  durable,  being  the  best  of  the 
American  kinds,  but  less  durable  than  British.     It  is  exported  from  Canada  to  Europe 
as  "  American  oak."     The  iron  or  post  oak  (Q-  oUmihba),  found  in  the  forests  of  Mary- 
land and  Virginia,  is  frequently  called  the  "  box  white  oak,"  and  chiefly  used  for  posts 
and   fenciug.      The   live   oak  (Q.  virens)    is   the   best  American   &hip-building  kind, 
inhabitiug  the  Virginian  coast.     Oak  warps,  twists,  and  shrinks  much  in  drying.     Its 
weight  is  37-GS  lb.  a  cub.  ft.,  according  to  the  kind  ;  cohesive  force,  7850-17,892  lb.    It 
is  valuable  for  all  situations  where  it  is  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  where  its  warping 
and  flexibility  are  not  objectionable.     Quebec  oak  is  worth  about  il.  10s.-7Z.  a  load ; 
Dantzic  and  Memel,  31.  10s.-5Z.     It  is  generally  considered  that  the  timber  from  the 
stalk-fruited  oak  is  superior  to  that  from  the  bay  oak.     The  resijective  characteristics 
of  the  two  varieties  are : — The  wood  of  the  stalk-fruited  oak  is  lighter  in  colour  than 
the  other.     It  has  a  straight  grain,  is  generally  free  from  knots,  has  numerous  and 
distinct    medullary  rays,  and  good  silver  grain ;  it  is  easy  to  work  and  less  liable  to 
warp,  and  is  better  suited  for  ornamental  work,  joists,  rafters,  and  wherever  stiffness 
and  accuracy  of  form  are  required ;   it  splits  well  and  makes  good  laths.     The  timber 
of  the  cluster-fruited  oak  is  darker   in  colour,    more  flexible,  tougher,  hea%Her,  and 
harder  ;    it   has  but  few   large    medullary  rays,  so  that  in  old  buildings  it  has  been 
mistaken  for  chestnut;  it  is  liable  to  warp,  difficult  to  split,  not   suited  for   laths  or 
ornamental  purposes,  but  is  better  where  flexibility  or  resistance  to  shocks  is  required. 
On  the  whole  they  so  much  resemble  each  other  that  few  are  able  to  sjieak  positiveh' 
as  to  their  identity ;   but  the  Durmast  oak  is  decidedly  of  inferior  quality.     Oak  is 
sometimes  felled  in  the  spring  for  the  sake  of  the  bark   (instead  of  being   stripped 
in  the  spring  and  felled  in  the  winter) ;  the  tree  being   then  full  of  sap,  the  timber 
is  not  durable.     American  oak  has  a  pale  reddish-brown  colour,  with  a  straighter  and 
coarser  grain   than   English.     The   timber  is    sound,  hard,  and  tough,  very  elastic, 
shrinks  very  slightly,  and  is  capable  of  being  bent  to  any  form  when  steamed.     It  is 
not  so  strong  or  durable  as  English  oak,  but  is  superior  to  any  other  foreign  oak  in 
those   respects.     It  may  be  used  for  ship-building,  and  for  many  parts  of  buildings. 
It  is  imjwrted  in  very  large-sized  logs  varying  from  25  to  40  It.  in  length,  and  from 
12  to  28  in.  in  thickness;    also  in   2-4  in.   planks,  and  in   thick  stuff  of  4j-10  in. 
Dantzic  oak  is  grown  chiefly  in  Poland,  and  sliij)ped  also  at  Memel  and  Stettin.     I,t 
is  of  dark-brown  colour,  with  a  close,  straight,  and  compact  grain,  bright  medullary 
rays,  free  from  knots,  very  elastic,  easily  bent  when  steamed,  and  moderately  durable. 
It  is  used  for  planking,  shiii-building,  &c.     It  is  clasi^ified  as  "crown"  and  "crown 
brack "  qualities,  marked  respectively  W  and  WW.     It  is  imported  in  logs   18-30  ft. 


Carpentry — Woods.  141 

Iong,10-1G  in.sq.,  and  in  planks  averaging  32  ft.  long,  0-15  in.  wide,  and  2-S  in.  thick. 
French  oak  closely  resembles  British  in  colour,  quality,  texture,  and  "eneral  characteristics. 
Kiga  oak  is  grown  in  Russia,  and  is  like  that  shipped  from  Dantzic,  but  with  more 
numerous  and  distinct  medullary  rays.  It  is  valued  for  its  silver  "rain,  and  is 
imported  in  logs  of  nearly  semicircular  section.  Italian  (Sardinian)  oak  is  from  several 
varieties  of  the  tree.  It  is  of  a  brown  colour,  hard,  tough,  strong,  subject  to  splits  and 
shakes  in  seasoning,  difficult  to  work,  but  free  from  defects,  and  extensively  used  for 
ship-building  in  her  Majesty's  dockyards.  "Wainscot"  is  a  species  of  oak,  soft  and 
easily  worked,  not  liable  to  warp  or  split,  and  highly  figured  ;  it  is  obtained  by  convert- 
ing the  timber  so  as  to  show  the  silver  grain,  which  makes  the  wood  very  valuable  for 
veneers,  and  other  ornamental  work.  It  is  imported  chiefly  from  Holland  and  Riga,  in 
semicircular  logs.  "  Clap  Boarding "  is  a  description  of  oak  imported  from  Norway, 
inferior  to  wainscot,  and  distinguished  from  it  by  bein;?  full  of  white-coloured  streaks. 

Oak  [African],  African  Teak,  or  Tnrtosa.  (^Olcl field ia  africana).— This  important  W. 
African  timber  has  lately  been  largely  imported  from  Sierra  Leone  as  a  substitute  for 
oak  and  teak.  Though  stronger  than  these,  its  great  weight  precludes  its  general  use  ; 
but  it  is  valuable  for  certain  parts  of  ships,  as  beams,  keelsons,  waterways,  and  it  will 
stand  much  heat  in  the  wake  of  steamer  fires,  decaying  rapidly,  however,  in  confined 
situations.  It  warps  in  planks,  swells  with  wet,  and  splits  in  drying  again ;  it  is  not 
proof  against  insects.  Its  weight  is  5S-G1  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohodive  force,  17,000- 
21,000  lb. 

Oak  [Australian].— Two  hard-wooded  trees  of  Australia  are  the  forest-oak  (Caswarwia 
torulusa)  and  the  forest  swamp-oak  {C.  j^aJudosn).  They  reach  40-GO  ft.  high  and 
12-30  in.  diam.,  and  are  used  in  house-building,  mainly  for  shingles,  as  they  split 
almost  as  neatly  as  slate.  They  weigh  50  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  ^rushing- force,  5500  lb.  ; 
breaking-weight,  700  lb.  The  she-oak  (C.  quadrivalvis)  and  he-oak  (C  suherosa')  of 
Tasmania  are  used  mostly  for  ornamental  purposes.  C.  leptodada  and  C.  cristata 
are  other  species  well  adapted  for  furniture  purposes  from  the  singular  beauty  of  tlieir 
grain.  They  are  used  for  certain  applications  in  boat-building,  but  rarely  found  to  exceed 
2-3  ft.  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  excellent  for  turnery  purposes  and  the  manufacture  of 
ornamental  work. 

Pai-cli'ha  {Euonymus  sp.). — The  wood  of  this  tree  has  been  proposed  as  a  substitute 
for  boxwood,  being  extensively  produced  in  China,  and  largely  used  at  Ningpo  and 
other  places  for  wood-carving.  It  is  very  white,  of  fine  grain,  cuts  easily,  and  is  well 
suited  for  carved  frames,  cabinets,  &c. ;  but  it  is  not  at  all  likely  to  supersede  box-wood, 
though  well  fitted  for  coarser  work. 

Pear  (Pyrus  communis). — Pear-tree  wood  is  one  of  the  heaviest  and  hardest  of  the 
timbers  indigenous  to  Britain.  It  has  a  compact,  fine  grain,  and  takes  a  high  polish  ; 
it  is  in  great  request  by  millwrights  in  France  for  making  cog-wheels,  rollers,  cylinders, 
blocks,  &c.,  and  is  preferred  before  all  others  for  the  screws  of  wine-presses.  It  ranks 
second  to  bos  for  wood-engraving  and  turnery. 

Persimmon  {Diospyros  viniiniana). — The  Virginian  date-palm  or  persimmon  is  a 
native  of  the  United  States,  growing  50-GO  ft.  high  and  IJ  ft.  diam.  Its  heartwood 
is  brown,  hard,  and  elastic,  but  liable  to  split ;  it  has  been  with  some  success  introduced 
into  England  as  a  substitute  for  boxwood  in  shuttle-making  and  wood-engraving. 

Pine  [Black],  or  Matai  (Podocarpns  spicata). — This  New  Zealand  timber  is  much 
more  durable  than  Miro,  and  is  used  for  all  purposes  where  strength  and  solidity  are 
required.  Its  weight  is  40  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  breaking-weight,  420-SOO  lb.  It  is  a  largo 
tree,  80  ft.  high  and  with  a  trunk  2-4  ft.  in  diameter.  The  wood  is  yellowish,  close- 
grained,  and  durable ;  among  the  various  purposes  to  which  it  is  applied  may  be 
mentioned  piles  for  bridges,  wharves  and  jetties,  bed-plates  for  machinery,  millwrights' 
work,  flooring,  house  blocks,  railway  sleepers,  fencing,  and  bridges.  It  has  been  kuowa 
to  resist  exposure  for  over  200  years  in  a  damp  situation. 


142  Carpentry — Woods. 

Pine  [Cluster],  or  Pinaster  (Finns  Pinaster). — This  pine  inhabits  the  rocky  mountains 
■of  Europe,  and  is  cultivated  in  English  plantations ;  it  reaches  50-60  and  even  70  ft. 
in  height.  It  likes  deep  dry  sand,  or  sandy  loam  in  a  dry  bottom  ;  but  avoids  all 
calcareous  soils.  The  wood  is  said  to  be  more  durable  in  water  than  in  air.  It  is  much 
used  in  France  for  shipping-packages,  piles  and  props  in  ship-building,  common 
carpentry  and  fuel.     It  weighs  25  J  lb.  a  cub.  ft. 

Pine  [Huon]  {Dacrydium  Franldinii). — This  tree  is  said  to  be  abundant  in  portions 
of  S.W.  Tasmania,  growing  50-100  ft.  high  and  3-S  ft.  diam.  The  wood  is  clean  and 
fine-grained,  being  closer  and  more  durable  than  American  White  Pine,  and  can  be  had 
in  logs  12-20  ft.  long  and  2  ft.  sq.  Its  weight  is  40  lb.  a  cub.  ft.  It  is  considered  one 
■of  the  handsomest  and  most  suitable  woods  for  bedroom  furniture,  bearing  a  strong 
Tesemblance  to  satinwood.  From  its  lasting  qualities,  it  is  much  prized  for  ship- 
building. 

Pine  [Moreton  Bay]  (Araucaria  CimningJmmi). — This  abundant  Queensland  tree 
grows  over  150  ft.  high  and  5  ft.  dium.,  giving  spars  80-100  ft.  long.  Its  wood  is  straight- 
grained,  tough,  and  excellent  for  joinery;  but  is  not  so  durable  as  Yellow  Pine,  and  is 
liable  to  attacks  of  sea-worms  and  white  ants.  It  is  used  for  flooring  and  general 
■carpentry,  and  for  shingles ;  it  holds  nails  and  screws  well.  Its  weight  is  45  lb.  a  cub.  ft. 
It  is  strong  and  lasting  either  when  dry  or  actually  under  water,  but  will  not  bear 
alternations  of  dryness  and  damp.  When  grown  on  the  mountains  of  the  interior,  the 
wood  is  fine-grained  and  takes  a  polish  which  is  described  as  superior  to  that  of  satin- 
wood  or  bird's-eye  maple.     Its  average  value  is  55.s.-70s.  per  1000  ft.  super. 

Pine  [Norfolk  Island]  (Araucaria  excelsa). — This  tree  inhabits  Norfolk  Island  and 
Australia,  growing  200-250  ft.  high  and  10-12  ft.  diam.  Its  wood  is  tough,  close- 
grained,  and  very  durable  for  indoor  work. 

Pine  [Northern],  or  Red,  Yellow,  Scotch,  Memel,  Riga,  or  Dantzic  Fir  (Pinus 
^ylvestris). — This  tree  forms  with  the  spruce  fir  the  great  forests  of  Scandinavia  and 
Russia,  and  attains  considerable  size  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland.  The  logs  shipped 
from  Stettin  reach  18-20  in.  sq. ;  those  from  Dantzic,  14-16  in.  and  even  21  in.  sq. 
and  up  to  40-60  ft.  long;  from  Slemel,  up  to  13  in.  sq.  and  35  ft.  long;  from  Riga, 
12  in.  sq.  and  40  ft.  long,  and  spars  18-25  in.  diam.  and  70-80  ft.  long;  Swedish  and 
Norwegian,  up  to  12  in.  sq.  It  comes  also  in  planks  (11  in.  wide),  deals  (9  in.),  and 
Ijattens  (7  in.).  The  best  arc  Christiana  yellow  deals,  but  contain  much  sap ;  Stockholm 
and  Gefle  are  more  disposed  to  warp ;  Gottenburg  are  strong,  but  bad  for  joinery ; 
Archangel  and  Onega  are  good  for  joinery,  but  not  durable  in  damp ;  Wiborg  are  the 
best  Russian,  but  inclined  to  sap  ;  Petersburg  and  Narva  yellow  are  inferior  to  Arch- 
angel. Well-seasoned  pine  is  almost  as  durable  as  oak.  Its  lightness  and  stiffness 
lender  it  the  best  timber  for  beams,  girders,  joists,  rafters,  and  framing;  it  is  much 
xised  for  masts,  and  for  joinery  is  superior  to  oak  on  all  scores.  The  hardest  comes 
from  the  coldest  districts.  The  cohesive  force  is  7000-14,000  lb.  per  sq.  in. ;  weight, 
29-40  lb.  per  cub.  ft.;  strength,  80;  stiffness,  114;  toughness,  56.  The  colour  of  the 
wood  of  different  varieties  is  not  uniform ;  it  is  generally  reddish-yellow  or  honey-yellow 
of  unequal  depths  of  brightness.  The  section  shows  alternate  hard  and  soft  circles, 
one  part  of  each  annual  ring  being  soft  and  light-coloured,  the  other  harder  and  darker. 
It  has  a  strong  resinous  odour  and  flavour,  and  works  easily  when  not  too  highly 
Te.sinous.  Foreign  wood  shrinks  about  -j'^  in  width  in  seasoning  from  the  log.  In  the 
best  timber  the  annual  rings  do  not  exceed  J^j  in.  in  thickness,  and  the  dark  parts  of 
tlie  rings  are  bright,  reddish,  hard,  and  dry,  neither  leaving  a  woolly  surface  after  the 
saw  nor  choking  the  teeth  with  rosin.  Inferior  kinds  have  thick  rings,  and  their  dark 
portion  is  either  more  yellow,  heavier,  and  more  resinous,  or  is  spongj-,  less  resinous, 
and  leaves  a  woolly  surface  after  sawing  ;  such  is  neither  strong  nor  durable.  Shavings 
from  good  timber  will  bear  curling  2  or  3  times  round  the  finger,  those  from  bad  will 
break  off.     The  best  balks  come  from  Dantzic.  Memel,  and  Riga.     Dantzic  is  strong, 


Carpentry — Wood?.  143 

toiigli,  clastic,  easily  worked,  and  durable  when  seasoned.  It  contains  (especially  in 
small  trees)  much  sapwood,  and  large  and  dead  knots,  while  the  heart  is  often  loose  and 
cuppy.  The  balks  run  18-45  ft.  long  and  14-16  in.  sq.  ;  deals,  18-50  ft.  long  and 
2-5  in.  thick.  Memel  is  similar  to  Dantzic,  but  hardly  so  stron;;,  and  only  13-14  in.  sn. 
Eiga  is  somewhat  weaker  than  Dantzic,  but  remarkable  for  straightiiess,  paucity  of 
sapwood,  and  absence  of  knots ;  being  often  rather  shaky  at  the  centre,  it  is  not  so  "-ood 
for  turning  into  deals.  Norway  is  small,  tough,  and  durable,  but  generally  contains 
much  sapwood.  The  balks  are  only  8-9  in.  sq.  Swedish  resembles  Prussian,  but  the 
balks  are  generally  tapering,  small,  of  yellowish-white  colour,  soft,  clean,  straight  in 
grain,  with  small  knots  and  very  little  sap,  but  generally  shaky  at  heart,  and  unfit  foi- 
conversion  into  deals.  It  is  cheap,  suitable  for  the  coarser  purposes  of  carpentry,  and 
used  chiefly  for  scaffolding.  Balks  are  generally  20-35  ft.  long,  and  10-12  in.  sq. 
Planks,  deals,  and  battens  from  the  Baltic,  cut  from  northern  pine,  are  known  as 
"yellow"  or  "red"  deal;  when  cut  from  spruce,  they  are  called  "white"  deals. 
Taking  deals,  battens,  &c.,  in  a  general  way,  the  order  of  quality  would  stand  first  or 
best  with  Prussia;  then  with  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Finland;  and  lastly  witli  Norway. 
Prussian  (Memel,  Dantzic,  Stettin)  deals  are  very  durable  and  adapted  for  external 
■work,  but  are  chiefly  used  for  ship-building,  being  2-4  in.  thick.  The  timber  from  the 
southern  ports,  being  coarse  and  wide  in  the  grain,  cannot  compete  in  the  converted 
form  as  deals,  &c.,  with  the  closer-grained  and  cleaner  exports  from  the  more  northern 
ports.  Russian  (Petersburg,  Onega,  Archangel,  Narva)  are  the  best  deals  imported  for 
building  purposes.  They  are  very  free  from  sap,  knots,  shakes,  or  other  imperfections ; 
of  a  clean  grain,  and  hard,  well-wearing  surface,  which  makes  them  well  adapted  for 
flooring,  joinery,  &c.  The  lower  qualities  are  of  course  subject  to  defects.  Petersburg 
deals  are  apt  to  be  shaky,  having  a  great  many  centres  in  the  planks  and  deals,  but  tlie 
best  qualities  are  very  clean  and  free  from  knots.  They  are  very  subject  to  dry  rot. 
All  Russian  deals  are  unfit  for  work  exposed  to  damp.  In  those  from  Archangel  and 
Onega  the  knots  are  often  surrounded  by  dead  bark,  and  drop  out  when  the  timber  is 
worked.  Wyborg  deals  are  sometimes  of  very  good  quality,  but  often  full  of  sap. 
Finland  and  Nyland  deals  are  14  ft.  long,  very  durable,  but  fit  only  for  the  carpenter. 
Norwegian  (Christiania,  Dram)  yellow  deals  and  battens  used  to  bear  a  high  character, 
being  clean  and  carefully  converted,  but  are  now  very  scarce.  Bluch  of  the  Norwegian 
timber  is  imported  in  the  shape  of  prepared  flooring  and  matched  boarding.  Dram 
fattens  often  suffer  from  dry  rot,  especially  when  badly  stacked.  Of  Swedish  (Gefle, 
Stockholm,  Holmsund,  Soderham,  Gottenburg,  Hernosaud,  Sundswall)  the  greater 
portion  is  coarse  and  bad,  but  some  of  the  very  best  Baltic  deal,  both  yellow  and  white, 
comes  from  Gefle  and  Soderham.  The  best  Swedish  run  more  sound  and  even  in 
quality  than  Russian,  from  the  diflerent  way  in  which  the  timber  is  converted.  A  balk 
of  Russian  timber  is  all  cut  into  deals  of  one  quality,  hence  the  numerous  hearts  or 
centres  seen  amongst  them,  which  are  so  liable  to  shake  and  split ;  whereas  in  Swedish 
timber  the  inner  and  the  outer  wood  are  converted  into  different  qualities  of  deals. 
Hence  the  value  of  first-class  Swedish  goods.  4-in.  deals  should  never  be  used  for 
cutting  into  boards,  as  they  are  cut  from  the  centres  of  the  logs.  3- in.  deals,  the  general 
thickness  of  Russian  goods,  are  open  to  the  same  objection.  Swedish  2J-  and  2-iu.  of 
good  quality  are  to  be  preferred  to  3-in.,  since  they  are  all  cut  from  the  sound  outer 
wood.  Swedish  deals  are  fit  for  ordinary  carcase  work,  but,  from  their  liability  to  warp, 
cannot  be  depended  upon  for  joiners'  work.  They  are  commonly  used  for  all  purposes 
connected  with  building,  especially  for  floors. 

Pine  [Pitch]  (Pmua  rigida  [res/nosft]).— This  species  is  found  throughout  Canada 
and  the  United  States,  most  abundantly  along  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  wood  is  heavy, 
close-grained,  elastic,  and  durable,  but  very  brittle  when  old  or  dry,  and  difficult  to 
plane.  The  heartwood  is  good  against  alternate  dump  and  dryness,  but  inferior  to 
White  Pine  underground.    Its  weight  is  41  lb.  per  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  979G  lb.  per 


144  Carpentry — Woods. 

sq.  in. ;  stiffness,  73  ;  strength,  S2  ;  toughness,  92.  The  best  comes  from  the  S.  States  of 
N.  America,  chiefly  from  the  ports  of  Savaunali,  Ilarien,  and  Pensacola.  Tlie  colour  is 
reildish-white  or  brown ;  the  annual  rings  are  wide,  strongly  marked,  and  form  beautiful 
figures  after  working  and  varnishing.  The  timber  is  very  resinous,  making  it  sticky  and 
troublesome  to  plane,  but  very  durable  ;  it  is  hard,  heavy,  very  strong,  free  from  knots, 
but  contains  much  sap  wood,  is  subject  to  heart  and  cup  shake,  and  soon  rots  in  damp  ; 
it  is  brittle  when  dry,  and  often  rendered  inferior  by  the  trees  having  been  tapped  for 
turjientine.  Its  resinous  nature  prevents  its  taking  paint  well.  It  is  used  in  the 
heaviest  timber  structures,  for  deep  planks  in  ships,  aud  makes  very  durable  flooring. 
Market  forms  are  logs  11-18  (aver.  IG)  in.  sq.,  20-45  ft.  long;  planks  20-45  ft.  long, 
10-15  in.  wide,  3-5  in.  thick. 

Pine  [Red,  Norway,  or  Yellow]  (Pinus  riihra  [_resinosaJ). — This  tree  grows  on  dry, 
stony  soils  in  Canada,  Nova  Scotia,  and  the  N.  United  States,  reaching  60-70  ft.  high, 
and  15-25  ft.  diam.  at  5  ft.  above  ground.  The  wood  weighs  37  lb.  per  cub.  ft. ;  it  is 
much  esteemed  in  Canada  for  strength  and  durability,  and,  though  inferior  iu  these 
respects  to  Northern  Pine,  is  preferred  by  English  shipwrights  for  planks  and  spars, 
being  soft,  pliant,  and  easily  worked.  This  timber  has  a  reddish-white  appearance, 
with  clean,  fine  grain,  much  like  Memel,  but  with  larger  knots.  It  is  small,  very  solid 
in  the  centre,  with  li'.tle  sap  or  pith,  tough,  elastic,  not  warping  nor  splitting, 
moderately  strong,  very  durable  where  well  ventilated,  glues  well,  and  suffers  little  loss 
in  conversion.  Cabinet-makers  use  it  for  veneering,  and  sometimes  it  is  employed  for 
internal  house-fittings.  Market  forms  are  logs  16-50  ft.  long,  10-18  in.  sq.,  40  cub  ^^ 
in  contents,  sized  as  "  large,"  "  mixed,"  and  "  building." 

Pine  [Red]  or  Rimu  {Dacrydium  cupressinum). — This  New  Zealand  wood  runs  45  it, 
long,  and  up  to  30  in.  sq.,  and  is  much  used  in  house-framing  and  carpentry,  but  is  not 
so  well  adapted  to  joinery,  as  it  shrinks  irregularly.  It  weighs  40  lb.  a  cub.  ft.  It  is 
an  ornamental  and  useful  wood,  of  red  colour,  clear-grained,  and  solid  ;  it  is  much  used 
for  joisting,  planking,  and  general  building  purposes  from  Wellington  southwards.  Its 
cliief  drawback  is  liability  to  decay  under  the  influence  of  wet.  It  is  largely  employed 
in  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  the  old  wood  being  handsomely  marked  like  rosewood, 
but  of  a  lighter  brown  hue.     The  best  quality  comes  from  the  South  Island. 

Pine   [Weymouth   or   White]  {Finns  strohus). — This    tree   inhabits  the   American 
continent  between  43°  and  47°  N.  lat.,  occupying  almost  all  soils.     The  timber  is  ex- 
ported in  logs  over  3  ft.  sq.  and  30  ft.  long ;  it  makes  excellent  masts ;  is  light,  soft,  free 
from  knots,  easily  worked,  glues  well,  and  is  very  durable  in  dry  climates ;  but  is  unfit  for 
large  timbers,  liable  to  dry-rot,  and  not  durable  in  damp  places,  nor  docs  it  hold  nails 
well.    It  is  largely  employed  for  wooden  houses  aud  timber  bridges  in  America.    Its 
weight  is  28f  lb.  per  cub.  ft.;  cohesive  force,  11,835  lb.;  stiffness,  95;  strength,  99; 
toughness,  103.     The  wood,  when  freshly  cut,  is  of  a  white  or  pale  straw  colour,  but 
becomes  brownish-yellow  when  seasoned ;  the  annual  rings  are  not  very  distinct ;  the 
grain  is  clean  and  straight ;  the  wood  is  very  light  and  soft,  when  planed  has  a  silky 
surface,  and  is  easily  recognized  by  the  short  detached  dark  thin  streaks,  like  short  hair- 
lines, always  running  in  the  direction  of  the  grain.     The  timber  is  as  a  rule  clean,  free 
from  knots,  and  easily  worked,  though  the  top  ends  of  logs  are  sometimes  coarse  and 
knotty  ;  it  is  also  subject  to  cup  and  heart  shakes,  and  the  older  trees  to  sponginess  in 
the  centre.     It  is  much  used  in  America  for  carpenters'  work  of  all  kinds ;  also  for  the 
same  purpose  in  Scotland,  and  iu  some  English  towns,  but  considered  inferior  in  strength 
to  Baltic  timber.     Tlie  great  length  of  the  logs  and  their  freedom  from  defects  causes 
them  to  be  extensively  used  for  masts  and  yards  whose  dimensions  cannot  be  procured 
from  Baltic  timber.     For  joinery  this  wood  is  invaluable,  being  wrought  easily  and 
smoothly  into  mouldings  and  ornamental  work  of  every  description.     It  is  particularly 
adapted  for  panels,  on  account  of  the  great  width  in  which  it  may  be  procured  ;  it  is 
also  much  used  for  making  patterns  for  castings.    Of  market  forms  the  best  are  inch 


Cakpentky — Woods.  145 

masts  rouglil}'  licwn  to  an  octagonal  form.  Next  come  logs  liown  square,  IS-CO  ft. 
long,  averaging  l(j  in.  sq.,  and  containing  G5  cub.  ft.  iu  each  log.  A  few  pieces  are  only 
14  in.  sq. ;  shoit  logs  may  bo  liad  exceeding  even  2G  in.  sq.  Some  3-in.  deals  vary  in  width 
from  9  to  2'1  and  even  32  in.  The  best  are  shipijcd  ut  Quebec.  Goods  from  southera 
iwrts,  such  as  liichibucto,  Miramichi,  Shednc,  are  inferior.  American  yellow  deals  aro 
divided  into  3  principal  classes — Brights,  Dry  floated,  Floated.  Each  of  these  is  divided 
into  3  qualities,  according  to  freedom  from  sa}*,  knots,  &c. ;  the  first  qualily  should 
be  free  from  defects.  First  quality  brights  head  the  classification,  then  first  quality 
dry  floated,  next  first  quality  floated ;  then  come  second  quality  brights,  second  quality 
dry  floated,  and  so  on.  Brights  consist  of  deals  sawn  from  picked  logs  and  shipped 
straight  from  the  sawmills.  Floated  deals  are  floated  in  rafts  down  the  rivers  from  the 
felling  grounds  to  the  shipping  ports.  Dry  floated  deals  are  those  which,  after  floating 
down,  have  been  stacked  and  dried  before  shipment.  Floating  deals  damages  them 
considerably,  besides  discolouring  them.  The  soft  and  absorbent  nature  of  the  wood 
causes  them  to  warp  and  shake  very  much  in  drying,  so  that  floated  deals  should  never 
be  used  for  fine  work. 

Pine  [White]  or  Kahikatea  {Podocarpus  dacrijdioides). — This  New  Zealand  timber 
tree  gives  wood  iO  ft.  long  and  24—10  iu.  sq.,  straight-grained,  soft,  flexible,  warjnng  and 
shrinking  little,  and  well  adapted  for  flooring  and  general  joinery,  though  decaying 
rapidly  iu  damp.  Its  weight  is  30  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  breaking-weight,  020  lb.  When 
grown  on  dry  soil,  it  is  good  for  the  jjlaidcs  of  small  boats  ;  but  when  from  swamps,  it  is 
almost  useless.  A  variety  called  "  yellow  pine "  is  largely  sawn  in  Nelson,  and  con- 
sidered to  be  a  durable  building  timber. 

Pine  [Yellow,  Spruce,  or  Short-leaved]  (^riiius  variabilis  and  P.  mitis). — The  former 
species  is  found  from  New  England  to  Georgia,  the  wood  being  much  used  for  all  carpentry, 
and  esteemed  for  large  masts  and  yards  ;  it  is  shipped  to  England  from  Quebec. 
The  latter  is  abundant  in  the  Middle  States  and  throughout  N.  America,  reaching 
50-GO  ft.  high  and  18  in.  diam.  It  is  much  used  locally  for  framework:  the  heartwood 
is  strong  and  durable;  the  sapwood  is  very  inferior. 

Tlnuo  (^riatanus  orient  alis  and  P.  occidental  is). — The  first  species  inhabits  the  Levant 
and  adjoining  countries,  growing  GO-SO  ft.  high  and  up  to  8  ft.  diam.  The  wood  is  more 
figured  than  beech,  and  is  used  in  England  for  furniture ;  in  Persia  it  is  applied  to 
carpentry  in  general.  The  second  species,  sometimes  called  "water-beech,"  "button- 
wood,"  and  "  sycamore,"  is  one  of  the  largest  N.  American  trees,  reaching  12  ft.  diam. 
on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi,  but  generally  3-4  ft.  The  wood  is  harder  than  the  oriental 
kind,  handsome  when  cut,  works  easily,  and  stands  fairly  well,  but  is  short-grained  and 
easily  broken.  It  is  very  durable  in  water,  and  preferred  in  America  for  quays.  lis 
weight  is  40-4G  lb.  a  cub  ft.;  cohesive  force,  11,000  lb.;  strength,  92;  stifi'ness,  78; 
toughness,  108. 

Pohutukawa  (Metrosideros  tomentosa). — This  tree  has  numerous  massive  arms ;  its 
height  is  30-60  ft. ;  trunk  2-4  ft.  in  diam.  Tlie  timber  is  specially  adapted  for  the 
purposes  of  the  ship-builder,  and  has  usually  formed  the  framework  of  the  numerous 
vessels  built  in  the  northern  provinces  of  New  Zealand.  Grows  on  rocky  coasts,  and  is 
almost  confined  to  the  province  of  Auckland. 

Poon  (Calophijllum  Burmanni). — This  tree  is  abundant  in  Burma,  S.  India,  and  the 
E.  Archipelago.  It  is  tall  and  straight,  and  about  G  ft.  circ.  It  is  used  for  the  decks, 
masts,  and  yards  of  ships,  being  strong  and  light.  Its  texture  is  coarse  and  porous,  but 
unifurm:  it  is  easy  to  saw  and  work  up,  holds  nails  well,  but  is  not  durable  in  damp. 
Its  weight  is  40-55  lb.  a  cub.  ft.  ;  cohesive  force,  8000-14,700  lb.  Another  species 
(C  angustifoliurn)  from  the  Jlalabar  Hills  is  said  to  furnish  spars. 

Poplar  (Popidiis  spp.). — Five  species  of  poplar  are  common  in  England  :  the  white 
(P.  alba),  the  black  (P.  nigra),  the  grey  (P.  canescens),  the  aspen  or  trembling  poplar 
(P.  tremula),  and  the  Lombardy  (P.   dilatata);  and  two  in  America:  the   Ontario 


1-lG  Caepentry — Woods. 

(P.  macrophylla)  and  the  black  Italian  (P.  acladesca).  They  grow  rapidly,  and  Iheir 
Avood  is  generally  soft  and  light,  proving  durable  in  the  dry,  and  not  liahle  to  swell  or 
shrink.  It  makes  good  flooring  for  places  subject  to  little  wear,  and  is  slow  to  burn. 
It  is  much  used  for  butchers'  trays  and  other  purposes  where  weight  is  objectionable. 
T!ie  Lombardy  is  the  lightest  and  least  esteemed,  but  is  proof  against  mice  and  insects. 
The  weight  is  24-33  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  459G-66il  lb. ;  strength,  50-SG  ; 
fctiflhess,  4-1-G6  ;  toughness,  57-112.  Poplar  is  one  of  the  best  woods  for  paper-making. 
The  colour  of  the  wood  is  yellowish-  or  browish-white.  The  annual  rings  are  a  little 
darker  on  one  side  than  the  other,  and  therefore  distinct.  They  are  of  uniform  texture,  and 
without  large  medullary  rays.  Tlie  wood  is  light  and  soft,  easily  worked  and  carved,, 
only  indented,  not  splintered,  by  a  blow.  It  should  be  well  seasoned  for  2  years  before 
use.     When  kejot  dry,  it  is  tolerably  durable,  and  not  liable  to  swell  or  shrink. 

Pukatea  (^Laiirelia  Novx-Zelandiw). — Height,  130  ft.,  with  buttressed  trunk  3-7  ft. 
in  diam. ;  the  buttresses  15  ft.  thick  at  the  base  ;  wood  soft  and  yellowish,  used  for  small 
boat  planks.  A  variety  of  this  tree  has  dark-coloured  wood  that  is  very  lasting  in 
water,  and  greatly  prized  by  the  natives  in  making  canoes.  Grows  in  the  North  Island 
and  northern  parts  of  the  Middle  Island  of  New  Zealand. 

Puriri  or  Ironwood  (Vitex  littornlis). — A  large  tree,  50-60  ft.  high,  trunk  20  ft.  in 
girth.  Wood  hard,  dark  olive  brown,  much  used  ;  said  to  be  indestructible  under  all 
conditions.  Grows  in  the  northern  parts  of  the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand  only.  It 
is  largely  used  in  the  construction  of  railway  waggons,  and  is  said  to  make  excellent 
furniture,  though  but  little  employed  in  that  direction.  It  splits  freely  and  works 
easily,  and  is  used  wherever  durability  is  essential,  as  in  cart  work,  bridges,  teeth  of 
wheels,  and  fencing-posts. 

Pymma  (Larjerstrxinia  rcrjinx). — The  wood  ofthis abundant.  Indian  tree,  particularly 
in  S.  India,  Burma,  and  Assam,  is  used  more  than  any  except  teak,  especially  in  boat- 
building, and  posts,  beams  and  planks  in  house-building.  Its  weight  is  40  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ; 
cohesive  force,  13,000-15,000  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  C40  lb. 

Pynkado  or  Ironwood  (higa  xylocarpd). — This  valuable  timber  tree  is  found  through- 
out S.  India  and  Burma.  Its  wood  is  hard,  close-grained,  and  durable  ;  but  it  is  heavy, 
not  easily  worked,  and  hard  to  drive  nails  into.  It  is  much  used  in  bridge-building, 
l^osts,  piles,  and  sleepers.  Its  weight  is  58  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  16,000  lb. ; 
breaking-weight,  800  lb.     Called  also  erool. 

Rata  (Metrosideros  lucida). — Tliis  tree  is  indigenous  to  New  Zealand,  giving  a  hard 
timber  20-25  ft.  long  and  12-30  in.  sq.,  very  dense  and  solid,  weighing  65  lb.  a  cub.  ft. 
A  valuable  cabinet  wood ;  it  is  of  a  dark-red  colour  ;  splits  freely.  It  has  been  much 
used  for  knees  and  timbers  in  ship-building,  and  would  probably  answer  well  for  cogs 
of  spur  wheels.  Grows  rarely  in  the  Norfh  Island,  but  is  abirndant  in  the  South  Island, 
especially  on  the  west  coast.  In  Taranaki  it  is  principally  used  by  mill-  and  wheel- 
wrights. M.  rohusta  grows  50-CO  ft.  high,  diameter  of  trunk  4  ft.,  but  the  descending 
roots  often  form  a  hollow  stem  12  ft.  in  diam.  Timber  closely  resembles  the  last-named 
species,  and  is  equally  dense  and  durable,  while  it  can  be  obtained  of  much  larger  dimen- 
sions. It  is  used  for  ship-building,  but  for  this  purpose  is  inferior  to  the  pohutukawa. 
On  the  tramways  of  the  Thames  it  has  been  used  for  sleepers,  which  are  perfectly  sound 
after  5  years'  use.  Grows  in  the  North  Island  ;  usually  found  in  hilly  situations  from 
Cape  Colville  southwards. 

Eewarewa  {Knigldia  exceha). — A  lofty,  slender  tree  100  ft.  high.  Wood  handsome, 
mottled  red  and  brown,  used  for  furniture  and  shingles,  and  for  fencing,  as  it  splits 
easily.  It  is  a  most  valuable  veneering  wood.  Common  in  the  forests  of  the  Nortlteru 
Island  of  New  Zealand,  growing  upon  the  hills  in  both  rich  and  poor  soils. 

Piohun  {Soymida  fehnfuga). — This  large  forest  tree  of  Central  and  S.  India  affords 
a  close-grained,  strong  and  durable  wood,  which  stands  well  when  underground  or  buried 
in  masonry,  but  not  so  well  when  exposed  to  weather.    It  is  useful  for  palisades,  sleepers, 


Carpentry — Woods.  147 

and  house-work,  and  is  not  very  diiScult  to  work.     Its  weight  is  6G  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ; 
cohesive  force,  15,000  lb.;  breaking-weight,  1000  lb. 

Eoscwood. — Tlie  terra  "rosewood  "  is  apjilied  to  tlio  timber  of  a  numlier  of  trees,  but 
the  most  important  is  the  Brazilian.  Tliis  is  derived  mainly,  it  would  seem,  from 
Dalhergia  nigra,  though  it  appears  equally  probable  that  several  spcci(>,s  of  Trijitolemxa 
and  Maclixrtum  contribute  to  tlie  inferior  grades  imported  thence.  The  wood  is  valued 
for  cabinet-making  purposes.  The  approximate  London  market  values  are  12-25?.  a 
ton  for  Eio,  and  10-22Z.  for  Bahia. 

Sabicu  {Lysiloina  Sahicu). — This  tree  is  indigenous  to  Cuba,  and  found  growing  in 
the  Bahamas,  where  it  has  probably  been  introduced.  Its  wood  is  exceedingly  hard  and 
durable,  and  has  been  much  valued  for  ship-building.  It  has  been  imported  from  the 
Bahamas  iu  uncertain  quantities  for  the  manufacture  of  shuttles  and  bobbins  for  cotton- 
mills.  It  resembles  mahogany  in  appearance,  but  is  darker,  and  generally  well  figured. 
The  wood  is  very  heavy,  weathers  admirably,  and  is  very  free  from  sap  and  shakes. 
The  fibres  are  often  broken  during  the  early  stages  of  the  tree's  existence,  and  the  defect 
is  not  discovered  until  the  timber  is  converted,  so  that  it  is  seldom  used  for  weight-carry- 
ing beams. 

Sal  or  Saul  (Shorea  rohusta). — This  noble  tree  is  found  chiefly  along  the  foot  of  the 
Himalayas,  and  ou  the  Yindhyan  Hills  near  Gaya,  the  best  being  obtained  from  Morung. 
Its  wood  is  strong,  durable,  and  coarse-grained,  with  particularly  straight  and  even 
fibre;  it  dries  very  slowly,  continuing  to  shrink  years  after  other  woods  are  dry.  It  is 
used  chiefly  for  floor-beams,  planks,  and  roof-trusses,  and  can  be  had  in  lengths  of 
30-40  ft.,  and  12-24  in.  sq.  Its  weight  is  55-Gl  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  11,500  lb. ; 
crushing-force,  8500  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  881  lb. 

Satinwood. — The  satinwood  of  the  Bahamas  is  supposed  to  be  the  timber  of  Maha 
guianensis,  an  almost  unknown  tree.  The  Indian  kind  is  derived  from  Chloroxylon 
Sivietenia,  a  native  of  Ceylon,  the  Coromandel  coast,  and  other  parts  of  India.  The 
former  comes  in  square  logs  or  planks  9-20  in.  wide ;  the  latter,  in  circular  logs  9-30  in. 
diam.  The  chief  use  of  satinwood  is  for  making  the  backs  of  hair-  and  clothes-brushes, 
turnery,  and  veneering.  The  aj^proximate  value  of  San  Domingan  is  6-18c7.  a  ft.  Bahama 
satinwood,  also  called  yellow-wood,  grows  abundantly  on  Andros  Island  and  others  of 
the  Bahamian  group,  and  to  a  large  size.  It  is  a  fine,  hard,  close-grained  wood,  showing 
on  its  polished  surface  a  beautifully  rippled  pattern. 

Sawara  (Eetinospora  ^issi'/era)  is  used  in  Japan  for  the  same  purposes  as  hinoki,  when 
that  is  unprocurable. 

She-pine  (Podocarpus  elata)  is  very  common  in  Queensland,  attaining  80  ft.  in 
height  and  36  in.  in  diam. ;  the  timber  is  free  from  knots,  soft,  close-grained,  and  easily 
worked.     It  is  used  for  joinery  and  spars,  and  worth  G5s.-70s.  per  1000  ft.  super. 

Sissu  or  Seesura  (DaZ^^ergfia  iStss?*)-  — This  tree  is  met  with  in  many  parts  of  India, 
being  said  to  attain  its  greatest  size  at  Chanda.  Its  wood  resembles  the  finest  teak, 
but  is  tougher  and  more  eListic.  Being  usually  crooked,  it  is  unsuited  for  beams,  though 
mucli  used  by  Bengal  ship-builders,  and  in  India  generally  for  joinery  and  furnitui'e. 
Its  weight  is  46^  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  12,000  lb.  ;  breaking-weight,  700  lb. 

Sneezcwood  or  Nies  Hout  {Pteroxylon  utile). — This  most  durable  S.  African  timber, 
the  oomtata  of  the  natives,  is  invaluable  for  railway-sleepers  and  piles,  being  almost 
imperishable. 

Spruce  [American  "SVliite],  Epinette,  or  Sapinetto  blanche  (Abies  alba). — This  white- 
barked  fir  is  a  native  of  high  mountainous  tracts  in  the  colder  parts  of  N.  America, 
where  it  grows  40-50  ft.  high.  The  wood  is  tougher,  lighter,  less  durable,  and  more 
liable  to  twist  in  drying  than  white  deal,  but  is  occasionally  imported  in  planks  and 
deals.  It  weighs  29  lb.  a  cub.  ft.;  cohesive  force,  8000-10,000  lb.;  strength,  86; 
stiffness,  72  ;  toughness,  102. 

Spruce  [American  Black]  (Abies  nigra). — This  tree  inhabits  Canada  and  the  N. 

L  2 


148  Carpentry — Woods. 

states,  being  most  abundant  in  cold-bottomed  lands  in  Lower  Canada.  It  reaches 
60-70  and  even  100  ft.  high,  but  seldom  exceeds  24:  in.  diam.  The  wood  is  much  used 
in  America  for  ships'  knees,  when  oak  and  larch  are  not  obtainable. 

Spruce  [Red],  or  Newfoundland  Eed  Pine  {Ahies  ruhra).— This  species  grows  in 
Nova  Scotia,  and  about  Hudson's  Bay,  reaching  70-SO  ft.  high.  It  is  iiuiversally  pre- 
ferred in  America  for  ships'  yards,  and  imported  into  England  for  the  same  purpose.  It 
unites  in  a  higher  degree  all  the  good  qualities  of  the  Black  Spruce. 

Stopperwood  is  principally  used  for  piles  and  for  wheel  spokes.  It  is  a  very  strong 
and  durable  wood,  and  grows  from  12  to  IG  ft.  long  and  from  G  to  8  in.  in  dinm.  It  is 
found  on  all  the  Bahamian  islands,  and  is  an  exceedingly  hard,  fine,  close-grained,  and 
very  heavy  wood. 

Stringy-bark  (Eucali/ptus  gigantea). — This  tree  affords  one  of  the  best  building  woods 
of  Australia,  being  ckaner  and  straighter-graiued  than  most  of  the  other  species  of 
Eucahjpfus.  It  is  hard,  heavy,  strong,  close-grained,  and  works  up  well  for  planking, 
beams,  joists,  and  flooring,  but  becomes  more  difficult  to  work  after  it  dries,  and  shrinks 
considerably  in  drying.  The  outer  wood  is  better  than  the  heart.  Its  weight  is  56  lb. 
a  cub.  ft. ;  crushing-force,  6700  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  under  500  lb.  It  is  liable  to  warp 
or  twist,  and  is  susceptible  to  dry-rot.  It  sj^lits  with  facility,  forming  posts,  rails  and 
paling  for  fences,  and  shingles  fur  roofing. 

Sycamore  or  Great  Maple  (Acer  pseudo-platanus). — This  tree,  mis-called  "  plane  " 
in  N.  England,  is  indigenous  to  mountainous  Germany,  and  very  common  in  England. 
It  thrives  well  near  the  sea,  is  of  quick  growth,  and  has  a  trunk  averaging  32  ft.  long 
and  29  iu.  diam.  The  wood  is  durable  iu  the  dry,  but  liable  to  worms ;  it  is  chiefly 
used  for  furniture,  wooden  screws,  and  ornaments.  Its  weight  is  34-42  lb.  a  cub.  ft, ; 
cohesive  force,  5000-10,000  lb. ;  strength,  81 ;  stiffness,  59;  toughness,  111.  The  wood 
is  white  when  young,  but  becomes  yellow  as  the  tree  grows  older,  and  sometimes  brown 
near  the  heart ;  the  texture  is  uniform,  and  the  annual  rings  are  not  very  distinct ;  it 
has  no  large  medullary  rays,  but  the  smaller  rays  are  distinct. 

Tamanu  (^Calophyllurn  sp.). — This  valuable  tree  of  the  S.  Sea  Islands  is  becoming 
scarce.  It  sometimes  reaches  200  ft.  high  and  20  ft.  diam.  Its  timber  is  very  useful 
for  ship-building  and  ornamental  purposes,  and  is  like  the  best  Spanish  mahogany. 

Tanekaha  or  Celery-leaved  Pine  {Phyllocladus  trichomanoides)  is  a  slender,  handsome 
tree,  60  ft.  high,  but  rarely  exceeding  3  ft.  in  diam.,  afibrding  a  pale,  close-grained  wood, 
excellent  for  planks  and  spars,  and  resisting  decay  in  moist  positions  in  a  remarkable 
manner.  It  grows  in  the  hilly  districts  of  the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand,  and  iu 
Tasmania. 

Tasmauian  Blyrtle  (Fagus  Cunninghamii)  exists  in  great  abundance  throughout  the 
western  half  of  the  island,  growing  in  forests  to  a  great  size  in  humid  situations.  It 
reaches  a  height  of  60-180  ft.,  a  diam.  of  2-9  ft.,  averaging  about  3j  ft.,  and  has  a  sp.  gr. 
of  0"  795.  Its  price  is  about  IGs.  per  100  ft.  super,  in  the  log.  It  is  found  in  considerable 
quantities  in  some  of  the  mountainous  parts  iu  South  Victoria.  It  is  a  reddish-coloured 
wood,  and  much  employed  by  cabinet-makers  for  various  articles  of  furniture.  Occasion- 
ally planks  of  it  are  obtained  of  a  beautiful  grain  and  figure,  and  when  polished  its 
highly  ornamental  character  is  sure  to  attract  attention.  It  is  also  used  for  the  cogs 
of  wheels  by  millwi  ights. 

Tawa  {Xesodaphne  taica). — A  lofty  forest  tree,  60-70  ft.  high,  with  slender  branches. 
The  wood  is  light  and  soft,  and  is  nmeh  used  for  making  butter-kegs.  Grows  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  South  Island,  and  also  on  the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand, 
chiefly  on  low  alluvial  grounds  ;  is  commonly  found  forming  large  forests  in  river  flats. 
The  wood  makes  fairly  durable  flooring,  but  does  not  last  out  of  doors. 

Tawhai  or  Tawhai-raie-nui  (Fagus  fusca). — Black  birch  of  Auckland  and  Otago 
(from  colour  of  bark).  Eed  birch  of  Wellington  and  Nelson  (from  colour  of  timber). 
This  is  a  noble  tree,  60-90  ft.  high,  the  trunk  5-8  ft.  in  diam.    The  timber  is  excessively 


Caupentey — Woods.  149 

tougli  and  hard  fo  cut.  It  is  hi-lily  valued  in  Nelson  and  \Vcllin,c;ton  as  being  Loth 
strong  and  duraljle  iu  all  situations.  It  is  found  from  Kaitaia  in  tln^  North  Island  to 
Otago  in  the  South  Island  of  New  Zealand,  hut  often  locally  absent  from  e.xtensive 
districts,  and  grows  at  all  heights  up  to  3000  ft. 

Tviik  (TcrAoiia  gmniliK'). — This  tall,  straight,  rapidly-growing  tree  inhabits  the  dry 
elevated  districts  of  the  Malabar  and  Coromaudel  coasts  of  India,  as  well  as  Burma, 
Pegu,  Java,  and  Ceylon.  Its  wood  is  light,  easily  worked,  strong,  and  durable ;  it  is  the 
best  for  carpentry  where  strength  and  durability  are  required,  and  is  considered  foremost 
for  ship-building.  The  Moulmein  product  is  much  superior  to  the  Malabar,  being 
lighter,  more  flexible,  and  freer  from  knots.  The  Vindhyan  excels  that  of  Pegu  in 
strength,  and  in  bcauly  for  cabinet-making.  The  Johore  is  the  heaviest  and  strongest, 
and  is  well  suited  for  sleejsers,  beams,  and  piles.  It  is  unrivalled  for  resisting  worms 
and  ants.  Its  weight  is  45-G2  llx  a  cub.  ft.  ;  cohesive  force,  13,000-15,000  lb. ;  strength, 
109 ;  stiffness,  12G  ;  toughness,  94.  It  contains  a  resinous  aroniatic  substance,  which 
has  a  preservative  effect  on  iron.  It  is  subject  to  heartshake,  and  is  often  damaged. 
The  resinous  secretion  tends  to  collect  and  harden  in  the  shakes,  and  will  then  destroy 
the  edge  of  any  tool.  "When  the  resinous  matter  is  extracted  during  life  by  girdling  the 
tree,  the  timber  is  much  impaired  in  elasticity  and  durability.  Teak  is  sorted  in  the 
markets  according  to  size,  not  quality.  The  logs  are  23-40  ft.  long,  and  their  width  on 
tlie  larger  sides  varies  according  to  the  class,  as  follows  : — Class  A,  15  iu.  and  upwards  ; 
Bj  12  and  under  15  in. ;  C,  under  12  in. ;  D,  damaged  logs. 

litold {Alertryonexcelsum). — A  beautiful  tree  with  trunk  15-20  ft.  high  and  12-20  in. 
diam.  AVood  has  similar  properties  to  ash,  and  is  used  for  similar  jnirposes.  Its  tough- 
ness makes  it  valuable  for  wheels,  coach-building,  &c.  Grows  in  the  North  and 
Middle  Islands  of  New  Zealand,  not  uncommon  in  forests. 

Toon,  Chittagong-wood,  or  Pied  Cedar  (Ccdrela  Toona). — Tliis  tree  is  a  native  of 
Bengal  and  other  parts  of  India,  wliere  it  is  highly  esteemed  for  joinery  and  furniture, 
measuring  sometimes  4  ft.  diam.,  and  somewhat  resembling  mahogany.  Its  weight  is  35  lb. 
a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  4992  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  5G0  lb.  It  is  found  in  abundance  in 
Queensland,  on  the  coast  and  inland,  reaching  100-150  ft.  in  height,  and  24-7G  in.  i". 
diam.  The  wood  is  light  and  durable;  it  is  largely  employed  in  furniture  and  joinery- 
work,  and  beautiful  veneers  arc  obtained  from  the  junctions  of  the  branches  with  the 
stem.  Its  value  runs  from  loOs.  to  170s.  per  1000  ft.  super.  In  Assam  this  timber  is 
reckoned  one  of  the  most  important,  and  is  employed  for  making  canoes  and  furniture. 
It  is  higlily  spoken  of  for  making  tea-chests  in  India  and  Ceylon,  being  light,  strong, 
clean,  non-resiuous,  not  attacked  by  insects,  and  giving  no  unpleasant  odour  or  flavour 
to  the  tea.  It  grows  to  an  immense  size ;  one  tree  alone  lias  been  known  to  yield 
80,000  ft.  of  fine  timber.  It  stands  the  test  of  climate  well,  and  does  not  require  the 
same  amount  of  seasoning  as  blackwood;  it  is  of  a  much  softer  nature,  but  takes  a  very 
fine  polish,  and  is  suitable  for  dining-room  furniture,  &c. 

Totara  (_Podocarpus  Totara). — This  tree  is  fairly  abundant  in  the  North  and  South 
Islands  of  New  Zealand,  reaching  80  ft.  high  and  2i-33  ft.  diam.  Its  wood  is  easily 
worked,  straight  and  even-grained,  warjis  little,  and  splits  very  clean  and  free;  but  it  is 
brittle,  apt  to  shrink  if  not  well  seasoned,  and  subject  to  decay  in  the  heart.  It  is  used 
generally  for  joinery  and  house-building.  Its  weight  is  40  lb. ;  breaking-weight,  5701b. 
The  timber  is  reddish-coloured,  and  much  employed  for  telegraph  poles  ;  it  is  extensively 
used  in  Wellington  for  house-building,  piles  for  marine  wharves,  bridges,  railway  sleepers, 
&c.  When  felled  during  the  growing  season,  the  wood  resists  for  a  longer  time  the 
attacks  of  teredo  worms.  It  is  durable  as  fencing  and  shingles,  post  and  rail  fences 
made  of  it  being  expected  to  last  40-50  years.  The  Maoris  made  their  largest  canoes 
from  this  tree,  and  the  palisading  of  their  pahs  was  constructed  almost  entirely  of  it. 
Timber  from  trees  growing  on  hills  is  found  to  be  the  more  durable. 

Towai  or  Red  Birch  (^Fagus  Menziesii)  is  a  handsome  tree,  80-100  ft.  high,  trunk 


150  Carpentry — Woods. 

2-3  ft.  diam.  The  limber  is  chiefly  used  in  the  lake  district  of  the  South  Island  of  New 
Zealand.  Durable  and  adapted  for  mast-making  and  oars,  and  for  cabinet  and  cooper's 
Avork.  Grows  in  the  Korth  Island  on  the  mountain-tops,  but  abundant  in  the  South 
Island  at  all  altitudes  to  3000  ft. 

Tulip  (IlarpuUla  penduJa)  grows  in  Queensland  to  a  height  of  50-60  ft.,  and  yields 
planks  14-24  in.  wide,  of  close-grained  and  beautifully  marked  wood,  highly  esteemed 
for  cabinet-work. 

Walnut  (Jitrjlans  regia). — The  walnut-tree  is  a  native  of  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Persia, 
along  the  Hindu  Kush  to  the  Himalayas,  Kashmir,  Kiunaon,  Nepal,  and  China,  and  is 
cultivated  in  Europe  up  to  55°  X.  lat.,  thriving  Ijcst  in  dr}',  deejJ,  strong  loam.  It 
reaches  CO  ft.  high  and  30-40  in.  diam.  The  young  wood  is  inferior;  it  is  in  best  con- 
dition at  about  50-CO  years.  Its  scarcity  excludes  it  from  building  application,  but  its 
beauty,  durability,  toughness,  and  otlier  good  qualities  render  it  eatei  med  for  cabinet- 
making  and  gun-stocks.  Its  weight  is  40-48  lb.  a  cub.  ft. ;  cohesive  force,  53G0-S130  lb. ; 
strength,  74;  stiffness,  49;  toughness.  111— all  taken  on  a  green  sample.  Of  the 
walnut-burrs  (or  loupes),  for  which  the  Caucasus  was  once  famous,  90  per  cent,  now 
come  from  Persia.  The  walnut  forests  along  the  Black  Sea,  which  give  excellent 
material  for  gun-stocks,  do  not  produce  burrs,  which  only  occur  in  the  drier  climates  of 
Georgia,  Daghe.-=tan,  and  Persia.     Italian  walnut  is  worth  4-5iJ.  a  ft. 

"Walnut  [Black  Virginia]  {Juglaiis  nigra). — This  is  a  large  tree  ranging  from  Penn- 
sylvania to  Florida ;  the  wood  is  heavier,  stronger,  and  more  durable  than  European 
■walnut,  and  is  well  adapted  for  naval  purposes,  being  free  from  worm  attacks  in  warm 
latitudes.  It  is  extensively  used  in  America  for  various  purposes,  especially  cabinet- 
making. 

"Willow  {Sah'x  spp.). — The  wood  of  the  willow  is  soft,  smooth,  and  light,  and  adajjted 
to  many  purposes.  It  is  extensively  used  for  the  blades  of  cricket-bats,  for  building  fast- 
sailing  sloops,  and  in  hat-making,  and  its  charcoal  is  used  in  gunpowder-making. 

Yellow- wood  or  Geel  hout  (^Taxus  elongatus). — This  is  one  of  the  largest  trees  of  the 
Cape  Colony,  reaching  6  ft.  diam.  Its  wood  is  extensively  used  in  building,  though  i-t 
warps  much  in  seasoning,  and  will  not  bear  exposure. 

Yew  {Taxus  haccata). — This  long-lived  shrubbery  tree  inhabits  Eurojie,  N.  America, 
and  Japan,  being  found  in  most  parts  of  Europe  at  1000-4000  ft.,  and  frequently  on 
the  Apennines,  Alps,  and  Pyrenees,  and  in  Greece,  Spain,  and  Great  Britain.  The 
stem  is  short,  but  reaches  a  great  diameter  (up  to  20  ft.).  The  wood  is  exceedingly 
durable  in  flood-gates,  and  beautiful  for  cabinet-making.  Its  weight  is  41-42  lb.  a  cub. 
ft. ;  cohesive  force,  8000  lb. 

As  this  volume  is  intended  as  much  for  colonial  as  for  home  readers,  it  will  be 
useful  to  give  a  brief  summary  of  the  woods  native  to  various  localities : — 

British  Guiana  Woods. — The  only  wood  from  this  colony  which  is  known  as  it 
deserves  is  the  greenheart,  already  described  at  p.  133.  Yet  there  are  several  other 
woods  equally  worthy  of  being  studied  and  utilized  ;  among  them  the  following  were 
mentioned  recently  by  Dr.  Prior  at  the  Linnean  Society.  "  Ducalibolly  "  is  a  rare  red 
wood  used  in  the  c^olony  for  furniture.  "  Hyawa-bolly  "  (Omplialohium  LamherW)  is  a 
rare  tree  20  ft.  high,  known  commercially  as  zebrawood.  Lancewood  is  variously 
referred  to  Duguetia  quitarcusis,  Guattcria  virgata,  O.cijandra  virguta,  Xi/Iopia  sj;.,  and 
Eolliiiia  Siehcri;  there  seem  to  be  2  kinds,  a  "  black"  called  curisiri,  growing  50  ft. 
liigh  and  4-8  in.  diam.,  only  slightly  taper  and  affording  by  far  the  better  timljcr,  and  a 
"yellow  "  called  "yari-yari"  (j('Jertcou  in  French  Guiana),  15-20  ft.  high  and  4-G  in. 
diam. ;  the  Indians  make  their  arrow  points  of  this  wood,  and  the  spars  go  to  America 
for  carriage  building.  Letter-wood  (^Brosimum  aulletii)  is  useful  for  inlaying  and  for 
making  very  choice  walking-sticks. 

Ca23e,  Natal,  and  Transvaal  Woods. — The  timber  trees  of  Cape  Colony  and  Natal 
are  chiefly  evergreens.     Their  wood  is  dry  and  tough,  and  worked  with  more  or  less 


CAErENTRY — Woods.  151 

difBculty.  Owing  to  tlie  dryness  of  the  soil  and  climate,  it  is  very  liable  to  warp  and 
twist  iu  seasoning.  Some  descriptions  sliriiik  longitudinally  as  well  as  transversely,  and 
with  few  exceptions  the  timber  is  not  procurable  iu  logs  of  more  than  12-15  in.  diameter. 
The  Cape  woods  principally  used  for  waggon-making,  mill  machinery,  fences,  posts,  &c., 
are  assegai  wood,  essen  wood  or  Cape  ash,  cedarwood,  red  and  white  ironwood  (excellent 
for  spokes)  ;  and  melk  wood,  red  and  white,  for  felloes  of  wheels.  These  are  principally 
brought  to  the  market  in  convenient  scantlings  for  the  purposes  for  which  tliey  arc 
requked,  and  are  all  rather  tough  than  hard  to  work.  Tiiey  have  considerable  specific 
gravity,  and  at  first  an  English  cariienter  finds  it  difficult  to  do  a  satisfactory  day's 
work  with  them.  No  European  wood  can  stand  the  heat  and  dryness  of  the  Cape 
climate  as  these  woods  do. 

Assegai-wood,  Cape  lancewood,  or  Oomhlebe :  weight,  5G  lb.  per  cub.  ft. ;  cost  of 
working  1  •  5  times  as  much  as  fir ;  colour,  light-red ;  grain,  like  lancewood ;  very 
tough  and  elastic ;  used  for  wheel-spokcs,  shafts,  waggon-rails,  assegai-shafts,  turnery. 

Cedar  boom:  weight,  41  lb.;  cost  of  working,  1-25;  used  for  floors,  roofs,  and 
other  building  jjurposes;  grain  not  unlike  Havannah  cedar,  but  of  a  lighter  colour; 
will  not  stand  exposure  to  the  weather. 

Doom  boom,  Kamcel  doom,  Makohala  or  Motootla :  weight  40  lb. ;  cost  of  work- 
ing, 1  •  25 ;  several  varieties  afl'ord  small  timber  available  for  fencing,  spars,  &c.,  and 
are  also  much  used  for  fuel,  charcoal,  &c. 

Els  (white)  or  Alder;  weight,  3S  lb. ;  cost  of  working,  1*25;  used  for  palings, 
posts,  and  ordinary  carpentry. 

Els  (red) :  weight,  47  lb.;  cost  of  working  I'G;  grain,  colour  of  red  birch;  used 
for  waggon-building  and  farm  purposes. 

Els  (rock) ;  a  harder  and  smaller  variety  of  the  last. 

Essen  hout,  Cape  ash,  or  Oomnyamati :  weight,  48  lb. ;  cost  of  working,  1  •  30 ; 
used  for  common  floors,  palings,  &c. ;  is  a  tough  and  valuable  timber,  somewhat 
resembling  elm;  can  be  procured  up  to  IS  in.  sq. 

Flat  crownwood :  cost  of  working,  1  •  30 ;  grows  in  Katal  to  2  ft.  diameter  ;  the  wood 
is  similar  to  elm,  but  of  a  bright  yellow  colour,  with  a  fine  and  even  grain ;  used  for 
the  naves  of  wheels. 

Ironwood  (black),  Tambooti,  or  Hooshe  :  weight,  64  lb. :  cost  of  working,  2*0;  the 
grain  fine,  like  pear  tree ;  used  for  waggon  axles,  cogs  of  machine  wheels,  spokes, 
telegraph  poles,  railway  sleepers,  piles,  &.c. ;  is  very  durable,  and  can  be  obtained  in 
logs  up  to  IS  ia.  sq. 

Ironwood  (white),  or  Oomzimbiti :  used  for  same  purposes  as  black. 

Kafir  boom,  Oomsinsi,  or  Limsootsi :  weight,  38  lb.  ;  wood,  soft  and  light ;  the  grain 
open  andiDorous;  splits  easily;  and  is  used  principally  for  roof  shingles,  owing  to  its 
not  being  liable  to  take  fire. 

Mangrove  (red)  :  used  in  Natal  for  posts  and  fencing  generally. 

Melk  hout,  Milkwood,  or  Oomtombi :  weight,  52  lb. ;  cost  of  working,  1  •  75  ;  colour, 
white ;  used  iu  the  construction  of  waggons  (wheelwork) ;  there  is  also  a  darker 
variety. 

Oliven  hout,  "Wild  olive,  or  Kouka;  weight,  601b.;  cost  of  working,  2*0;  wood  of 
small  size,  and  generally  deca3^ed  at  the  heart ;  used  for  fancy  turnery,  furniture,  &c. 

Pear  hout  or  Kwa :  weight,  46  lb. ;  resembles  European  pear,  but  closer  in  the 
grain. 

Safiraan  hout :  weight,  54  lb. ;  wood  strong  and  tough ;  used  for  farm  purposes. 

Sneezewood,  Nies  hout,  or  Oomtata  :  weight,  68  lb.;  cost  of  working,  3-0;  most 
durable  and  useful  timber,  resembling  satinwood ;  very  full  ot  gum  or  resin  resembling 
guaiacum  ;  burns  like  candlewood ;  invaluable  for  railway  sleepers,  pdes,  &c.,  as  it  is 
almost  imperishable,  and  is  very  useful  for  door  and  sash  sills  or  similar  work  ;  difficult 
to  be  procured  of  large  scantling. 


152  Caepentey — "Woods. 

Stinkwo(x1,  Cape  mahogany,  or  Cape  walnut:  weight,  53  lb.;  cost  of  working,  1*C; 
resembles  dark  walnut  in  grain  ;  is  used  for  furniture,  gun-stocks,  &e. ;  while  working, 
it  emits  a  peculiar  odour ;  stands  well  when  seasoned ;  usually  to  be  obtained  in  planks 
10-16  in.  wide  and  4  in.  thick ;  there  are  one  or  two  varieties  which  are  inferior ;  for 
furniture,  it  should  be  previously  seasoned  by  immersing  the  scantlings,  sawn  as  small 
as  possible,  in  a  sand  bath  heated  (o  about  100°  F.  (38°  C). 

Yellow- wood,  Geel  hout,  or  Oomkoba  :  weight,  40  lb. ;  cost  of  working,  1  •  35 ;  one  of 
the  largest  trees  that  grows  in  tlie  Cajje,  and  often  found  upwards  of  G  ft.  in  diameter  ;  the 
wood  is  extensively  used  for  common  building  jjurposes ;  it  warps  much  in  seasoning,  and 
will  not  stand  exposure  to  the  weather;  the  colour  is  alight-yellow,  which,  with  the  grain, 
resembles  lancewood;  it  shrinks  in  length  about  Jj  jjart;  it  has  ratlier  a  splintery  frac- 
tinre,  which  makes  it  very  unsafe  for  positions  where  heavy  cross  strains  may  be 
expected;  for  flooring,  it  does  well,  but  should  be  well  seasoned  and  laid  in  narrow 
widths  ;  planks  up  to  24  in.  wide  can  be  got,  but  12-in.  ones  are  more  general ;  it  suffers 
much  loss  in  conversion,  owing  to  twisting  ;  when  very  dry,  it  is  apt  to  split  in  nailing  ; 
and  is  subject  to  dry-rot  if  not  freely  ventilated. 

Willow  or  AVilge  boom  :  weight,  38  lb.  ;  this  wood,  which  grows  along  the  banks  of 
rivers,  is  of  little  value,  as  it  is  soon  destroyed  by  worms  ;  but  is  used  where  other 
timber  is  scarce ;  makes  good  charcoal. 

Ceylon  icoocls. — In  the  following  list  of  Ceylon  woods,  the  breaking-weight  and  the 
deflection  before  breaking  are  taken  on  a  bar  24  in.  long  and  1  in.  si^uare  ;  the  absorp- 
tive power  is  calculated  on  a  block  measuring  12  in.  by  4  in.  by  4  in. ;  and  the  weight 
represents  1  cub.  ft. 

Alubo ;  weight,  49  lb. ;  durability,  20  years  ;  use,  common  house-building. 

Aludel :  breaking  weight,  35U  lb.;  deflection,  1  in.:  absorption,  15  oz. ;  weight, 
51  lb.;  durability,  35-70  years;  logs  average  22i  ft.  by  IG  in.;  uses,  fishing  boats  and 
house  buildings. 

Aramana :  breaking  weight,  207  1b.;  deflection,  1^  in.;  absorption,  13  oz.  ;  weight, 
57  lb. ;  durability,  50  years ;  logs  average  15  ft.  by  13  in. ;  uses,  furniture  and  house 
buildings. 

Beriya:  weight,  57  lb.;  durability,  10-30  years:  uses,  anchors  and  house-lniilding. 

Buruta  or  Satinwood :  breaking-weight,  521  lb.  ;  deflection,  1  in. ;  absurption, 
14  oz. ;  weight,  55  lb. ;  durabilit}',  10-80  years ;  logs'average  19  ft.  by  20i  in. ;  uses,  oil- 
presses,  waggon-wheels,  bullock-carts,  bri<lges,  cog-wheels,  buildings,  and  furniture. 

Calamander  :  weight,  57  lb. ;  durability,  80  years ;  a  scarce  and  beautiful  wood ;  tiie 
most  valuable  for  ornamental  purposes  in  Ceylon. 

Darainna :  weight,  44  lb. ;  durability,  40  years  ;  uses,  gun-stocks  and  common  house 
buildings. 

Dangaha :  weight,  23  lb. ;  buoys  for  fishing  nets,  models  for  dhonies. 

Dawatu :  weight,  43  lb. ;  durability,  25  years  ;  uses,  roofs  of  common  buildings. 

Del :  breaking-weight,  2G4  lb, ;  deflection,  ^  in. ;  absorption,  17  oz. ;  weight,  40  lb. ; 
durability,  20-50  years. ;  logs  average  22J  ft.  by  16  in. ;  uses,  boats  and  buildings. 

Dun  :  weight,  29  lb.  ;  durability,  50  years  ;  uses,  house  buildings. 

Ebony :  breaking- weight,  360  lb. ;  deflection,  1|  in. ;  absorption,  11  uz. ;  weight,  71  lb. ; 
duraTaility,  80  years  ;  logs  average  12i  ft.  by  13  in.  ;  a  fine  black  wood,  used  largely  for 
buildings  and  furniture. 

Gal  Mendora:  breaking- weight,  370  lb.;  deflection,  li  in.;  absorption,  14  oz. ; 
weight,  571b. ;  durability,  15-60  years;  logs  average  22^11.  by  13  in. ;  uses,  bridges  and 
buildings ;  is  the  best  wood  for  underground  jnirposes ;  also  used  for  recpers  (battens) 
for  tiling. 

Gal  Mora :  weight,  65  lb. ;  durability,  30  years ;  uses,  housie  buildings,  and  gives  best 
firewood  for  brick-  and  lime-kilns. 

Goda^xira  :  weight,  51  lb. ;  durability,  60  years ;  use,  roofs  for  houses. 


Caepentey — Woods.  153 

Gorukina :  wciglit,  41  lb. ;  durability,  25  years ;  uses,  poles  for  bullock-carts,  and 
house  buildings. 

Hal:  weight,  2G  lb. ;  durability,  10  years  ;  uses,  packing  cases,  ceilings,  coffins. 

Hal  Mcndora :  weight,  5G  lb. ;  durability,  8-20  years ;  uses,  bridges  and  house 
buildings,  lasts  longer  than  the  jireceding  for  underground  purposes. 

Hal  Milila:  breaking-weight,  422  lb. ;  deflection,  2|  in. ;  absorption,  6  oz. ;  wciglit, 
48  lb. ;  durability,  10-80  years  ;  logs  average  20i  ft.  by  143  in- ;  "ses,  casks,  tubs,  carts^ 
waggons,  and  buildings  ;  is  the  best  wood  for  oil-casks  in  the  island. 

Hirikadol : .  weight,  49  lb.  ;  durability,  15  years  ;  use,  common  house  buildings. 

Hora:  weight,  4.51b.  ;  durability,  15  years;  use,  roofs  of  common  buildings. 

Ironwood :  breaking-weight,  497  lb. ;  deflection,  1  in. ;  absor])tion  7  oz. ;  weight,  72  lb. ; 
durability,  10-60  years ;  logs  average  22J  ft.  by  14^  in. ;  uses,  bridges  and  buildings. 

Jack  :  breaking-weight,  30G  lb. ;  deflection,  |  in.  ;  absorption,  17  oz. ;  weight,  42  lb.  ; 
durability,  25-80  years  ;  logs  average  21  ft.  by  17  in. ;  in  general  use  for  buildings,  boats, 
and  all  kinds  of  furniture. 

Kadol :  weight,  G5  lb. ;  durability,  40  years  ;  use,  common  house-building. 

Kadubberiya  or  Bastard  ebony  ;  weight,  45  lb. ;  durability,  40  j-ears  ;  use,  furniture  ; 
the  heart  of  this  wood  is  occasionally  of  great  beauty. 

Kaha  Milila  :  breaking-weight,  385  lb. ;  deflection,  1  in.  ;  absorption,  8  oz. ;  weight, 
56  lb. ;  durability,  15-80  years;  logs  average  16  ft.  by  ISi  in.  ;  uses,  water-casks,  pade- 
boats,  waggon-wheels,  bullock-carts,  bridges,  and  buildings. 

Kahata:  weight,  38  lb.  ;  durability,  10-20  years;  uses,  axles  for  bullock  bandies,  and 
buildings. 

Kalukela :  weight,  38  lb. ;  durability,  30  years  ;  uses,  common  house  buildings  ;  when 
variegated,  it  is  a  beautiful  wood,  and  is  used  for  fiu-niture  and  cabinet-work. 

Kiripella:  weight,  30  lb.;  durability,  20-30  years;  uses,  common  furniture  and 
house  buildings. 

Kiriwalla :  weiglit,  35  lb. ;  durability,  30  years  ;  uses,  principally  for  inlaying  orna- 
mental furniture  and  cabinet-work. 

Kitul :  weight;  71  lb. ;  durability,  30-90  years ;  uses,  reepers  (roof  battens)  and 
window-bars. 

Kokatiya:  weight,  56  lb. ;  durability,  80  years  ;  use,  house  buildings. 

Kon:  weight,  49  lb.;  durability,  5-10  years;  uses,  native  oil  presses  and  wooden 
anchors. 

Kottamba  :  weight,  38  lb. ;  durability,  30  years  ;  use,  common  house  buildings. ' 

Mai  Buruta :  breaking-weight,  252  lb.  ;  weight,  57  lb. ;  durability,  SO  years ;  logs- 
average  19  ft.  by  20i  in.;  use,  furniture,  being  the  most  valuable  Ceylon  wood  next  to 
Calamander. 

Mi :  breaking-weight,  362  lb.  ;  deflection,  1  in. ;  absorption,  15  oz. ;  weight,  61  lb.; 
durability,  25-80  years ;  logs  average  25  ft.  by  16  in.  ;  uses,  keels  for  dhonies,  bridges, 
and  buildings. 

Mian  Milila :  breaking-weight,  394  lb. ;  deflection,  1  in. ;  absorption,  8  oz. ;  weight, 
561b. ;  durability,  20-90  years;  logs  average  16  ft.  by  ISJ  in. ;  uses,  bridges,  pade'-boats, 
cart  and  waggon-wheels,  water-tubs,  house  buildings. 

Muruba ;  weiglit,  42  lb. ;  durability,  30-40  years ;  uses,  water  and  arrack  casks, 
buildings,  and  underground  purposes. 

Nedun  :  breaking- weight,  437  lb.  ;  deflection,  1  in. ;  absorption,  12  oz. ;  weight,  561b. ; 
durability,  60-80  years;  logs  average  15  ft.  by  16  in.  ;  uses,  buildings  and  furniture. 

Nelli :  weight,  49  lb. ;  durability,  30  years ;  uses,  wheels  and  wells. 

Pol  or  Coconut :  weight,  70  lb. ;  durability,  20-50  years ;  uses,  buildings,  fancy  boxes, 
and  furniture. 

Sapu:  weight,  42  lb.;  durability,  20-50  years;  uses,  carriages,  palankins,  &c. ;  in 
buildings  it  is  a  very  good  wood  for  window-sashes. 


154  Carpentry — Woods. 

Sapu  Milila:  weiglit,  49  lb.;  durability,  10-40  years;  use?,  water-casks,  cart  and 
■waggon  wheels,  pade-boats,  bridges,  aud  house  buildings. 

Suriya :  breaking-weight,  354  lb. ;  deflection,  li  in. ;  absorption,  IG  oz. ;  weight, 
49  lb.;  durability,  1^0-40  years;  logs  average  12  ft.  by  IG  in.;  uses,  admirable  for 
■carriages,  hackeries,  gun-stocks,  and  in  buildings. 

Tal :  breaking-weight,  407  lb. ;  dellection,  f  in. ;  absorption,  13  oz. ;  weight,  G5  lb. ; 
durability,  SO  years ;  uses,  rafters  and  reepers  (battens  for  roofs). 

Teak:  breaking- weight,  33G  lb.  ;  deflection,  |  in. ;  absorption,  13  oz. ;  weight,  44  lb.; 
•durability,  15-90  years;  logs  average  23  ft.  by  ITJ  in.;  uses,  carts,  waggons,  bridges, 
buildings,  and  arrack  casks,  imparting  fine  colour  and  flavour  to  the  liquor. 

Ubbariya :  breaking-weight,  232  lb. ;  weight,  51  lb. ;  durability,  SO  years ;  uses, 
lafters  and  reepers. 

Velanga :  weight,  3G  lb. ;  uses,  poles  of  bullock-carts,  betel  trays,  and  gun-stocks. 

Walbombu:  weight,  36  lb. ;  durability,  15  years;  use,  common  liouse  buildings. 

Waldomba:  weight,  39  lb.;  durability,  20  years;  use,  common  house  buildings. 

Walukina:  weight,  39  lb. ;  durability,  10  years;  use,  masts  of  dhonies. 

Welipenna:  weight,  35  lb.;  durability,  40  years;  use,  common  house  buildings. 

Wewarana  :  weigiit,  C2  lb. ;  durability,  60  years ;  uses,  house  buildings  and  pestles. 

English  icoods. — The  spruce  fir  of  Oxfordshire  is  used  for  scafibld-poles,  common 
carpentry,  &c. ;  the  maple  of  the  same  county  is  valuable  for  ornamental  work  when 
knotted,  it  makes  the  best  charcoal  aud  turns  well.  The  Wandsworth  sycamore  is  used 
in  dry  carpentry,  turns  well  and  takes  a  fine  polish.  The  Wandsworth  horse-chestnut 
is  used  for  inlaying  toys,  turnery,  and  dry  carpentry.  The  Oxfordshire  alder  for 
common  turnery  work,  &c.,  and  lasts  long  under  water  or  buried  in  the  ground.  The 
Killarncy  arbatus  is  hard,  close-grained,  and  occasionally  used  by  turners ;  the  Killarney 
barberry  is  chiefly  used  for  dyeing.  The  common  birch  of  Ep^^ing  is  inferior  in  quality, 
but  much  used  in  the  North  of  England  for  herring  barrels.  The  Epping  hornbeam  is 
very  tough,  makes  excellent  cogs  for  wheels,  and  is  much  valued  for  fuel.  Cornwall 
chestnut  is  valuable  in  ship-buHding,  and  is  much  in  repute  for  posts  and  rails,  hop-poles, 
&c.  Cedar  of  Lebanon  makes  good  furniture,  and  is  sometimes  employed  for  ornamental 
joinery  work.  The  common  cherry  is  excellent  for  common  furniture,  and  much  in 
repute ;  it  works  easily,  and  takes  a  fine  polish.  The  young  wood  of  the  common  nut 
is  used  for  fishing  rods,  walking  bticks,  &c.  The  Epping  white  thorn  is  hard,  firm,  and 
susceptible  of  a  fine  polish ;  that  of  Mortlake  is  fine-grained  and  fragrant,  and  very 
durable.  Oxfordshire  common  laburnum  is  hard  and  durable,  and  much  used  by  turners 
and  joiners.  Lancewood  is  hard  and  fine-grained,  and  makes  excellent  skewers.  Oxford- 
shire common  beech  is  much  used  for  common  furniture,  for  handles  of  tools,  wooden 
vessels,  &c.,  and  when  kept  dry  is  durable.  Oxfordshire  common  ash  is  very  tough  and 
■elastic.  It  is  much  used  by  the  coachmaker  and  wheelwright,  and  for  the  making  of 
oars.  Holly  is  the  best  whitewood  for  Tunbridge  ware,  turns  well,  and  takes  a  very 
£ne  polish.  The  common  walnut  of  Sussex  is  used  for  ornamental  furniture,  is  much  in 
repute  for  gun-stocks,  and  works  easily.  Oxfordshire  larch  is  excellent  for  house  car- 
pentry and  ship-building  ;  it  is  durable,  strong,  and  tough.  Mortlake  common  mulberry 
is  sometimes  worked  up  into  furniture,  and  is  useful  to  turners,  but  is  of  little  durability. 
Silver  fir  is  used  for  house  carpentry,  masts  of  small  vessels,  &c.  Oxfordshire  pine 
makes  good  ratters  and  girders,  and  supplies  wood  for  house  carpentry.  The  Wands- 
worth plane  is  an  inferior  wood,  but  is  much  used  in  the  Levant  for  furniture.  The 
damson  of  that  part  is  hard  and  fine-grained,  but  not  very  durable,  and  is  suitable  for 
turning.  The  laurel  is  hard  and  compact,  taking  a  good  polish.  The  Yorkshire  moun- 
tain ash  is  fine-graineil,  hard,  and  takes  a  good  polish,  and  is  of  great  value  for  turnery, 
and  for  musical  instruments.  Yorkshire  crab  is  hard,  close-grained,  and  strong.  Epping 
service-tree,  hard,  fine-grained,  and  compact,  and  much  in  repute  by  millwrights  for 
•cogs,  friction  rollers,  &c.      Wandsworth   evergreen  oak  is  very  shaky  when  aged,  is 


Carpentry — "Woods.  155 

strong  and  ilurable,  and  makes  an  excellent  charcoal,  Sussex  oak  is  miicli  esteemed  for 
sliip-buildiug,  and  is  the  strongest  and  most  durable  of  British  woods.  "Welsh  oak  is  a 
good  wood  for  ship-buildiug,  but  is  said  to  be  inferior  to  the  common  oak.  Epping  com- 
mon acacia  is  much  used  for  treenails  in  sliip-building,  and  in  the  United  States  is  much 
in  repute  for  posts  and  rails.  Surrey  white  willow  is  good  fur  toys,  and  used  by  the 
millwright ;  it  is  tough,  elastic,  and  durable.  Oxfordshire  palm  willuw  is  tough  and 
elastic,  is  much  used  for  handles  to  tools,  and  makes  good  hurdles.  Oxfordshire  crack 
willow  is  light,  pliant,  and  tough,  and  is  said  to  be  very  durable.  The  yew  is  used  for 
making  bows,  chairs,  handles,  &c. ;  the  wood  is  exceedingly  durable,  very  tough,  elastic, 
and  fine-grained.  Wandsworth  common  lime  is  used  for  cutting  blocks,  carving,  sound- 
ing boards,  and  toys.  English  elm  is  used  in  ship-building,  for  under-water  planking, 
and  a  variety  of  other  purposes,  being  very  durable  when  kept  wet,  or  buried  in  the 
earth  ;  and  Oxfordshire  wj'ch  elm  is  considered  better  than  common  elm,  and  is  used  in 
carpentry,  ship-building,  &c._  Specimens  of  the  above  were  shown  at  the  Great  Exhibi- 
tion of  1SG2.  Of  course,  the  list  is  far  from  being  exhausted,  still  sufficient  has  been 
said  to  give  an  idea  of  the  various  uses  to  which  our  home-grown  wood  can  be  put. 

Indian  woods. — In  the  following  descriptions  of  Indian  woods,  the  "weight"  denotes 
that  of  1  cub.  ft.  of  seasoned  timber,  "  elasticity "  is  the  coefficient  of  elasticity, 
'•  cohesion  "  is  the  constant  of  direct  cohesion  in  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  "  strength  "  is  the  con- 
stant of  strength  in  lb.  for  cross  strains. 

Abies  Smithiana :  furnishes  a  white  wood,  easily  sjjlit  into  planks,  but  not  esteemed 
as  either  strong  or  durable ;  used  as  "  shingle  "  for  roof  coverings. 

Acacia  arabica :  weight  54  lb. ;  elasticity,  41SG ;  cohesion,  1G,S15  lb.  ,•  strength, 
SS4  lb. ;  seldom  attains  a  height  of  40  ft.,  or  4  ft.  in  girth  :  its  wood  is  close-gruiued 
and  tough ;  of  a  pale-red  colour  inclining  to  brown ;  can  never  be  had  of  large  size, 
and  is  generally  crooked  ;  used  for  spokes,  naves,  and  felloes  of  wheels,  ploughshares, 
tent  pegs. 

Acacia  Catechu :  weight,  5G-G0  lb. ;  a  heavy,  close-grained,  and  brownish-red  wood, 
of  great  strength  and  dmability  ;  employed  for  posts  and  uprights  of  houses,  spear  and 
sword  handles,  ploughs,  pins  and  treenails  of  cart-wheels ;  but  rarely  available  for 
timber. 

Acacia  elata:  weight,  C9  lb. ;  elasticity,  292G;  cohesion,  9518  lb. ;  strength,  695  lb. ; 
fuinishing  logs  20-o0  ft.  long,  and  5-G  ft.  in  girth ;  wood  red,  hard,  strong,  and  very 
durable ;  used  in  posts  for  buildings,  and  in  cabinet-work. 

Acacia  leucophloea:  weight,  55  lb. ;  elasticity,  40SG  ;  cohesion,  1G,2SS  lb. ;  strength, 
SGI  lb. ;  resembles  A.  arahica  and  has  similar  uses. 

Acacia  modesta:  very  hard  and  tough  timber,  suitable  for  making  mills,  &c. 

Acacia  spcciosa :  weight,  55  lb. ;  elasticity,  35U2 ;  strength,  GOO  lb. ;  grows  to 
40-50  ft.  in  height  and  b-Q  ft.  in  girth  :  the  wood  is  said  by  some  write-rs  to  be  hard, 
strong,  and  durable,  never  warping  or  cracking,  and  to  be  used  by  the  natives  of  Soutli 
India  for  naves  of  wheels,  pestles  and  mortars,  and  for  many  other  purposes;  but  in 
Northern  India  it  is  held  to  be  brittle,  and  fit  only  for  such  purposes  as  bos  planks  and 
firewood. 

Acacia  stipulata :  weight,  50  lb.;  elasticity,  4474;  cohesion,  21,41G  lb.;  strength, 
823  lb. ;  furnishes  large,  strong,  compact,  stilf,  fibrous,  coarse-grained,  reddish -brown 
timber,  well  suited  for  wheel  naves,  furniture,  and  house-building. 

Adenauthera  pavonina:  weight,  55  1b.;  elastisity,  3103  1b.;  cohesion,  17,846  lb.  ; 
strength,  SG3-10G0  lb. ;  timber  does  not  enter  the  market  in  large  quantities ;  is  stnjiig, 
but  not  stiif ;  hard  and  durable,  tolerably  close  and  even-grained,  and  stands  a  good 
polish ;  when  fresh  cut,  it  is  of  beautiful  red  coral  colour,  with  a  fragrance  somewhat 
resembling  sandalwood ;  after  exposure  it  becomes  purple,  like  rosewood ;  used  some- 
times as  sandalwood,  and  adapted  for  cabinet-making  purposes. 

Ailauthus  excelsa  :  wood  is  white,  light,  and  not  durable  ;  used  for  scabbards,  &c. 


156  Carpentry — "Woods. 

Albizzia  elata :  weight,  42-55  lb. ;  used  by  the  Burmese  for  bridges  and  house-posts  ; 
it  has  a  large  proportion  of  sapwood,  but  the  heartwood  is  hard  and  duralile ;  may 
eventually  become  a  valuable  article  of  trade. 

Albizzia  stipulata :  weight,  G6  lb. ;  has  a  beautifully  streaked  brown  heartwood, 
which  i.s  much  prized  for  cart-wheels  and  bells  for  cattle. 

Albizzia  sp.  (Kokoh) :  weight,  4G  lb. ;  elasticity,  4123 ;  cohesion,  19,2G3  lb.  ; 
strength,  855  lb. ;  much  valued  by  the  Burmese  for  cart-wheels,  oil-presses,  and 
canoes. 

Artocarpus  hirsuta  (Anjilli)  :  weight,  40  lb. ;  elasticity,  3905  ;  cohesion,  15,070  lb. ; 
strength,  744  lb. ;  especially  esteemed  as  a  timber  bearing  submersion  in  water;  durable, 
and  much  sought  after  for  dockyards  as  second  only  to  teak  for  ship-building  ;  also  used 
for  house-building,  canoes,  &c. 

Artocarpus  integrifolia  (Jack):  weight,  44  lb.;  elasticity,  4030;  cohesion 
16,420  lb. ;  strength,  7S8  lb. ;  wood  when  dry  is  brittle,  and  has  a  coarse  and  crooked 
grain ;  is,  however,  suitable  for  some  kinds  of  house  carpentry  and  joinery ;  tables, 
musical  instruments,  cabinet  and  marquetry  work,  &c. ;  wood  when  first  cut  is  yellow, 
afterwards  changing  to  various  shades  of  brown. 

Artocarpus  Lacoocha  (Monkey  Jack) :  weight,  40  lb. ;  wood  used  in  Burma  for 
canoes. 

Artocarpus  mollis  :  weight,  30  lb. ;  used  for  canoes  and  cart-wheels. 
Azadirachta  indica  (Xeem) :  weight,  50  lb. ;  elasticity,  2G72-3183 ;  cohesion, 
17,450  lb. ;  strength,  720-752  lb. ;  wood  is  hard,  fibrous,  and  durable,  except  from 
attacks  of  insects;  it  is  of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  and  is  used  by  the  natives  for  agricul- 
tural and  building  purposes;  is  difficult  to  work,  but  is  worthy  of  attention  for  orna- 
mental woodwork  ;  long  beams  are  seldom  obtainable  ;  but  the  short  thick  planks  are  in 
much  request  for  doors  and  door-frames  for  native  houses,  on  account  of  the  fragrant 
odour  of  the  wood. 

Bariingtonia  acntangula :  weight,  56  lb.;  elasticity,  400G ;  cohesion,  10, SCO  lb.; 
strengtlj,  8G3  lb.  ;  wood  of  a  beautifully  red  colour,  tough  and  strong,  with  a  fine  grain, 
and  susceptible  of  good  polish ;  used  in  making  carts,  and  is  in  great  request  by  cabinet- 
makers. 

Barringtonia  racemosa ;  weight,  56  lb.:  elasticity,  3845;  cohesion,  17,705  lb.; 
strength,  819  lb. ;  wood  is  lighter  coloured,  and  close-grained,  but  of  less  strength  than 
that  of  the  last-named  species ;  used  for  house-building  and  cart-framing,  and  has  been 
employed  for  railway-sleepers. 

B;iss;a  latifolia :  weight,  66  lb. ;  elasticity,  3420 ;  cohesion,  20,070  lb. ;  strength, 
760  lb. ;  wood  is  sometimes  used  for  doors,  windows,  and  furniture  ;  but  it  is  said  to  be 
eagerly  devoured  by  wliite  ants. 

Bassia  longifolia  :  weight.  GO  lb. ;  elasticity,  3174  ;  cohesion,  15,070  lb. ;  strength, 
730  lb. ;  is  used  for  spars  in  Malabar,  and  considered  nearly  equal  to  teak,  though 
smaller. 

Bauhinia  variegata :  centre  wood  is  hard  and  dark  like  ebony,  but  seldom  large 
enough  for  building  purposes. 

Berrya  ammonilla  (Trincomallie) :  weight,  50  lb.  ;  elasticity,  3836 ;  cohesion, 
26,704  lb. ;  strength,  784  lb. ;  most  valuable  wood  in  Ceylon  for  naval  purposes,  and 
furnishes  the  material  of  the  Madras  Masoola  boats ;  considered  the  best  wood  for 
capstan  bars,  crosstrees,  and  fishes  for  masts  ;  is  light,  strong,  and  flexible,  and  takes  the 
place  of  ash  in  Southern  India  for  shafts,  helves,  &c. 

Bignonia  chelonoides  :  weight,  48  lb. ;  elasticity,  2804  ;  cohesion,  16,657  lb. ;  strength, 
642  lb. ;  wood  is  liighly  coloured  orange-yellow,  hard,  and  durable ;  a  good  fancy  wood, 
and  suitable  for  building. 

Bignonia  stipulata:  weight,  64  lb.;  elasticity,  5033 ;  cohesion,  2S,99S  lb. ;  strength, 
1386  lb. ;  furnishes  logs  IS  ft.  in  length  and  4  ft.  in  girth,  with  strong,  fibrous,  elastic 


Carpentry — Woods.  157 

timber,  resembling  teak ;  used  in  house-building,  and  for  bows  and  spear-handles ;  ono 
of  the  strongest,  densest,  and  most  valuahle  of  the  Bunnan  woods. 

Bombax  heptaphyllum  :  elasticity,  2225 ;  cohesion,  GOol  lb. ;  strength,  G78  lb. ; 
light  loose-grainod  wood,  valueless  as  limber,  but  extensively  used  for  paekin"-  cases, 
teu-chests,  and  camel  trunks ;  and  as  it  does  not  rot  in  water,  it  is  useful  for  stakes  in 
canal  banks,  &c. ;  long  plauks  3  ft.  iu  width  can  be  obtained  from  old  trees. 

Borassus  llabelliforniis:  weight,  C.5  lb.;  elasticity,  490i ;  cohesion,  11,898  lb.; 
strength,  044  lb. ;  timber  is  very  durable  and  of  great  strength  to  sustain  cross  strain  ; 
used  for  rafters,  joists,  and  battens ;  trees  have,  however,  to  attain  a  considerable  ago 
before  they  are  fit  for  timber. 

Briedelia  spinosa:  weight,  GO  lb. ;  elasticity,  4132;  cohesion,  14,8011b.;  strength, 
892  lb. ;  strong,  tough,  durable,  close-grained  wood,  of  a  copper  colour,  which,  however, 
is  not  easily  worked  ;  employed  by  the  natives  fur  cart-building  and  house-beams,  and 
is  also  used  for  railway-sleepers  ;  lasts  under  water,  and  is  consequently  used  for  well- 
curbs. 

Butea  frondosa  :  wood  is  generally  small  or  gnarled,  and  used  only  for  firewood  ;  in 
Guzcrat,  however,  it  is  extensively  used  for  house  purposes,  and  deemed  durable  and 
strong. 

Buxus  nepalensis  :  a  very  valuable  wood  for  engraving,  but  inferior  to  the  Black  Sea 
kind  of  box  iu  closeness  of  grain  and  in  hardness. 

Byttneria  sp. :  weight,  G3  lb. ;  elasticity,  4284 ;  cohesion,  20,571  lb. ;  strength, 
1012  lb. ;  wood  of  great  elasticity  and  strength,  invaluable  for  gun-carriages  ;  used  by 
Burmese  for  axles,  cart-poles,  and  spear-handles. 

Cresalpinia  Sappau  :  weight,  GO  lb. ;  elasticity,  4790 ;  cohesion,  22,578  lb. ;  strength, 
15401b.;  admirably  adapted  for  ornamental  work,  being  of  a  beautiful  "flame"  colour, 
with  a  smooth  glassy  surface,  easily  worked,  and  neither  warping  nor  cracking. 

Calophyllum  angustifolium :  weight,  45  1b.;  elasticity,  2944 ;  cohesion,  15,861  lb. ; 
strength,  C12  lb. ;  see  Poon,  p.  145. 

Calophyllum  longifolium:  weight,  45  lb.;  elasticity,  3491;  cohesion,  16,388  lb.; 
strength,  54G  lb. ;  a  red  wood,  excellent  for  masts,  helves,  &c.,  and  also  (when  well 
cleaned  and  polislied)  for  furniture  ;  but  it  does  not  appear  to  be  abundant. 

Careya  arborea :  weight,  50-56  lb. ;  elasticity,  3255  ;  cohesion,  14,803  lb. ;  strength, 
G75-S70  lb. ;  furnishes  a  tenacious  and  durable  wood,  which  admits  of  a  line  polish  ; 
does  not,  however,  appear  to  be  much  used  as  timber,  except  in  Pegu,  where  it  grows 
to  a  very  large  size,  and  is  the  chief  material  of  which  the  carts  of  the  country  are 
made,  and  the  red  wood  is  esteemed  equivalent  to  mahogany. 

Casuarina  muricata :  weight,  55  lb. ;  elasticity,  4474 ;  cohesion,  20,887  lb. ;  strength, 
920  lb. ;  yields  a  strong,  fibrous,  stiff  timber,  of  reddish  colour. 

Cathartocarpus  Fistula:  weight,  41  lb.;  elasticity,  3153;  cohesion,  17,705  lb.; 
strength,  846  lb. ;  generally  a  small  tree,  whose  close-grained,  mottled,  dark-brown  wood 
is  suited  for  furniture ;  iu  Malabar,  however,  it  grows  large  enough  to  be  used  for  spars 
of  native  boats. 

Cedrela  Toona  :  weight,  31  lb. ;  elasticity,  2684-3568 ;  cohesion,  9000  11>. ;  strength, 
560  lb. ;  see  Toon,  p.  149. 

Cedrus  Deodara:  elasticity,  3205-3925  ;  strength,  456-625  lb. ;  see  Deodar,  p.  132. 

Chickrassia  tabiUaris  :  weight,  42  lb. ;  elasticity,  2876 ;  cohesion,  9943  lb. ;  strength, 
614  lb. ;  stronger  and  tougher  than  Toon  (p.  149),  but  very  liable  to  warp ;  used  as 
maho;;any  by  cabinet-makers. 

Chloroxylon  Swietenia :  weight,  GO  lb.;  elasticity,  4163;  cohesion,  11,369  lb.; 
strength,  870  lb. ;  see  Satinwood,  p.  147. 

Cocos  nucifera  :  weight,  70  lb. ;  elasticity,  3605 ;  cohesion,  9150  lb. ;  strength, 
608  lb.  ;  gives  a  hard  and  durable  wood,  fitted  for  ridge-poles,  rafters,  battens,  posts, 
pipes,  boats,  &c. 


158  Caepentry — Woods. 

Connaras  speciosa :  heavy,  strong,  white  timber,  adapted  to  every  purpose  of  house- 
biiilding. 

Conocarpus  acuminatus  :  weight,  59  lb. ;  [elasticity,  4352 ;  cohesion,  20,623  lb. ; 
strength,  880  lb. ;  heartwood  is  reddish  brown,  hard,  and  durable ;  used  for  house  and 
cart  building;  exposed  to  water,  it  soon  decays. 

Conocarpus  latifolius  :  weight,  Go  lb. ;  elasticity,  5033  ;  cohesion,  21,155  lb. ;  strength, 
1220  lb. ;  furnishes  a  hard,  durable,  chocolate-coloured  wood,  very  strong  in  sustaining 
cross  strain  ;  in  Nagpore  20,000  axletreea  are  annually  made  from  this  wood  ;  it  is  well 
suited  for  carriage  shafts. 

Dalbergia  latifolia ;  weight,  50  lb. ;  elasticity,  4053  ;  cohesion,  20,283  lb. ;  strength, 
912  lb.;  perhaps  the  most  valuable  tree  of  the  Mackas  Presidency,  furnishing  the  well- 
known  Malabar  blackwood;  the  trunk  sometimes  measures  15  ft.  in  girth,  and  planks 
4  ft.  broad  are  often  procurable,  after  the  outside  white  wood  has  been  removed  ;  used 
for  all  sorts  of  furniture,  and  is  especially  valued  in  gun-carriage  manufacture. 

Dalbergia  oojeinensis  :  centre  timber  is  dark,  of  great  strength  and  toughness, 
especially  adapted  for  cart-wheels  and  ploughs. 

Dalbergia  Sissu :  weight,  50  lb. ;  elasticity,  8516-4022  ;  cohesion,  12,072-21,257  lb.  ; 
strength,  706-807  lb. ;  see  Sissu,  p.  147. 

Dilleuia  pentagyna;  weight,  70  lb. ;  elasticity,  3650 ;  cohesion,  17,053  lb. ;  strength, 
007  lb. ;  furnishing  some  of  the  Poon  spars  of  commerce  ;  wood  used  in  house  and  ship 
building,  being  close-grained,  tough,  durable  (even  under  ground),  of  a  reddish-brown 
colour,  not  easily  worked,  and  subject  to  warp  and  crack. 

Dillenia  speciosa:  weight,  45  lb.;  elasticity,  3355;  cohesion,  12,691  lb.;  strength, 
721  lb. ;  light,  strong,  light-brown  wood,  of  the  same  general  characteristics  with  the 
preceding  tree ;  used  in  house-building  and  for  gun-stocks. 
Diospyros  Ebenum :  see  Ebony,  p.  132. 

Diospyros  hirsuta :  weight,  60  lb. ;  elasticity,  4296 ;  cohesion,  19,830  lb. ;  strength, 
757  lb.  ■  see  Calamander  wood,  p.  152. 

Diospyros  melanoxylon:  weight,  81  lb.;  elasticity,  5058;  cohesion,  15,873  lb.; 
strength,  1180  1b.;  furnishing  a  valuable  wood  for  inlaying  and  ornamental  turnery; 
the  sapwood  white,  the  heartwood  even-grained,  heavy,  close,  and  black,  standing  a  high 
polish. 

Diospyros  tomentosa :  furnishing  a  hard  and  heavy  black  wood ;  young  trees  are 
extensively  felled  by  the  natives  as  cart-axles,  for  which  they  are  well  suited  from  their 
toughness  and  strength. 

Dipterocarpus  alatus :  weight,  45  lb. ;  elasticity,  3247  ;  cohesion,  18,781  lb. ;  strength, 
750  lb.  ;  timber  is  excellent  for  every  purpose  of  liouse-building,  but  if  exposed  to 
moisture  is  not  durable ;  it  is  hard  and  coarse-grained,  with  a  powerful  odour,  and  of 
light -brown  colour, 

Dipterocarpus  turbinatus  :  weiglit,  45-49  lb. ;  elasticity,  3355  ;  cohesion,  15,070  lb. ; 
strength,  762-807  lb.;  a  coarse-grained  timber  of  a  liglit-brown  colour,  not  easily 
worked,  and  not  durable ;  used  by  the  natives  for  house-building,  in  sawn  planks,  which 
will  not  stand  exposure  and  moisture. 

Emblica  officinalis  :  weight,  46  lb. ;  elasticity,  2270 ;  cohesion,  16,964  lb. ;  strength, 
562  lb. ;  furnishing  a  hard  and  durable  wood,  used  for  gun-stocks,  furniture,  boxes,  and 
veneering  and  turning ;  is  suitable  for  well-curbs,  as  it  does  not  decay  under  water. 

Erythrina  indica :  furnishes  a  soft,  white,  easily  worked  wood,  being  light,  but  of  no 
strength,  and  eagerly  attacked  by  white  ants ;  used  for  scabbards,  toys,  light  boxes  and 
trays,  &c. ;  grows  very  quickly  from  cuttings. 

Feronia  elephantura  :  weight,  50  lb. ;  elasticity,  3248 ;  cohesion,  13,909  lb. ;  strength, 
645  lb. ;  a  yellow-coloured,  hard,  and  compact  wood,  used  by  the  natives  in  house-  and 
cart-building,  and  in  some  places  employed  as  railway  sleepers. 

ricu3glomerata(Gooler):  weight,  40  lb. ;  elasticity,  2090-2113;  cohesion,  12,691  lb. ; 


Caepentry — "Woods.  159 

strength,  5SS  lb. ;  ■wood  is  light,  tongli,  ccarso-graincd,  and  brittle ;  used  for  door-pancla, 
and,  being  very  durable  under  water,  for  well-curbs. 

Ficua  indica  (Banyan) :  weight,  3G  lb.  ;  elasticity,  2S7G ;  cohesion,  91.57  lb. ;  strength, 
600  lb. ;  wood  is  brown-coloured,  light,  brittle,  and  coarse-grained,  neiilu^r  strong  nor 
durable  (except  under  water,  for  which  cause  it  is  used  for  well-curbs) ;  the  wood, 
however,  of  its  pendant  aerial  roots  is  strong  and  tough,  and  used  for  yokes,  tent- 
poles,  &c. 

Ficus  religiosa  :  weight,  3i  lb. ;  elasticity,  2371-2454  ;  cohesion,  7r)35  lb. ;  strength, 
458-581  lb, ;  similar  in  apjicarance,  characteristics,  and  uses  to  banyan. 

Gmelina  arborea:  weight,  35  lb.;  elasticity,  2132;  has  a,  pale-yellow  wood,  light, 
easily  worked,  not  shrinking  or  warping,  strong  and  durable,  especially  under  water ; 
it  is,  [however,  readily  attacked  by  white  ants ;  iised  for  furniture,  carriage  panels, 
palkees,  &c. ;  in  Burma,  for  posts  and  house-building  generally. 

Grewia  elastica :  weight,  34  lb.';  elasticity,  2S7G ;  cohesion,  17,450  lb.  ;  strength, 
5G5  lb. ;  wood  generally  is  procured  in  small  scantlings,  suitable  for  spear-shafts,  carriagc- 
and  dooly-poles,  bows,  and  tool-handles,  for  which  It  is  admirably  adapted,  being  light, 
soft,  flexible,  and  fibrous,  resembling  lancewood  or  hickory. 

Guatteria  longifolia  :  weight,  37  lb. ;  elasticity,  2SG0  ;  cohesion,  14,720  lb. ;  strength, 
547  lb. ;  wood  is  very  light  and  flexible,  but  only  used  for  drum  cylinders. 

Hardwickia  binata  :  weight,  85  lb. ;  elasticity,  4579  ;  cohesion,  12,01G  lb.  ;  strength, 
942  lb. ;  furnishing  a  red-  or  dark-coloured,  very  hard,  very  strong  and  heavy  wood, 
useful  for  posts,  pillars,  and  piles  ;  excellent  also  for  ornamental  turnery. 

Ileritiera  minor:  weight,  G4  lb.;  elasticity,  3775-4G77 :  cohesion,  29,112  lb.; 
strength,  SlG-1312  lb. ;  the  toughest  wood  that  has  been  tested  in  India,  and  stands 
without  a  rival  in  strength ;  is  used  for  piles,  naves,  felloes,  si^okes,  carriage  sliafts  and 
poles  ;  is,  however,  a  perishable  wood,  and  shrinks  much  in  seasoning. 

Ilopea  odorata  :  weight,  45-58  lb. ;  elasticity,  3GG0  ;  cohesion,  22,2091b.;  strength, 
70G-S00  lb. ;  one  of  the  finest  timber  trees  of  British  Burma,  sometimes  reaching  80  ft. 
in  height  to  the  first  branch,  and  12  ft.  in  girth — a  large  boat  of  8  ft.  beam,  and  carrying 
4  tons,  being  sometimes  made  of  a  single  scooped-out  trunk  ;  wood  is  close,  even-grained, 
of  a  light-brown  colour. 

Inga  lucida :  licartwood  is  black,  and  called  "  ironweod  "  in  Burma. 

Inga  xylocarpa :  weight,  58  lb.;  elasticity,  4283;  cohesion,  1G,G57  lb. ;  strength, 
83G  lb. ;  furnishing  a  wood  of  very  superior  quality,  heavy,  hard,  close-grained,  and 
durable,  and  of  a  very  dark -red  colour ;  it  is,  however,  not  easily  worked  up,  and  resists 
nails ;  is  extensively  used  for  bridge-building,  posts,  piles,  &c.,  and  is  a  good  wood  for 
sleepers,  lasting  (when  judiciously  selected  and  thoroughly  seasoned)  for  G  j-ears. 

Juglans  regia  (walnut) :  its  beautiful  wood  is  used  for  all  sorts  of  furniture  and 
cabinet  work  in  the  bazaars  of  the  Hill  stations. 

Lagerstra3mia  reginse :  weight,  40  lb. ;  elasticity,  3GG5 ;  cohesion,  15,388  lb. ;  strength, 
637-G42  lb. ;  the  wood  is  used  more  extensively  than  any  other,  except  teak,  for  boat-, 
cart-,  and  house-building,  and  in  the  Madras  Gun-carriage  Manufactory  for  felloes, 
naves,  framings  of  waggons,  &c. 

Mangifera  indiea  (mango) :  weight,  42  lb. ;  elasticity,  3120-3710 ;  cohesion, 
7702-9518  lb.;  strength,  5G0-632  lb.;  wood  is  of  inferior  quality,  coarse,  and  open- 
grained,  of  a  deep-grey  colour,  decaying  if  exposed  to  wet,  and  greedily  eaten  by  white 
ants  ;  is,  however,  largely  used,  being  plentiful  and  cheap,  for  common  doors  and  door- 
posts, boards  and  furniture  ;  also  for  firewood  ;  should  never  be  used  for  beams,  as  it  is 
liable  to  snap  off  short. 

Melanorhoea  usitatissima :  weight,  Gl  lb.;  elasticity,  301G;  strength,  514  lb.;  fur- 
nishes a  dark-red,  hard,  heavy,  close  and  even-grained  and  durable  (but  brittle)  timber ; 
used  for  helves,  sheave-blocks,  machinery,  railway  .sleepers,  &c. 

Melia  Azadirach ;  weight,  30  lb. ;  elasticity,  2516 ;  cohesion,  14,277  lb. ;  strength, 


160  Caepentey — Woods. 

596  lb. ;  soft,  red-coloured,  loose-textured  wood  (resembling  in  appearance  cedar),  is  used 
only  for  light  furniture. 

Miclielia  Cbampaca:  -weight,  i2  lb. ;  in  Mysore,  trees  measuring  50  ft.  in  girth  3  ft. 
■above  ground-level  are  found,  and  slabs  G  ft.  in  breadth  can  be  obtained ;  as  the  wood 
takes  a  beautiful  polish  it  makes  handsome  tables  ;  it  is  of  a  rich  brown  colour. 

IMillingtonia  hortensis :  wood  is  white,  fine  and  close-grained,  but  of  little  use. 

Mimusops  elengi:  weight,  Glib.;  elasticity,  3G53 ;  cohesion,  11,3G9  lb. ;  strength, 
632  lb. ;  wood  is  heavy,  close  and  even-graiaed,  of  a  pink  colour,  standing  a  good  polish 
and  is  used  for  cabinet-making  purposes,  and  ordinary  house-building. 

Mimusops  hexandra :  weight,  70  lb. ;  elasticity,  3948  ;  cohesion,  19,0361b. ;  strength, 
944  lb.;  furnishes  wood  very  similar  to  the  last  named;  used  for  similar  purposes,  and 
for  instruments,  rulers,  and  other  articles  of  turnery. 

Mimusops  iudica:  weight,  48  lb.;  elasticity,  4296;  cohesion,  23,824  lb. ;  strength, 
845  lb. ;  a  coarse-grained,  but  strong,  fibrous,  durable  wood,  of  a  reddish-brown  colour; 
used  for  house-building  and  for  gun-stocks. 

IMorus  iudica  (mulberry) :  wood  is  yellow,  close-grained,  very  tough,  and  well  suited 
for  turning. 

Xauelea  Cadumba:  a  hard,  deep-yellow,  loose-grained  wood,  used  for  furniture;  in 
the  Gwalior  bazaars  it  is  the  commonest  building  timber,  and  is  much  used  for  rafters 
on  account  of  cheapness  and  lightness;  but  it  is  obtiiined  there  only  in  small 
scantlings. 

Nauclea  cordifolia;  weight,  42  lb.;  elasticity,  3052-34G7;  cohesion,  10,431  lb.; 
strength,  50G-GG4  lb. ;  a  soft,  close,  even-grained  wood,  resembling  in  appearance  box, 
but  light  and  more  easily  worked,  and  very  susceptible  to  alternations  of  temperature ; 
is  esteemed  as  an  ornamental  wood  for  cabinet  purposes. 

Nauclea  parviflora :  weight,  42  lb. ;  strength,  400  lb. ;  a  wood  of  fine  grain,  easily 
worked,  used  for  flooring-planks,  packing-boxes,  and  cabinet  purposes;  much  used  by 
the  wood-carvers  of  Saharunpore. 

Phoenix  sylvestris :  weight,  39  lb. ;  elasticity,  3313 ;  cohesion,  8356  lb. ;  strength, 
512  lb. 

Picea  webbiana  :  weight,  88  lb. ;  wood  is  white,  soft,  easily  split,  and  used  as  shingle 
for  roofing,  but  is  not  generally  valued  as  timber. 

Pinus  excelsa  (Silver  Fir) :  furnishing  a  resinous  wood  much  used  for  flambeaux ; 
durable  and  close-grained ;  much  used  for  burning  charcoal  in  the  hills,  and  also  for 
building. 

Pinus  longifolia :  elasticity,  3672-4668 ;  strength,  582-735  lb. ;  being  common  and 
light,  is  largely  used  in  liouse-buiiding;  requires,  however,  to  be  protected  from  the 
weather,  and  is  suitable  for  only  interior  work  in  houses. 

Pongamia  glabra:  weight,  40  1b.;  elasticity,  3481;  cohesion,  11,104  1b.;  strength, 
G86  lb. ;  wood  is  light,  tough,  and  fibrous,  but  not  easily  worked,  yellowish  brown  in 
colour,  not  taking  a  smootli  surface ;  solid  wheels  are  made  from  this  wood ;  it  is,  how- 
ever, chiefly  used  as  firewood,  and  its  boughs  and  leaves  as  manure. 

Prosopis  spicigera:  a  strong,  hard,  tough  wood,  easily  worked. 

Psidium  pomiferum  (Guava) :  weight,  47  lb. ;  elasticity,  2676 ;  cohesion,  13,116  lb. ; 
strength,  618  1b.;  furnishes  a  grey,  hard,  tough,  light,  very  flexible,  but  not  strong 
wood,  which  is  very  close  and  fine-grained,  and  easily  and  smoothly  worked,  so  that  it 
is  fitted  for  wood-engraving,  and  for  handles  of  scientific  and  other  instruments. 

Pterocarpus  dalbergioides :  weight,  49-56  lb. ;  elasticity,  4180 ;  cohesion,  19,036  lb. ; 
strength,  864-934  lb. ;  furnishes  a  red,  mahogany-like  timber,  prized  by  the  natives 
above  all  others  for  cart-wheels,  and  extensively  used  by  Government  in  the  construction 
of  ordnance  carriages. 

Pterocarpus  Marsupium:  weight,  56  lb.;  elasticity,  4132;  cohesion,  19,94-3  lb.; 
strength,  868  lb. ;  wood  is  light-brown,  strong,  and  very  durable,  close-grained,  but  not 


Carpentky — Woods.  161 

easily  worked ;  it  is  extensively  used  for  cart-framing  and  houso-building,  but  should 
be  protected  from-wet;  also  well  fitted  for  railway  sleepers.  ; 

Pterocarpus  Santalinus  (Red  Sandal):  -weight,  70  lb.;  elasticity,  4582:  cohesion, 
19,036  lb. ;  strength,  975  lb. ;  heavy,  extremely  hard,  with  a  fine  grain,  and  ia  suitable 
for  turnery,  being  of  a  dark-red  colour,  and  taking  a  good  polish. 

Pterospermum  acerifolium :  a  dark-brown  wood  of  great  value,  and  as  strong  as  teak ; 
but  its  durability  has  not  yet  been  tested. 

Putranjiya  Eoxburghii :  wood  is  white,  close-grained,  very  hard,  durable,  and  suited 
for  turning. 

Quercus  spp.  (Oak) :  woods  are  heavy,  and  do  not  float  for  two  years  after  felling, 
hence  they  are  not  sent  down  the  rivers  into  the  plains. 

Rhus  acuminata :  furnishes  a  wood  much  valued  by  cabinet-makers  for  ornamental 
furniture :  planks  8  X  2 J  ft.  can  be  obtained  from  some  trees. 

Sautalum  album  (Sandal):  weight,  58  lb.;  elasticity,  3481;  cohesion,  19,461  lb.; 
strength,  874  lb.;  valued  tor  making  work-boxes,  and  small  articles  of  ornament;  and 
for  wardrobe-boxes,  iSrc,  where  its  agreeable  odour  is  a  preventive  against  insects. 

Sapindus  cmargmatus :  weight,  64  lb.;  elasticity,  3965;  cohesion,  15,495  lb.; 
strength,  682  lb. ;  furnishing  a  hard  wood,  which  is  not  durable  or  easily  worked,  and  is 
liable  to  crack  if  exposed;  but  is  used  by  natives  for  posts  and  door-frames,  also  for  fuel. 

Schleichera  trijuga  :  a  red,  strong,  hard,  and  heavy  wood,  used  for  oil-presses,  sugar- 
crushers,  and  axles ;  a  large  and  common  tree  iu  Burma,  where  excellent  solid  cart- 
wheels are  formed  from  it. 

Shorea  obtusa :  weight,  58  lb. ;  elasticity,  3500 ;  cohesion,  20,254  lb. ;  strength, 
730  lb. ;  a  heavy  and  compact  wood,  closer  and  darker  coloured  than  ordinary  sal,  used 
for  making  carts,  and  oil-  and  rice-mills. 

Shorea  robusta  (Sal):  weight,  55  lb.;  elasticity,  4209-4963;  cohesion,  11,521- 
18,243  lb. ;  strength,  769-880  lb, ;  furnislies  the  best  and  most  extensively  used  timber 
in  Northern  India,  and  is  unquestionably  the  most  useful  known  Indian  timber  for 
engineering  purposes ;  is  used  for  roofs  and  bridges,  ship-building  and  house-building, 
sleepers,  &c. ;  timber  is  straight,  strong,  and  durable,  but  seasons  very  slowly,  and  is  for 
many  years  liable  to  warp  and  shrink. 

Sonneratia  apetala :  yields  a  strong,  hard,  red  wood  of  coarse  grain,  used  in  Calcutta 
for  packing-cases  for  beer  and  wine,  and  ia  also  adapted  for  rough  house-building 
purposes. 

Soymida  febrifuga :  weight,  66  1b.;  elasticity,  3986;  cohesion,  15,070  1b.;  strength, 
1024  lb. ;  furnishing  a  bright-red  close-grained  wood,  of  great  strength  and  durability, 
preferred  above  all  wood  by  the  Southern  India  Hindus  for  the  woodwork  of  their 
houaes ;  though  not  standing  exposure  to  sun  and  weather,  it  never  rota  under  ground 
or  in  masonry,  and  is  very  well  suited  for  palisades  and  railway  sleepers. 

Stercuha  foetida:  weight,  28  lb. ;  elasticity,  3349;  cohesion,  10,736  1b.;  strength, 
464  lb. ;  in  Ceylon  it  is  used  for  house-building,  and  in  Mysore  for  a  variety  of  purposes, 
taking  the  place  of  the  true  Poon ;  wood  is  light,  tough,  open-grained,  easily  worked, 
not  splitting  nor  warping,  in  colour  yellowish-white. 

Syzygium  jambolanum:  weight,  48  lb. ;  elasticity,  2746 ;  cohesion,  8840  lb. ;  strength, 
600  lb. ;  brown  wood  ia  not  very  strong  or  durable,  but  is  used  for  door  and  window- 
frames  of  native  houses,  though  more  generally  aa  fuel ;  is,  however,  suitable  for  well 
and  canal  works,  being  almost  indestructible  under  water. 

Tamarindus  indica  (Tamarind) :  weight,  79  lb. ;  elasticity,  2803-3145 ;  cohesion, 
20,623  lb;  strength,  816-864  lb.;  heartwood  is  very  hard,  close-grained,  dark-red,  very 
hard  to  be  worked ;  used  for  turnery,  also  for  oil-presses  and  sugar-crushers,  mallets, 
and  plane-handles ;  ia  a  very  good  brick-burning  fuel. 

Tectona  grandis  (Teak) :  weight,  42-45  lb. ;  elasticity,  3978 ;  cohesion,  14,498- 
15,467  lb. ;  strength,  683-814  lb. ;  wood  is  brown,  and  when  fresh  cut  is  fragrant ;  very 

M 


162 


Cakpentrt — "Woods. 


Lard,  yet  light,  easily  worked,  and  though  porous,  Btrong  and  durable ;  soon  seasoned, 
and  shrinks  little ;  used  for  every  description  of  house-building,  bridges,  gun-carriages, 
ship-building,  &c. 

Terminalia  Arjuna :  weight,  54:  lb. ;  elasticity,  409-t ;  cohesion,  16,288  lb. ;  strength, 
820  lb. ;  furnishes  a  dark-brown,  heavy,  very  strong  wood,  suitable  for  masts  and  spars, 
beams  and  rafters. 

Terminalia  Belerica :  wood  is  white,  soft,  and  not  used  in  carpentry. 

Terminalia  Chebula  :  weight,  32  lb. ;  elasticity,  3108  ;  cohesion,  7563  lb. ;  strength, 
470  lb. ;  wood  is  used  in  Southern  India  for  common  house-building,  but  it  is  light  and 
coarse-grained,  possessing  little  strength,  and  liable  to  warp.  In  Burma  it  is  used  for 
yokes  and  canoes. 

Terminalia  coriacea :  weight,  CO  lb.  ;  elasticity,  4043  ;  cohesion,  22,351  lb. ;  strength, 
860  lb. ;  the  heartwood  is  one  of  the  most  durable  woods  known :  reddish-brown,  heavy, 
tough,  and  durable,  very  fibrous  and  elastic,  close  and  even-grained ;  used  for  beams 
and  posts,  wheels,  and  cart-building  generally,  and  telegraph-posts;  is  durable  under 
water,  and  is  not  touched  by  white  ants. 

Terminalia  glabra :  weight  55  lb. ;  elasticity,  3905  ;  cohesion,  20,085  lb.  ;  strength, 
840  lb. ;  furnishing  a  very  hard,  durable,  strong,  close  and  even-grained  wood,  of  a  dark- 
brown  colour,  obtainable  in  large  Bcantling,  and  available  for  all  purposes  of  house- 
building, cart-framing,  and  furniture. 

Terminalia  tomentosa :  supplies  a  heavy,  strong,  durable,  and  elastic  wood ;  is,  how- 
ever, a  difficult  timber  to  work  up,  and  splits  freely  in  exposed  situations ;  good  wood  for 
joists,  beams,  tie-rods,  &c.,  and  for  railway  purposes,  and  is  often  sold  in  the  market 
under  the  name  of  sal,  but  it  is  not  equal  to  that  wood. 

Thespesia  populuea :  weight,  49  lb. ;  elasticity,  3294  ;  cohesion,  18,143  lb. ;  strength, 
716  lb. ;  grows  most  rapidly  from  cuttings,  but  the  trees  so  raised  are  hollow-centred, 
and  only  useful  for  firewood ;  seedling  trees  furnish  a  pale-red,  strong,  straight,  and 
even-grained  wood,  easily  worked  ;  used  for  gun-stocks  and  furniture. 

Trewia  nudiflora  :  a  white,  soft,  but  close-grained  wood. 

Ulmus  integrifolia :  (Elm) :  a  strong  wood,  employed  for  carts,  door-frames,  &c. 

Zizyphus  Jujuba  :  weight,  58  lb.  ;  elasticity,  3584 ;  cohesion,  18,421  lb. ;  strength, 
672  lb. ;  red  dark-brown  wood  is  hard,  durable,  close  and  even-grained,  and  well  adapted 
for  cabinet  and  oriental  work. 

New  Zealand  Woods. — The  dimensioua  of  the  specimens  described  in  the  following 
table  were  12  in.  long,  and  1  iu.  sq. 


Greatest 

Name. 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Weight  of 
1  Cub.  Ft. 

Weight 

Carried  with 

Unimpaired 

Elasticity. 

Transverse 
Strengtk. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

Hinau  {Elxocarpus  dentatus) 

•562 

33^03 

94-0 

125-0 

Kahika,  supposed  white  pine 

•502 

31-28 

57-3 

77-5 

Kahikatea,      white     pine    {Fodocar^m 

•488 

30-43 

57-9 

106-0 

dacrydioides). 

Kauri  {Dammara  australtg) 

•623 

38^96 

97-0 

165-5 

Js.a.via.ka.  (Libocedrus  Doniana)   .. 

•637 

39^69 

75^0 

120-0 

Kohekohe  {Dysoxi/lum  i^peciahile) 

•678 

42^25 

92^0 

117-4 

Kowhai  {Sophora  tetraptera) 

•8S4 

55-11 

98-0 

207-5 

Maire,  black  {Olea  Cunuiugluimii) 

1-159 

72-29 

193  0 

314-2 

Maire  (Eugenia  maire} 

•790 

49-24 

100-0 

179-7 

Mako  {Aridotelia  racemosdy 

•593 

33-62 

62-0 

122-0 

Manoao  (Dacrydium  colensoi) 

•788 

49-1 

200-0 

230-0 

Mangi,  or  mangeo  {Tetranlhera  calioaris) 

•621 

38-70 

109-0 

137-8 

Cakpentry — Woods. 


1G3 


Greatest 

V                                                                       Sp 

^ame.                                           q^_ 

ecific 
wity. 

Weight  of 
;  1  Cub.  Ft. 

Weight 

Carried  with 

Unimpaired 

Elasticity. 

Transverse 
Strength. 

lb. 

lb. 

lb. 

Mannka,  (Leptoftpermum  ericoides) 

943 

59-00 

115-0 

239-0 

Mapau,  red  {My rsine  urvillei) 

991 

01 '82 

92-0 

192-4 

Miitapo,     black    mapau    (^rutospermum 
tenui/olium) 

955 

60-14 

125-0 

243-0 

Matai  {Fodocarpus  spicatii) 

787 

49-07 

133-0 

197-2 

Miio  {Podocarpus  fcrruginea) 

658 

40-79 

103-0 

190-0 

Futhi  {Vitex  littoralis)     .. 

959 

59-5 

175-0 

223-0 

Eata,  or  ironwood  (Metrosideros  lucida)           1 

045 

65-13 

93-0 

190-0 

Rewarewa  {Knightia  excelsd) 

785 

48-92 

93-0 

lCl-0 

Kimu,  red  'pi^oX  I hicri/dium  cupressinuin) 

563 

36-94 

92-8 

140-2 

Taraire  {Nesodaphiie  turaire) 

SS8 

55-34 

99-6 

112-3 

Tawa.  {I^'esodaphue  tau-a) 

761 

47-45 

142-4 

205-5 

Tawiri-koliu-kohu,     or      white    mapau 
{Carpodetus  ferrattis)     .. 

822 

51-24 

80-0 

177-6 

Titoki  (Alectryon  excchum) 

916 

57-10 

116-0 

248-0 

Totara  (Fodocarpus  totara} 

559 

35-17 

77-0 

133-6 

Towai,  red  birch  {Fa<jiis  menziesn) 

626 

38-99 

73-6 

158-2 

Towai,  black  birch  (Fagus  fusca) 

•780 

48-62 

108-8 

202-5 

Queensland  Wood^s. — Among  the  principal  are  the  following : — 

Acacia  pendula  (Weeping  Myall):  6-12  in.  diam. ;  20-30  ft.  high;  wood  is  hard, 
possessing  a  close  texture,  and  a  rich  dark  colour. 

Barklya  syringifolia :  12-15  in.  diara. ;  40-50  ft.  high  ;  wood  hard  and  close-griiiued. 

Bauhinia  Hookeri :  10-20  in.  diam. ;  30-40  ft.  high ;  wood  is  lieavy,  and  of  a  dark 
reddish  hue. 

Bursaria  spinosa :  6-9  in.  diam. ;  20-30  ft.  high  ;  timber  is  hard,  of  a  close  texture, 
and  admits  of  a  good  polish. 

Cargillia  Australis  :  18-24  in.  diam. ;  60-80  ft.  high  ;  grain  is  close,  very  tough  and 
fine,  of  little  beauty,  but  likely  to  be  useful  for  many  purposes. 

Cupania  anacardioides  :  18-24  in.  diam. ;  SO-50  ft  high  ;  the  wood  is  not  appreciated. 

Cupania  nervosa :  12-20  in.  diam. ;   30-45  ft.  high  ;  wood  is  nicely  grained. 

Eremophila  Mitchelli  (Sandalwood) :  9-12  in.  diam. ;  20-30  ft.  high  ;  wood  is  very 
hard,  beautifully  grained,  and  very  fragrant ;  will  turn  out  handsome  veneers  for  the 
oabinet-maker. 

Erythrina  vespertUio  (Cork-tree) :  12-25  in.  diam. ;  30-40  ft.  high ;  wood  soft,  and 
need  by  the  aborigines  for  making  war-shields. 

ExccEcaria  Agallocba  (Poison  Tree):  12-14  in.  diam. ;  40-50  ft  high ;  wood  is  hard, 
and  fine-grained. 

Exocarpus  latifblia  (Broad-leaved  Cherry) :  6-9  in.  diam. ;  10-16  ft.  high ;  wood  very 
hard  and  fragrant ;  excellent  for  cabinet-work. 

Flindersia  Schottiana :  stem  12-16  in.  diam.;  60-70  ft.  high;  wood  is  soft,  and 
soon  perishes  when  exposed. 

HarpuUia  pendula  (Tulipwood) :  14-24  in.  diam. ;  50-80  ft  high ;  wood  has  a  firm 
fine  texture,  and  is  curiously  veined  in  colouring ;  much  esteemed  for  cabinet-work. 

Maba  obovata  :  10-15  in.  diam. ;  30-50  ft  high;  timber  is  hard,  fine-grained,  and 
likely  to  be  useful  for  cabinet-work. 

Melia  Azadirach  (White  Cedar) :  24r-30  in.  diam. ;  40-60  ft.  high  ;  wood  is  soft,  and 
not  considered  of  any  value. 

Owenia  venosa  (Sour  Plum.) :  8-12  in.  diam. ;  20-30  ft.  high  ;  wood  is  hard,  of  a 

reddish  colour,  and  its  great  strength  renders  it  fit  for  wheelwright  woik. 

M  2 


164 


Carpentry — "Woods. 


roilocarptis  data :  2-i-3G  in.  diam. ;  50-80  ft.  high  ;  wood  is  hard,  fine-grained, 
flexible,  and  elastic. 

Sarcocephalus  cordatus  (Leiclihardt's  Tree)  :  24-36  in.  diam. ;  60-80  ft.  lugh  ;  wood 
is  soft,  but  close-grained,  of  a  light  colour,  and  easily  worked. 

Spondias  pleiogyna  (Sweet  Plum) :  20-45  in.  diam. ;  70-100  ft.  liigli ;  the  wood  is 
hard  and  heavy,  dark-red,  finely  marked,  and  susceptible  of  a  high  polisli. 

Stenocarpus  sinuosus  (Tulip  Tree) :  18-24  in.  diam. ;  40-CO  ft.  high  ;  wood  is  very 
nicely  marked,  and  would  admit  of  a  good  polish. 

Straits  Seitkineuts  Woods, — The  specimens  experimented  on  measured  3  ft.  by  1|  ft. 
by  1^  ft. 


Name  of  Wixxl. 


Billian  Cliingy 


Billian  Wangy 


Darroo . 


Johore  Cedar 


Johore  Rosewood,"! 
or  Kayu  Merah.j 

Johore    Teak,    or' 
Ballow.  ' 


Jolotong 


>  ft 
< 

=5  -: 

"%  a 
as 

II 

J3!  — 

S.S 

GO 

s 

408 

013 

72 

-,', 

473 

1038 

61 

1 
To 

840 

1300 

40J 

s  • 

410 

616 

38 

5 

583 

952 

73 

8 

737 

1210 

29 

5 

a 

280 

732 

Remarks. 


Hard,  close-grained,  fine-fibred,  but  very 
much  inferior  to  Billian  Wangy;  of 
a  brownish  grey  colour ;  readily  at- 
tacked by  insects  and  dry  rot ;  tised 
for  flooring  joists. 

Very  hard,  durable,  heavy,  close-grained, 
fibre  long,  is  not  liable  to  be  attacked 
by  worms  or  white  ants;  beams  of 
50  ft.  l(mg  and  18  in.  square  can  be 
obtained.  Very  suitable  for  roofing 
timber,  girders,  joists,  and  timber 
bridges. 

Much  used  for  beams  of  houses  and  door 
frames ;  durable,  if  kept  either  wet  or 
dry,  but  rots  soon  if  exposed  to  sun 
and  rain ;  colour  white,  close-grained, 
fracture  long ;  has  an  agreeable  smell. 

Well  adapted  for  house-building  pur- 
poses, as  in  the  manufacture  of  doors, 
windows,  and  flooring  planks.  Frac- 
ture short,  timber  open-grained,  and 
is  not  liable  to  be  worm-eaten. 

Resembles  rosewood  in  appearance,  and 
used  largely  in  cabinet-work  and 
household  furniture. 

Well  adapted  for  permanent  sleepers, 
beams,  piles,  ship-building,  engineer- 
ing, and  general  purposes  where 
strength  and  durability  are  required. 
Piles  which  have  been  in  the  ground 
for  100  years  have  been  found  in  a 
good  state  of  preservation.  One  of 
the  few  woods  which  will  really  stand 
the  climate  of  India.  Colour  dull 
grey. 

Well  adapted  for  patterns  and  mould- 
ings, excellent  for  carving  purposes ; 
grain  very  close,  scarcely  any  knots, 
colour  whitish  yellow,  fracture  short, 
but  not  very  durable. 


Carpentry — Woods. 


165 


Name  of  Wood. 


Krangee 


Kruen 


•  •  •  • 


Kulini,  or  Johore"! 
Iron  wood.  j 


Marbow,  Murboo.'l 
or  Marraboo,      J 


P*naga 


Samaran 

Serian 

Tampenis    . . 


Tumbooeoo 


77 


50 


61 


72 


42 

47 

G7 


67 


To 


to 


s 

T(J 


Vo+ 


1% 


"3^ 


980 


472 


766 


399  to 
578 


688 


326 

438 

802 


306 


to 

c  . 


cy .— 


1339 


625^ 


1141 


894  to 
987 


1310 


532 

737i 
1599+ 


548 


Itcmarka. 


Very  hard,  close-grained,  well  adapted 
for  beams  of  every  description.  White 
ants  or  other  insects  do  not  touch  it. 
Well  adapted  for  piles  for  bridges  in 
fresh  or  salt  water;  also  used  for 
junks'  masts ;  stands  well  when  sawn, 
ranks  with  Tampe'nis  for  durability. 
Fracture  long,  fibres  tough,  colour 
dark  red. 

Close-grained,  tough  fibres,  and  re- 
sembling yellow  pine.  Used  for 
native  boats,  planks,  «S;c.  Contains  a 
kind  of  dammar-like  oleo-resin. 

Somewhat  similar  to  Ballow.     Used  for 
planking  cargo  boats ;  fracture  short ; 
makes  superior  beams  and  telegraph- 
s     posts,  as  it  lasts  well  in  the  ground. 
>Durable,  principally  used  for  furniture, 
^     readily  worked,  and  takes  polish  well  ; 
also  used  for  flooring  beams,  timber 
bridges,  carriage  bodies,  and  framing 
of  vessels ;  trees  4  ft.  diam.  are  some- 
times obtained ;  not  readily  attacked 
by    white  ants,    but    is    by    worms. 
Colour  almost  like  English  oak. 

Bright  red,  very  hard  and  durable,  well 
adapted  for  roofing  timbers,  joists,  and 
timber  work  of  bridges;  very  cross- 
grained  and  difiScult  to  work ;  can 
be  obtained  in  any  quantity  to  9  in. 
square.     Fracture  short. 

Well  adapted  for  doors,  windows,  mould- 
ing, and  other  house-building  pur- 
poses; close  and  even  grained,  dull- 
red  colour,  short  fracture,  but  liable 
to  attacks  of  white  ants. 

Of  a  dull-red  colour,  close-grained,  and 
largely  used  in  house-building,  for 
boxes,  boards,  &c. 

Very  hard,  close-grained,  red-coloured, 
long-fibred,  and  tough.  Well  adapted 
for  beams  of  every  description ;  white 
ants  and  other  insects  do  not  touch  it. 
Used  largely  for  bridge  piles  in  fresii 
or  salt  water ;  considered  one  of  the 
most  lusting  timbers  ;  warps  if  cut  in 
planks. 

Capital  for  piles,  or  for  any  wood-work 
which  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  fresh 
or  salt  water ;  not  attacked  by  worms 
or  white  ants.     Fracture  short. 


166  Carpentry — Woods. 

Tasmanian  icoods. — Ironwood,  Tasmanian  (Notelcea  ligustrina) :  exceedingly  hard, 
close-grained  ■wood,  used  for  mallets,  sheaves  of  blocks,  turnery,  &c. ;  diam.,  9-18  ia. ; 
height,  20-35  ft.;  sp.  grav.,  about  'OGS.     Not  uncommon. 

Native  Box  (Bursaria  spinosa) :  diam.,  8-12  in. ;  height,  15-25  ft. ;  sp.  grav.,  about 
•  825.     Used  for  turnery. 

Native  Pear  (Hakea  lissosperma) :  diam.,  8-12  in. ;  height,  29-30  ft. ;  sp.  grav., 
about  '675.     Fit  for  tiu-nery. 

Pinkwood  (Beyeria  viscosa) :  diam.,  G-10  in. ;  height,  15-25  ft. ;  sp.  grav.,  about 
•815.    Used  for  sheaves  of  blocks,  and  for  turnery. 

Swamp  Tea-tree  (Melaleuca  ericaefolia)  :  diam.,  9-20  in. ;  height,  20-60  ft. ;  sp.  grav., 
about  •  824.     Used  for  turnery  chiefly. 

White- wood  (Pittosporum  bioolor) ;  diam.,  8-13  in.;  height,  20-35  ft. ;  sp.  grav., 
about  •  875.     Used  in  turnery  ;  probably  fit  for  wood-engraving. 

West  Indian  tcoocls. — Crabwood  is  mostly  used  for  picture-frames  and  small  orna- 
mented cabinet-work,  &c.  It  seldom  grows  larger  than  3-4  in.  in  diam.,  and  is  a 
rather  hard,  fine,  cross-grained,  moderately  heavy -wood.  The  heartwood  is  of  a  beauti- 
fully veined  Vandyke  brown,  its  external  edge  briglit  black,  and  the  alburnum  of  a  pure 
white.  In  Trinidad,  tlie  balata  is  a  timber  extensively  used  for  general  purposes,  and 
much  esteemed.  Its  diameter  is  2-G  ft.  The  mastic  is  also  held  in  high  estimation,  and 
varies  from  2  to  4  ft.  in  diam.  The  gru-gru,  winch  is  a  palm,  yields  beautiful  veneer, 
as  also  docs  tlie  gri-gri.  For  some  of  these  trees  it  will  be  observed  there  is  no  verna- 
cular name,  consequently  the  choice  lies  between  the  native  and  the  botanical  name. 
The  heartwood  of  the  butterwood  only  is  used.  The  beauty  of  the  wood  is  well  known, 
but  it  never  attains  a  large  size.  Its  recent  layers  are  of  a  uniform  yellowish-white 
oolour.  The  carapa  bears  a  considerable  resemblance  to  cedar,  and  is  extensively  used 
and  much  esteemed.  It  is  2-3  ft.  in  diam.  The  West  Indian  cedar  of  Trinidad  is  a 
most  useful  timber,  and  is  well  deserving  the  attention  of  consumers,  as  is  also  the  copai, 
a  beautiful  and  durable  wood.  The  sope  is  a  light  wood,  resembling  English  elm,  im- 
pregnated with  a  bitter  principle,  which  preserves  it  from  the  attacks  of  insects.  It  is 
tough,  strong,  and  is  used  for  general  purposes.  In  diameter  it  ranges  from  1  to  2  ft. 
L'Angleme  is  a  strong,  hardy  wood,  exclusively  used  for  the  naves  of  wheels,  &c.  Cour- 
baril  is  a  valuable  and  abundant  timber  of  2-6  ft.  in  diam.,  and  may  be  otherwise 
described  under  the  name  of  West  India  locust.  Yorke  saran  is  a  very  hard  and  useful 
wood,  and  also  pearl  heart,  which  has  the  advantage  of  being  very  abundant,  and  runs 
from  2  to  4  ft.  in  diam.  Aquatapana  is  a  very  durable  and  curious  wood,  susceptible 
of  high  polish,  and  18-3G  in.  in  diam.  The  green,  grey,  and  black  poni  furnish  the 
favourite  timbers  of  tlie  colony,  and  produce  the  hardest  and  most  durable  of  wood. 
Their  timber  takes  a  fine  polish,  has  a  peculiar  odour,  and  is  very  abundant.  The  trees 
are  3-4  ft.  in  diam.,  and  proportionately  lofty. 

Growth  of  icood. — This  may  be  sufiiciently  explained  in  a  few  words.  A  cross 
section  of  an  exogenous  ("  outward  growing  ")  tree,  which  class  includes  all  timbers  used 
in  construction,  shows  it  to  be  made  up  of  several  concentric  rings,  called  "  annual," 
from  their  being  generally  depositeil  at  the  rate  of  1  a  }-ear ;  at  or  near  the  centre  is  a 
column  of  pith,  whence  radiate  thin  lines  called  "  medullary  rays,"  which,  in  some 
woods,  when  suitably  cut,  afibrd  a  handsome  figure  termed  "  silver  grain. "  As  the  tree 
increases  in  ago,  the  inner  layers  are  filled  up  and  hardened,  becoming  what  is  called 
duramen  or  "  heartwood  "  ;  the  remainder,  called  alburnum  or  "  sapwood,"  is  softer  and 
lighter  in  colour,  and  can  generally  be  easily  dintinguisheJ.  The  heartwood  is  stronger 
and  more  lasting  than  the  sapwood,  and  should  alone  bo  used  in  good  work.  The 
annual  rings  are  generally  thicker  on  the  side  of  the  tree  that  has  had  most  sun  and  air, 
and  the  heart  is  therefore  seldom  in  the  centre. 

Felling. — While  the  tree  is  growing,  the  heartwootl  is  the  strongest ;  but  after  the 
growth  has  stopped,  the  heart  is  the  first  part  to  decay.     It  is  important,  therefore,  that 


Carpentry — Woods.  167 

the  tree  slioiilcl  be  felled  at  the  right  age.  This  varies  with  different  trees,  and  even  in 
the  same  tree  under  different  circumstances.  The  induration  of  the  sapwood  should 
have  reached  its  extreme  limits  before  the  tree  is  felled,  but  the  period  required  for  this 
depends  on  the  soil  and  climate.  Trees  cut  too  soon  are  full  of  sapwood,  and  the  heart- 
wood  is  not  fully  hardened.  The  ages  at  which  the  undermentioned  trees  should  bo 
felled  are  as  follows  :— Oak,  60-200  years,  100  years  the  best ;  Ash,  Larch,  Elm,  50-100 
years;  Spruce,  Scotch  Fir,  70-100  years.  Oak  bark  is  sometimes  stripped  in  the 
spring,  when  loosened  by  the  rising  sap.  The  tree  is  felled  in  winter,  at  which  time 
the  sapwood  is  hardened  like  the  heart.  This  practice  improves  the  timber.  A  healthy 
tree  for  felling  is  one  with  an  abundance  of  young  shoots,  and  whose  topmost  branches 
look  strong,  pointed,  and  vigorous.  The  best  season  for  felling  is  midsummer  or  mid- 
winter in  temperate,  or  the  dry  season  in  tropical  climates,  when  the  sap  is  at  rest. 

Squaring. — Directly  the  tree  is  felled  it  should  bo  squared,  or  cut  into  scantling,  in 
order  that  air  may  have  free  access  to  the  interior. 

Features. — These  depend  greatly  upon  the  treatment  of  the  tree,  the  time  of  felling 
it,  and  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  which  it  has  grown.  Good  timber  should  be  from  the 
heart  of  a  sound  tree,  the  sapwood  being  entirely  removed,  the  wood  uniform  in  sub- 
stance, straight  in  fibre,  free  from  large  or  dead  knots,  flaws,  shakes,  or  blemishes  of  any 
kind.  If  freshly  cut,  it  should  smell  sweet ;  the  surface  should  not  be  woolly,  nor 
clog  the  teeth  of  the  saw,  but  firm  and  bright,  with  a  silky  lustre  when  planed;  a 
disagreeable  smell  betokens  decay,  and  a  dull  chalky  appearance  is  a  sign  of  bad  timber. 
The  annual  rings  should  be  regular  in  form ;  sudden  swells  are  caused  by  rind-galls ; 
closeness  and  narrowness  of  the  rings  indicate  slowness  of  growth,  and  are  generally 
signs  of  strength.  When  the  rings  are  porous  and  open,  the  wood  is  weak,  and  often 
decayed.  The  colour  should  be  uniform  throughout ;  when  blotchy,  or  varying  much 
from  the  heart  outwards,  or  becoming  pale  suddenly  towards  the  limit  of  the  sapwood, 
the  wood  is  probably  diseased.  Among  coloured  timbers,  darkness  of  colour  is  in 
general  a  sign  of  strength  and  durability.  Good  timber  is  sonorous  when  struck  ;  a  dull, 
heavy  sound  betokens  decay  within.  Among  specimens  of  the  same  timber,  the  heavier 
are  generally  the  stronger.  Timber  for  important  work  should  be  free  from  defects. 
The  knots  should  not  bo  large  or  numerous,  and  on  no  account  loose.  The  worst  posi- 
tion for  large  knots  is  near  the  centre  of  the  balk  required,  more  especially  if  forming  a 
ring  round  the  balk  at  one  or  more  points.  Though  the  sapwood  should  be  entirely 
removed,  the  heart  of  trees  having  most  sapwood  is  generally  strongest  and  best.  The 
strongest  part  of  the  tree  is  usually  that  containing  the  last-formed  rings  of  heartwood, 
so  that  the  strongest  scantlings  are  got  by  removing  no  more  rings  tlian  those  including 
the  sapwood.  Timber  that  is  thoroughly  dry  weighs  less  than  green ;  it  is  also  harder 
and  more  difficult  to  work. 

Defects. — The  principal  natural  defects  in  timber,  caused  by  vicissitudes  of  climate, 
soil,  &c.,  are: — "Heartshakes":  splits  or  clefts  in  the  centre  of  the  tree;  common  in 
nearly  every  kind  of  timber ;  in  some  cases  hardly  visible,  in  others  extending  almost 
across  the  tree,  dividing  it  into  segments;  one  cleft  right  across  the  tree  does  not  occasion 
much  waste,  as  it  divides  the  squared  trunk  into  2  substantial  balks;  2  clefts 
crossing  one  another  at  right  angles,  as  in  Fig.  217,  make  it  impossible  to  obtain  scant- 
lings larger  than  ^  the  area  of  the  tree ;  the  worst  form  of  heartshake  is  when  the  splits 
twist  in  the  length  of  the  tree,  thus  preventing  its  conversion  into  small  scantlings  or 
planks.  "  Starshakes  " :  in  which  several  splits  radiate  from  the  centre  of  the  timber, 
as  in  Fig.  21S.  "  Cupshakes  "  :  curved  splits  separating  the  whole  or  part  of  one  annual 
ring  from  another  (Fig.  219) ;  when  they  occupy  only  a  small  portion  of  a  ring  they  do  no 
great  harm.  "  Rind-galls  "  :  peculiar  curved  swellings,  caused  generally  by  the  growth 
of  layers  over  the  wound  remaining  after  a  branch  has  been  imperfectly  lopped  off. 
"Upsets":  portions  of  the  timber  in  which  the  fibres  have  been  injured  by  crushing. 
"Foxiness":  a  yellow  or  red  tinge  caused  by  incipient  decay,  "Doatiness":  a  speckled 


168 


Cakpentry — Woods. 


stain  found  in  beech,  American  oak,  and  others.  Twisted  fibres  arc  caused  by  the 
action  of  a  prevalent  wind,  turning  the  tree  constantly  in  one  direction ;  timber  thus 
injured  is  not  fit  for  squaring,  as  many  of  the  fibres  would  be  cut  through. 

The  large  trees  of  New  South  Wales,  when  at  full  maturity,  are  rarely  sound  at 
heart,  and  even  when  they  are  so,  the  immediate  heartwood  is  of  no  value,  on  account 
of  its  extreme  brittleness.  In  sawing  up  logs  into  scantlings  or  boards,  the  heart  is 
always  rejected.  The  direction  in  which  the  larger  species  split  most  freely  is  never 
from  the  bark  to  the  heart  (technically  speaking,  the  "  bursting  way  "),  but  in  concen- 


HIK 


219. 


trie  circles  round  the  latter.  Some  few  of  the  smaller  species  of  forest  trees  are  excep- 
tions to  this  rule ;  such  as  the  difierent  species  of  Casuarina,  Banhsia,  and  others 
belonging  to  the  natural  order  Proteacex.  They  split  most  freely  the  '■  bursting  way," 
as  do  the  oaks,  &c.,  of  Europe  and  America.  A  very  serious  defect  prevails  amongst  a 
portion  of  the  trees  of  this  class,  to  such  an  extent  as  to  demand  especial  notice  here.  It 
is  termed  "  gum-vein,"'  and  consists  simply  in  the  extravasation,  in  greater  or  less 
quantity,  of  the  gum-resin  of  the  tree,  in  particular  spots,  amongst  the  fibres  of  woody 
tissue,  and  probably  where  some  injury  has  been  sustained;  or,  which  is  a  much  greater 
evil,  in  concentric  circles  between  successive  layers  of  the  wood.  The  former  is  often  merely 
a  blemish,  affecting  the  appearance  rather  than  the  utility  of  the  timber ;  but  the  latter, 
when  occurring  frequently  in  the  same  section  of  the  trunk,  renders  it  comparatively 
worthless,  excepting  for  fuel.  In  the  latter  case,  as  the  wood  dries,  the  layers  with  gum 
veins  interposing  separate  from  each  other;  and  it  is  consequently  impracticable  to  take 
from  trees  so  afi'ected  a  sound  piece  of  timber,  excepting  of  very  small  dimensions.  The 
whole  of  the  species  of  Angophora,  or  apple-tree,  and  many  of  the  Eucalypti,  or  gums, 
aro  subject  to  be  thus  afi'ected ;  and  it  is  the  more  to  be  regretted,  because  it  appears  to 
be  the  only  reason  why  many  of  the  trees  so  blemished  should  not  be  classed  amongst 
the  most  useful  of  the  hard  woods  of  the  colony. 

In  selecting  balks  and  deals,  it  should  be  remembered  that  most  defects  show  better 
when  the  timber  is  wet.  Balk  timber  is  generally  specified  to  be  free  from  sap,  shakes, 
large  or  dead  knots  and  other  defects,  and  to  be  die-square.  The  best  American  yellow 
pine  and  crown  timber  from  the  Baltic  have  no  visible  imperfections  of  any  kind.  In 
the  lower  qualities  is  either  a  considerable  amount  of  sap,  or  the  knots  are  numerous, 
sometimes  very  large,  or  dead.  The  timber  may  also  be  shaken  at  heart  or  upon  the 
surface.  The  wood  may  be  waterlogged,  softened,  or  discoloured  by  being  floated. 
Wanes  also  are  likely  to  be  found,  which  spoil  the  sharp  angles  of  the  timber,  and 
reduce  its  value  for  many  purposes.  The  interior  of  the  timber  may  be  soft,  spongy,  or 
decayed,  the  surface  destroyed  by  worm  holes,  or  bruised.  The  heart  may  be  "  wan- 
dering"— that  is,  at  one  part  on  one  side  of  the  balk,  at  another  part  on  the  other  side. 
This  interrupts  the  continuity  of  the  fibre,  and  detracts  from  the  strength  of  the  balk. 
Again,  the  heart  may  be  twisted  throughout  the  length  of  the  tree.     In  this  case,  the 


Cakpentrt — Woods.  169 

annual  rings  which  run  parallel  to  2  sides  of  the  balk  at  one  end  rm  diagonally  across 
the  section  at  the  other  end.  This  is  a  great  defect,  as  the  wood  is  nearly  sure  to  twist 
in  seasoning.  Some  defects  appear  to  a  certain  degree  in  all  except  tlie  very  best  quality 
of  timber.  The  more  numerous  or  aggravated  they  are,  the  lower  is  the  quality  of  the 
timber.  Deals,  planks,  and  battens  should  be  carefully  examined  for  freedom  (more  or 
less  according  to  their  quality)  from  sap,  large  or  dead  knots,  and  other  defects,  also  to 
see  that  they  have  been  carefully  converted,  of  proper  and  even  thickness,  square  at  the 
angles,  &c.  As  a  rule,  well-converted  deals  are  from  good  timber,  for  it  does  not  pay  to 
put  much  labour  upon  inferior  material.  The  method  in  which  deals  have  been  cut 
should  be  noticed,  those  from  the  centre  of  a  log,  containing  the  pith,  should  be  avoided, 
as  they  are  likely  to  decay. 

Classification. — Timber  is  generally  divided  into  2  classes,  called  "  pine  "  woods  and 
"  hard  "  woods.  The  chief  practical  bearings  of  this  classification  are  as  follows : — Pine 
wood  (coniferous  timber)  in  most  cases  contains  turpentine ;  is  distinguished  by  straiglit- 
ness  of  fibre  and  regularity  in  the  figure  of  the  trees,  qualities  favourable  to  its  use  in 
carpentry,  especially  where  long  pieces  are  required  to  bear  either  a  direct  pull  or  a 
transverse  load,  or  for  purposes  of  planking ;  the  lateral  adhesion  of  the  fibres  is  small, 
so  that  it  is  much  more  easily  shora  and  split  along  the  grain  than  hard  wood,  and  is 
therefore  less  fitted  to  resist  thrust  or  shearing  stress,  or  any  kind  of  stress  that  does  not 
act  along  the  fibres.  In  hard  wood  (non-coniferous  timber)  is  no  turpentine  ;  the  degree 
of  distinctness  with  which  the  structure  is  seen  depends  upon  the  difference  of  texture 
of  several  parts  of  the  wood,  such  difterence  tending  to  produce  unequal  shrinking  in 
drying ;  consequently  those  kinds  of  timber  in  which  the  medullary  rays  and  the  annual 
rings  are  distinctly  marked  are  more  liable  to  warp  than  those  in  which  the  texture  is 
more  uniform  ;  but  the  former  kinds  are,  on  the  whole,  more  flexible,  and  in  many  cases 
very  tough  and  strong,  which  qualities  make  them  suitable  for  structures  that  have  to 
bear  shocks.  For  many  practical  purposes  timber  may  be  divided  into  two  classes : — 
(a)  soft  wood,  including  firs,  pines,  spruce,  larch,  and  all  cone-bearing  trees;  (h)  hard 
wood,  including  oak,  beech,  ash,  elm,  mahogany,  &c.  Carpenters  generally  give  the 
name  "  fir  "  to  all  red  and  yellow  timber  from  the  Baltic,  "  pine  "  to  similar  timber  from 
America,  and  "  spruce  "  to  all  white  wood  from  either  place. 

Market  Forms. — The  chief  forms  into  which  timber  is  converted  for  the  market  are 
as  follows : — A  "  log  "  is  the  trunk  of  a  tree  with  the  branches  lopped  off;  a  "  balk  "  is 
obtained  by  roughly  squaring  the  log.  Fir  timber  is  imported  in  the  subjoined  forms : 
"  Hand  masts  "  are  the  longest,  soundest,  and  straighteet  trees  after  being  topped  and 
barked ;  applied  to  those  of  a  circumference  between  24  and  72  in.,  measured  by  the 
hand  of  4  in.,  there  being  also  a  fixed  proportion  between  the  number  of  hands  in  tlio 
length  of  the  mast  and  those  contained  in  the  circumference  taken  at  i  the  length  from 
the  butt  end ;  "  spars  "  or  "  poles  "  have  a  circumference  of  less  than  24  in.  at  the  base ; 
"  inch  masts  "  have  a  circumference  of  more  than  72  in.,  and  are  generally  dressed  to  a 
square  or  octagonal  form  ;  "  balk  timber"  consists  of  the  trunk,  hewn  square,  generally 
with  the  axe  (sometimes  with  the  saw),  and  is  also  known  as  "  square  timber " ; 
"planks"  are  parallel-sided  pieces  2-6  in.  thick,  II  in.  broad,  and  8-21  ft.  long; 
"  deals  "  are  similar  pieces  9  in.  broad  and  not  exceeding  4  in.  thick  ;  "  whole  deals  "  is 
the  name  sometimes  given  to  deals  2  in.  or  more  thick ;  "  cut  deals  "  are  less  than  2  in. 
thick ;  "  battens  "  are  similar  to  deals,  but  only  7  in.  broad ;  " ends"  are  pieces  of  plank, 
deal,  or  batten  less  than  8  ft.  long;  "scaffold"  and  "  ladder  poles"  are  from  young  trees 
of  larch  or  spruce,  averaging  33  ft.  in  length,  and  classed  according  to  the  diameter  of 
their  butts ;  "  rickers  "  are  about  22  ft.  long,  and  under  2 J  in.  diameter  at  the  top  end ; 
smaller  sizes  are  called  "  spars."  Oak  is  supplied  as  follows  :  "  rough  timber  "  consists 
of  the  trunk  and  main  branches  roughly  hewn  to  octagonal  section ;  "  sided  timber," 
the  trunk  split  down  and  roughly  formed  to  a  polygonal  section  ;  "  thick  stuff,"  not  less 
than  24  ft.  and  averaging  at  least  28  ft.  long,  11-lS  in.  wide  between  the  sap  in  the  middle 


170  Caepentrt — Woods. 

of  its  length,  and  4J-S^  in.  tliick ;  "  planks,"  length  not  less  than  20  ft.  and  averaging 
at  least  28  ft.,  thickness  2—1  in.,  and  width  (clear  of  sap)  at  the  middle  of  the  length 
varying  according  to  the  thickness,  i.e.  between  9  and  15  in.  for  3-,  3J-,  and  4-in.  planks, 
between  8  and  15  in.  for  2-  and  2^-in.  planks.  "  Waney  "  timber  is  a  term  used  for  logs 
which  are  not  perfectly  square  ;  tlie  balk  cut  being  too  large  for  the  size  of  the  tree,  the 
square  corners  are  replaced  by  flattened  or  rounded  angles,  often  showing  the  bark,  and 
called  "  wanes."  "  Compass  "  timber  consists  of  bent  pieces,  the  height  of  the  bend 
from  a  straight  line  joining  the  ends  being  at  least  5  in.  in  a  length  of  12  ft. 

The  following  is  an  approximate  classification  of  timber  according  to  size,  as  knowa 
to  workmen : — 

Balk      12  in.  X  12  in.    to   18  in.  x  18  in. 

Whole  timber      ....        9       „       9         „      15       „     15   ,, 
Half  timber         .,      ..       9      „      4  J       „      18      „       9   „ 

Scantling      G       „       4         „      12       „     12   „ 

Quartering 2      „       2        „        6      „      6   „ 

Planks 11  in.  to  18  in.    x      3  in.   to   G   „ 

Deals 9  in.  x      2       „      U„ 

Battens         4Mn.  to  7  in.     x        ?     „      ^    „ 

Strips  and  laths  ..       2      „      4J         X        i     „       1|„ 

Pieces  larger  than  "  planks "  are  generally  called  "  timber,"  but,  when  sawn  all 
round,  are  called  "  scantling,"  and,  when  sawn  to  equal  dimensions  each  way,  "  die- 
square."  The  dimensions  (width  and  thickness)  of  parts  in  a  framing  are  sometimes 
called  the  "  scantlings  "  of  the  pieces.  The  term  "  deal  "  is  also  used  to  distinguish 
wood  in  the  state  ready  for  the  joiner,  from  "  timber,"  which  is  wood  prepared  for  the 
carpenter.     A  "  stick  "  is  a  rough  whole  timber  unsawn. 

Seasoning. — The  object  of  seasoning  timber  is  to  expel  or  dry  up  the  sap  remaining 
in  it,  which  otherwise  putrefies  and  causes  decay.  One  effect  is  to  reduce  the  weight. 
Tredgold  calls  timber  "seasoned"  when  it  has  lost  i,  and  considers  it  then  fit  for 
carpenters'  work  and  common  purposes ;  and  "  dry,"  fit  for  joiners'  work  and  framing, 
when  it  has  lost  i.  The  exact  loss  of  weight  depends,  however,  upon  the  nature  of  the 
timber  and  its  state  before  seasoning.  Timber  should  be  well  seasoned  before  being  cut 
into  scantlings ;  the  scantlings  should  then  be  further  seasoned,  and,  after  conversion, 
left  as  long  as  possible  to  complete  the  process  of  seasoning  before  being  painted  or 
varnished.  Logs  season  better  and  more  quickly  if  a  hole  is  bored  through  their  centre ; 
this  also  prevents  splitting. 

Natural  seasoning  is  carried  out  by  stacking  the  timber  in  such  a  way  that  the  air 
can  circulate  freely  round  each  piece,  at  the  same  time  protecting  it  by  a  roof  from  the 
sun,  rain,  draughts,  and  high  winds,  and  keeping  it  clear  of  the  ground  by  bearers.  The 
great  object  is  to  ensure  regular  drying ;  irregular  drying  causes  the  timber  to  split. 
Timber  should  be  stacked  in  a  yard,  paved  if  possible,  or  covered  with  ashes,  and  free 
from  vegetation.  The  bearers  should  be  damp-proof,  and  keep  the  timber  at  least  12  in. 
oiF  the  ground ;  they  should  be  laid  perfectly  level  and  out  of  winding,  otherwise  the 
timber  will  get  a  permanent  twist.  The  timber  should  bo  turned  frequently,  so  as  to 
ensure  equal  drying  all  round  the  balks.  When  a  permanent  shed  is  not  available, 
temporary  roofs  should  be  made  over  the  timber  stacks.  Logs  are  stacked  with  the  butts 
outwards,  the  inner  ends  being  slightly  raised  so  that  the  logs  may  be  easily  got  out ; 
packing  pieces  are  inserted  between  the  tiers  of  logs,  so  that  by  removing  them  any 
particular  log  may  be  withdrawn.  That  timber  seasons  better  when  stacked  on  end, 
seems  doubtful,  and  the  plan  is  practically  difficult  to  carry  out.  Boards  may  be  laid 
flat  and  separated  by  pieces  of  dry  wood  1  in.  or  so  in  thickness  and  3-4  in.  wide;  any 
that  are  inclined  to  warp  should  be  weighted  or  fixed  down  to  prevent  them  from 
twisting ;  they  are,  however,  frequently  stacked  vertically,  or  inclined  at  a  high  angle. 


Carpentry — Woods.  171 

Laslett  recommends  that  they  should  be  seasoned  in  a  dry  cool  shed,  fitted  with  horizontal 
beams  and  vertical  iron  bars,  to  prevent  the  boards,  -which  aro  placed  on  odo'e  from, 
tilting  over.  The  time  required  for  natural  seasoning  differs  with  the  size  of  the  pieces, 
the  nature  of  the  timber,  and  its  condition  before  seasoning.  Laslett  gives  the  follow- 
ing table  of  the  approximate  time  required  for  seasoning  timber  under  cover  and 
protected  from  wind  and  weather : — 

Oak.  Fir. 

Months.      Months. 

Pieces  24  in.  and  upward  square  require  about 26  13 

^      Under  24  in.  to  20  „  22  11 

„      20     „     IG  „  18  9 

«       16     „      12  „  14  7 

«       12     „       8  „  10  5 

«  >5  o      ^        4  y,  ••       ..       ..        b  o 

Planks  i-l  the  above  time,  according  to  thickness.  If  the  timber  is  kept  longer  than 
the  periods  above  named,  the  fine  shakes  which  show  upon  the  surface  in  seasoning  open 
deeper  and  wider,  until  they  possibly  render  the  logs  unfit  for  conversion.  The  time 
required  under  cover  is  only  f  of  that  required  in  the  open. 

Water  seasoning  consists  in  totally  immersing  the  timber,  chaining  it  down  under 
water,  as  soon  as  it  is  cut,  for  about  a  fortnight,  by  which  a  great  part  of  the  sap  is  washed 
out ;  it  is  then  carefully  dried,  with  free  access  of  air,  and  turned  daily.  Timber  thus 
seasoned  is  less  liable  to  warp  and  crack,  but  is  rendered  brittle  and  unfit  for  purposes 
where  strength  and  elasticity  are  required.  Care  must  be  taken  that  it  is  entirely  sub- 
merged; partial  immersion,  such  as  is  usual  in  timber  ponds,  injures  the  log  along  the 
water  line.  Timber  that  has  been  saturated  should  be  thoroughly  dried  before  use ; 
when  taken  from  a  pond,  cut  up  and  used  wet,  dry-rot  soon  sets  in.  Salt  water  makes 
the  wood  harder,  heavier,  and  more  durable,  but  should  not  be  applied  to  timber  for 
use  in  ordinary  buildings,  because  it  gives  a  permanent  tendency  to  attract  moisture. 

Boiling  water  quickens  the  operation  of  seasoning,  and  cai:ses  the  timber  to  shrink 
less,  but  it  is  expensive  to  use,  and  reduces  the  strength  and  elasticity.  The  time 
required  varies  with  the  size  and  density  of  the  timber,  and  according  to  circumstances ; 
one  rule  is  to  allow  1  hour  for  every  inch  in  thickness. 

Steaming  has  much  the  same  effect  as  boiling  ;  but  the  timber  is  said  to  dry  sooner, 
and  it  is  by  some  considered  that  steaming  prevents  dry-rot.  No  doubt  boiling  and 
steaming  partly  remove  the  ferment  spores. 

Hot-air  seasoning,  or  desiccation,  is  effected  by  exposing  the  timber  in  an  oven  to  a 
current  of  hot  air,  which  dries  up  the  sap.  This  process  takes  only  a  few  weeks, 
more  or  less,  according  to  the  size  of  the  timber.  "When  the  wood  is  green,  the  heat 
should  be  applied  gradually.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  splitting  ;  the  heat 
must  not  be  too  high,  and  the  ends  should  bo  clamped.  Desiccation  is  useful  only  for 
small  scanthng ;  the  expense  of  applying  it  to  larger  timber  is  very  great ;  moreover,  as 
wood  is  one  of  the  worst  conductors  of  heat,  if  this  plan  be  applied  to  largo  logs,  the 
interior  fibres  still  retain  their  original  bulk,  while  those  near  the  surface  have  a  tendency 
to  shrink,  the  consequence  of  which  would  be  cracks  and  splits  of  more  or  less  depth. 
Desiccated  wood  should  not  be  exposed  to  damp  before  use.  During  this  process  ordinary 
woods  lose  their  strength,  and  coloured  woods  become  pale  and  wanting  in  lustre. 

M'Neile's  process  consists  in  exposing  the  wood  to  a  moderate  heat  in  a  moist  atmo- 
sphere charged  with  various  gases  produced  by  the  combustion  of  fuel.  The  wood  is  placed 
in  a  brick  chamber,  in  which  is  a  large  surface  of  water  to  produce  vapour.  The  timber  is 
stacked  in  the  usual  way,  with  free  air-space  round  every  piece ;  about  ^  of  the  whole  con- 
tent of  the  chamber  should  be  air-space.  Under  the  chamber  is  a  fireplace.  The  fire  having 
been  lighted,  the  products  of  combustion  (among  which  is  carbonic  acid  gas)  circulate 
freely  in  a  moist  state  around  the  pieces  of  timber  to  be  seasoned.     The  time  required 


172  Carpentry — Woods. 

varies  with  the  nature  of  the  -wood.  Oak,  ash,  mahogany,  and  other  hard  wood  planks 
3  in.  thick,  take  about  8  weeks ;  oak  wainscot  planks  2  in.  thick  take  5-6  weeks ;  deals 
3  in.  thick,  something  less  than  a  month;  flooring-boards  and  panelling,  about  10  days 
or  a  fortnight.  The  greener  the  wood  when  first  put  into  the  stove  the  better.  As  a 
rule,  if  too  great  heat  be  not  applied,  not  a  piece  of  sound  wood  is  split,  warped,  or  opened  iu 
any  way.  The  wood  is  rendered  harder,  denser,  and  tougher,  and  dry-rot  is  entirely  pre- 
vented. The  wood  will  not  absorb  by  subsequent  exposure  to  the  atmosphere  nearly  so 
much  moisture  as  does  wood  dried  by  exposure  in  the  ordinary  way.  Tlie  process  seems 
to  have  no  injurious  efl'ects  upon  the  appearance  or  strength  of  the  timber. 

Gardner's  jsrocess  is  said  to  season  timber  more  rapidly  tlian  any  other,  to  preserve 
it  from  decay  and  from  the  attacks  of  all  kinds  of  worms  and  insects,  to  strengthen 
the  timber,  and  render  it  uninflammable ;  and  by  it  the  timber  may  be  permanently 
coloured  to  a  variety  of  shades.  The  process  takes  4-14  days,  according  to  the  bulk  and 
density  of  the  timber.  It  consists  in  dissolving  the  sap  (by  chemicals  in  open  tanks), 
driving  out  the  remaining  moisture,  leaving  the  fibre  only.  A  further  injection  of 
chemical  substances  adds  to  the  durability,  or  will  make  the  timber  uninflammable. 
The  process  has  been  satisfactorily  tested  in  mine  props,  railway  sleepers,  logs  of 
mahogany  for  cabinet-work,  and  in  smaller  scantlings  of  fir  and  pine.  Experiments 
showed  that  the  sap  was  removed,  the  resistance  of  the  timber  to  crushing  augmented 
40-90  per  cent.,  and  its  density  considerably  increased. 

Rene',  a  pianoforte  manufacturer,  of  Stettin,  Germany,  has  devised  a  plan  by 
which  he  utilizes  the  property  of  ozonized  oxygen,  to  artificially  season  timber  used 
fur  sounding-boards  of  musical  instruments.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  wood,  which 
has  been  seasoned  for  years,  is  much  more  suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  musical 
instruments  than  if  used  soon  after  it  is  thoroughly  dried  only,  Rene  claims  that  instru- 
ments made  of  wood  which  has  been  treated  by  his  oxygen  process  possess  a  remarkably 
fine  tone,  which  not  only  does  not  decrease  with  age,  but  as  far  as  experience  teaches,  im- 
l)roves  with  age  as  does  the  tone  of  some  famous  old  violins  by  Italian  masters.  Sounding- 
boards  made  of  wood  prepared  in  this  manner  have  the  quality  of  retaining  the  sound 
longer  and  more  powerfully.  "While  other  methods  of  impregnating  woods  with  chemicals 
generally  have  a  deteriorating  influence  on  the  fibre,  timber  prepared  by  this  method, 
which  is  really  an  artificial  ageing,  becomes  harder  and  stronger.  The  process  is  regularly 
carried  on  at  Rene''s  works,  and  the  apparatus  consists  of  a  hermetically  closed  boiler 
■or  tank,  in  which  the  wood  to  be  treated  is  placed  on  iron  gratings ;  in  a  retort,  by 
the  side  of  the  boiler  and  connected  to  it  by  a  pipe  with  stop-valve,  oxygen  is  developed 
and  admitted  into  the  boiler  through  the  valve.  Provision  is  made  in  the  boiler  to 
ozonize  the  oxygen  by  means  of  an  electric  current,  and  the  boiler  is  then  gently  fired 
and  kept  hot  for  48-50  hours,  after  which  time  the  process  is  complete. 

Woods,  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  has  introduced  a  method  which  is  spoken  of  as  leaving 
no  room  for  improvement.  The  wood  is  placed  in  a  tight  chamber  heated  by  steam,  and 
having  one  side  made  into  a  condenser  by  means  of  coils  of  pipes  with  cold  water  con- 
tinually circuluting  through  them.  The  surface  of  these  pipes  is  thus  kept  so  much  below 
the  temperature  of  the  chamber  that  the  moisture  drawn  from  the  wood  is  condensed 
on  them,  and  runs  thence  into  a  gutter  for  carrying  it  off.  In  the  words  of  the  United 
States  Report  on  the  Vienna  Exhibition,  "if  the  temperature  of  these  condensing  pipes 
can  be  kept  at  say  40°  F.,  and  that  of  the  atmosphere  be  raised  to  90°  F.,  it  will  not  require 
a  long  time  to  ruach  a  degree  of  20  per  cent,  of  saturation,  when  the  work  of  drying  is 
thoroughly  completed." 

Smoke-drying. — It  is  said  that  if  timber  be  smoke-dried  over  a  bonfire  of  furze, 
straw,  or  shavings,  it  will  be  rendered  harder,  more  durable,  and  proof  against  attacks 
of  worms ;  to  prevent  it  from  splitting,  and  to  ensure  the  moisture  drying  out  from  the 
interior,  the  heat  should  be  applied  gradually. 

Second  seasoning. — Many  -woods  require  a  second  seasoning  after  they  have  been 


Carpentry — Woods.  173 

worked.  Floor  boards  should,  if  possible,  be  laid  and  morcly  tnckod  down  for  several 
months  before  they  are  cramped  up  and  regularly  nailed.  Doora,  sashes,  and  other 
articles  of  joinery  should  be  left  as  long  as  possible  after  being  made,  before  they  are 
wedged  up  and  finished.  Very  often  a  board  that  seems  thoroughly  seasoned  will 
commence  to  warp  again  if  merely  a  shaving  is  planed  off  the  surface. 

Decay. — To  preserve  wood  from  decay  it  should  be  kept  constantly  dry  and  well 
ventilated;  clear  of  the  iuliuence  of  damp  earth  or  damp  walla,  and  free  from  contact 
with  mortar,  which  hastens  decomposition.  Wood  kept  constantly  submerged  is  often 
weakened  and  rendered  brittle,  but  some  timbers  are  very  durable  in  this  state.  Wood 
that  is  constantly  dry  is  very  durable,  but  also  becomes  brittle  in  time,  though  not  for 
a  great  number  of  years.  When  timber  is  exposed  to  alternate  moisture  and  dryness 
it  soonest  decays.  The  general  causes  of  decay  are  (1)  presence  of  sap,  (2)  exposure 
to  alternate  wet  and  dryness,  or  (3)  to  moisture  accompanied  by  heat  and  want  of 
ventilation. 

"  Eot "  in  timber  is  decomposition  or  putrefaction,  generally  occasioned  by  damp, 
and  which  proceeds  by  the  emission  of  gases,  chiefly  carbonic  acid  and  hydrogen ;  2  kinds 
of  rot  are  distinguished — "  dry  "  and  "  wet."  Their  chief  difference  seems  to  be  that 
wet-rot  occurs  where  the  gases  evolved  can  escape;  by  it,  the  tissues  of  the  wood, 
especially  the  sappy  portions,  are  decomposed.  Dry-rot,  on  the  contrary,  occurs  in 
confiued  places,  where  the  gases  cannot  get  away,  but  enter  into  new  combinations, 
forming  fungi  which  feed  upon  and  destroy  the  timber.  Wet-rot  may  take  place  while 
the  tree  is  standing ;  dry-rot  occurs  only  when  the  wood  is  dead. 

"Dry-rot"  is  generally  caused  by  want  of  ventilation;  confined  air,  without  much 
moisture,  encourages  the  growth  of  the  fungus,  which  cats  into  the  timber,  renders  it 
brittle,  and  so  reduces  the  cohesion  of  the  fibres  that  they  are  reduced  to  powder.  It 
generally  commences  in  the  sapwood.  Excess  of  moisture  prevents  the  growth  of  the 
fungus,  but  moderate  warmth,  combined  with  damp  and  want  of  air,  accelerates  it.  In 
the  first  stage  of  rottenness,  the  timber  swells  and  changes  colour,  is  often  covered  with 
fungus  or  mouldiness,  and  emits  a  musty  smell.  The  principal  parts  of  buildings  in 
which  it  is  found  are — warm  cellars,  under  unventilatcd  wooden  floors,  or  in  basements 
particularly  in  kitchens  or  rooms  where  there  are  constant  fires.  All  kinds  of  stoves 
increase  the  disease  if  moisture  be  present.  The  ends  of  timbers  built  into  walls  are 
nearly  sure  to  be  aflected  by  dry-rot,  unless  they  are  protected  by  iron  shoes,  lead,  or 
zinc.  The  same  result  is  produced  by  fixing  joinery  and  other  woodwork  to  walls  before 
they  are  dry.  Oilcloth,  kamptulicon,  and  other  impervious  floorcloths,  by  preventing 
access  of  air  and  retaining  dampness,  cause  decay  in  the  boards  they  cover  •  carpets  do 
the  same  to  a  certain  extent.  Painting  or  tarring  cut  or  unseasoned  timber  has  a  like 
effect. 

Sometimes  the  roots  of  large  trees  near  a  house  penetrate  below  the  floors  and  cause 
dry-rot.  It  is  said  that  if  two  kinds  of  wood — as,  for  example,  oak  and  fir— are  placed 
so  as  to  touch  end  to  end,  the  harder  will  decay  at  the  point  of  junction.  There  is  this 
particular  danger  about  dry-rot,  that  the  germs  of  the  fungi  producing  it  are  carried 
easily,  and  in  all  directions,  in  a  building  where  it  once  displays  itself,  without  necessity 
for  actual  contact  between  the  affected  and  the  sound  wood. 

"  Wet-rot "  occurs  in  the  growing  tree,  and  in  other  positions  where  the  timber  may 
become  saturated  with  rain.  If  the  wood  can  be  thoroughly  dried  by  seasoning,  and 
the  access  of  further  moisture  can  be  prevented  by  painting  or  sheltering,  wet-rot  can 
bo  prevented.  The  communication  of  the  disease  only  takes  place  by  actual  contact. 
To  detect  dry-rot,  in  the  absence  of  any  outward  fungus,  or  other  sign,  the  best  way  is 
to  bore  into  the  timber  with  a  gimlet  or  auger.  A  log  apparently  sound,  as  far  as 
external  appearances  go,  may  be  full  of  dry-rot  inside,  which  can  be  detected  by  the 
appearance  of  the  dust  extracted  by  the  gimlet,  or  more  especially  by  its  smell.  If  a 
piece  of  sound  timber  be  lightly  struck  with  a  key  or  scratched  at  one  end,  the  sountl 


174  Carpentry — Woods. 

can  be  distinctly  heard  by  a  person  placing  his  ear  against  the  other  end,  even  if  the 
balk  be  50  ft.  long  ;  but  if  the  timber  be  decayed,  the  sound  will  be  very  faint,  or  alto- 
gether prevented  from  passing  along.  Imported  timber,  especially  fir,  is  often  found  to 
be  suffering  from  incipient  dry-rot  upon  arrival.  This  may  have  originated  in  the  wood 
of  the  ship  itself,  or  from  the  timber  having  been  improperly  stacked,  or  shipped  in  a 
wet  state,  or  subjected  to  stagnant,  moist,  warm  air  during  the  voyage.  Sometimes 
the  rot  appears  only  in  the  form  of  reddish  spots,  which,  upon  being  scratched, 
.show  that  the  fibres  have  been  reduced  to  powder.  After  a  long  voyage,  however, 
the  timber  will  often  be  covered  with  white  fibres  of  fungus.  Canadian  yellow  pine 
is  very  often  found  in  this  state.  The  best  way  of  checking  the  evil  is  to  sweep  the 
fungus  off,  and  rcstack  the  timber  in  such  a  way  that  the  air  can  circulate  freely  round 
each  piece. 

Preserving. — The  best  means  for  preserving  timber  from  decay  are  to  have  it 
thoroughly  seasoned  and  well  ventilated.  Painting  preserves  it  if  the  wood  is  thoroughly 
seasoned  before  the  paint  is  applied ;  otherwise,  filling  up  the  outer  pores  only  confines 
the  moisture  and  causes  rot.  The  same  may  be  said  of  tarring.  Sometimes  before 
the  paint  is  dry  it  is  sprinkled  with  sand,  which  is  said  to  make  it  more  durable.  For 
timber  tliat  is  not  exposed  to  the  weather,  the  utility  of  paint  is  somewhat  doubtful. 
"Wood  used  in  outdoor  work  should  have  those  parts  painted  only  where  moisture  is 
likely  to  find  a  lodgment,  and  all  shakes,  cracks,  and  joints  should  be  filled  up  with 
white-lead  ground  in  oil,  or  oil  putty,  previous  to  being  painted  over.  The  lower  ends 
of  posts  put  into  the  ground  are  generally  charred  with  a  view  of  preventing  dry-rot 
and  tlie  attacks  of  worms.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  timber  is  thoroughly  seasoned, 
otherwise,  by  confining  the  moisture,  it  will  induce  decay  and  do  more  harm  than  good. 
Posts  should  be  put  in  upside  down,  with  regard  to  the  position  in  which  they  originally 
grew ;  the  sap  valves  open  upwards  from  the  root,  and  when  thus  reversed  they  prevent 
the  ascent  of  moisture  in  the  wood.  Britten  recommends  charring  the  embedded  portions 
of  beams  and  joists,  joists  of  stables,  wash-houses,  &c.,  wainscoting  of  ground-floors, 
flooring  beneath  pan^uet  work,  joints  of  tongues  and  rebates,  and  railway  sleepers. 
Lapparent  applied  the  method  on  a  large  scale  by  the  use  of  a  gas  jet  passed  all  over 
the  surface  of  the  timber,  but  Laslett  would  only  advise  its  use  as  a  possible  means  of 
preventing  the  generation  of  moisture  or  fungus  where  two  unseasoned  pieces  of  wood 
are  placed  in  juxtaposition. 

There  are  some  preserving  processes  of  a  special  character,  not  available  for  applica- 
tion by  the  carpenter.  These  are  described  at  length  in  the  Second  Series  of  '  Workshop 
Receipts,'  under  the  head  of  Preserving  "Wood,  pp.  45G-468.  A  few  simpler  methods 
may  be  mentioned  here.  The  following  will  be  found  a  good  method  of  preserving 
wooden  posts,  say  verandah  posts,  from  decay,  and  also  from  the  white  ant,  which  is  the 
greatest  enemy  to  carpenters'  work  in  Ceylon.  Bore  with  a  IJ-in.  auger  from  the  butt- 
end  of  the  post  to  a  distance  that  will  be  G  in.  above  the  ground-line  when  the  post  is 
set.  Then  char  over  a  good  fire  for  15  minutes.  This  will  drive  all  moisture  out  of  the 
heart  of  the  butt  through  the  hole  bored.  Next  fill  with  boiling  hot  coal-tar,  and  drive 
in  a  well-fitted  plug,  which  will  act  as  a  ram,  and  force  the  tar  into  the  pores  of  the 
wood  ;  the  latter  thus  becomes  thoroughly  creosoted,  and  will  last  for  many  years.  A 
post  4  in.  X  4  in.  may  have  one  hole  in  its  centre  ;  a  post  G  in.  x  6  in.,  2  holes  side  by 
side;  a  iwst  8  in.  x  8  in.,  3  holes;  and  one  12  in.  x  12  in.,  4  holes.  Creosoting  timber 
for  sleepers  and  iinderground  purposes  answers  very  well;  also  coal-tar  is  a  great 
means  of  preserving  timber  underground  from  the  efiects  of  the  white  ant,  as  they 
will  not  touch  it  as  long  as  there  is  a  smell  of  tar  from  it.  A  method  used  by  the 
natives  to  protect  timber  from  white  ants  is — To  every  gallon  of  water  add  3  oz. 
croton  tiglium  seeds,  3  oz.  margosa  bark,  3  oz.  sulphur,  2  oz.  blue  vitriol ;  immerse  the 
timber  until  it  ceases  to  absorb  the  water,  and  afterwards  take  out,  and  dry  in  an  airy 
situation. 


CARrENTEY — Woods. 


175 


The  following  table  shows  the  amount  of  creosote  that  will  be  taken  up  by  some  of 
the  harder  Indian  woods : — 


Lb.  of 
Creosote  per 
cub.  ft. 

Sissil       33 

Sundri 2i 

Teak        1? 

Swau  Eiver  wood  (Australia)  1^ 


Sal     ..      .. 
Iron  wood  ., 
Mahogany 
Jaman 


:l.b.  of 

Creosote  per 

cub.  ft. 

..      1 

..      1 


It  was  thought  that  the  forests  of  Southern  India  would  furnish  numerous  timbers 
suitable  for  sleepers  ;  but  these  hopes  have  not  been  fulfilled,  no  timber  used  having 
been  found  capable  of  resisting  the  combined  effects  of  the  heat  and  moisture  of  Southern 
India,  and  only  on  the  woods  of  3  trees  is  any  great  reliance  now  placed,  viz.  the  Erool 
(^Liga  xylocarjM),  Karra  marda  (Terminalia  glabra),  and  Vengay  {Pterocarpus  Marsu- 
pium).  Taking  an  average  of  the  various  native  woods  used  on  the  Madras  railway, 
the  duration  of  its  sleepers  has  been  about  oh  years.  Creosoted  sleepers  of  Baltic  fir 
have  been  found  to  last  nearly  6J  years. 

Fireproofing. — The  accepted  methods  for  rendering  wood  incombustible  or  reducing 
its  inflammability  are  described  in  the  Second  Series  of  'Workshop  Receipts,'  under 
the  head  of  Fireproofing  Timber,  pp.  298-9. 

Conversion;  Shrinhage. — By  the  term  "  conversion"  is  understood  the  cutting  up  of 
the  log  or  balk  timber  to  dimensions  suitable  for  use,  allowance  being  made  for  alterations 
in  form  due  to  atmospheric  influence,  even  on  well-seasoned  wood.  While  wood  is  iu 
the  living  state,  a  constant  passage  of  sap  keeps  the  whole  interior  moist  and  the  fibres 
distended,  more  especially  towards  the  outsido.  When  the  tree  is  felled  and  exposed 
to  the  air,  the  internal  moisture  evajwrates  gradually,  causing  a  shrinkage  and  collapse 
of  the  fibres  according  to  certain  laws,  being  always  greatest  in  a  direction  parallel  with 
the  medullary  rays.  In  straight-grained  woods  the  changes  of  length  caused  by 
atmospheric  effects  are  slight,  but  those  in  width  and  depth  are  great,  especially  in  new 
timber.  Ordinary  alternations  of  weather  produce  expansion  and  contraction  iu  width 
in^wood  of  average  dryness  to  the  following  extent : — fir :  -^^  to  Jj,  mean  -^^^  ;  oak : 
_i^  to  ^'jf,  mean  -^.  A  practical  allowance  for  shrinkage  in  9-in.  deals  is  J  in.  for 
northern  pine  and  \  in.  for  white. 

The  subject  of  shrinkage  in  timber  has  been  well  dealt  with  by  Dr.  Anderson,  in  a 
Cantor  Lecture  at  the  Society  of  Arts.  His  observations  may  be  summarized  as  follows. 
If  Fig.  220  be  taken  as  representing  the  section  of  a  newly-felled  tree,  it  will  be  seen 
that  the  wood  is  solid  throughout,  and  on  comparing  Fig.  221>ith  this  the  result  of  the 
seasoning  will  be  apparent.  The  action  is  exaggerated  in  the  diagrams  in  order  to 
render  it  more  conspicuous.  As  the  moisture  evaporates,  the  bundles  of  woody  fibres 
shrink  and  draw  closer  together  ;  but  this  contraction  cannot  take  place  radially,  without 
crushing  or  tearing  the  hard  plates  forming  the  medullary  rays,  which  are  unafl"ccted 
in  size  by  the  seasoning.  These  plates  are  generally  sufficiently  strong  to  resist  tlie 
crushing  action,  and  the  contraction  is  therefore  compelled  to  take  place  in  the  opposite 
direction,  i.e.  circumferentially ;  the  strain  finding  relief  by  si^litting  the  timber  in 
radial  lines,  allowing  the  medullary  rays  in  each  partially  severed  portion  to  approach 
each  other  in  the  same  direction  as  tlio  ribs  of  a  lady's  fan  when  closing.  The  illustra- 
tion of  a  closing  fan  afi"ords  the  best  example  of  the  principle  of  shrinking  during 
seasoning,  every  portion  of  the  wood  practically  retaining  its  original  distance  from  the 
centre.  If  the  tree  were  sawn  down  the  middle,  the  cut  surfaces,  although  flat  at  first, 
would  in  time  become  rounded,  as  in  Fig.  222 ;  the  outer  portion  shrinking  more  than 
that  nearer  the  heart  on  account  of  the  greater  mass  of  woody  fibre  it  contains,  and  the 
larger  amount  of  moisture.    If  cut  into  quarters,  each  portion  would  present  a  similar 


176 


Carpentry — "Woods. 


resnlt,  as  shown  in  Fig.  223.  Figs.  224-228  show  the  same  principle  applied  to  sawn 
timber  of  various  forms,  the  peculiarities  of  which  are  perhaps  indicated  more  clearly  in 
Fig.  230.  If  we  assume  the  tree  to  be  cut  into  planks,  as  shown  in  Fig.  229,  it  will  be 
found,  after  allowing  due  time  for  seasoning,  that  the  planks  have  altered  their  shape, 
as  in  Fig.  230.     Taking  the  centre  plank  first,  it  wUl  be  observed  that  the  thickness  at 


220. 


221. 


222. 


the  middle  remains  unaltered,  at  the  edge  it  is  reduced,  and  both  sides  are  rounded, 
while  the  width  remains  unchanged.  The  planks  on  each  side  of  this  are  rounded  on 
the  heart  side,  hollow  on  the  other,  retain  their  middle  thickness,  but  are  reduced 
in  width  in  proportion  to  their  distance  from  the  centre  of  the  tree ;  or,  in  other  words^ 


223. 


224. 


225. 


the  more  nearly  the  annual  rings  are  parallel  to  the  sides  of  the  planks  the  greater  will 
be  the  reduction  in  width.  The  most  striking  result  of  the  shrinkage  is  shown  in 
Figs.  231-233.  Fig.  231  shows  a  piece  of  quartering  freshly  cut  from  unseasoned  timber  ; 
in  Fig.  232  the  part  coloured  black  shows  the  portion  lost  by  shrinkage,  and  Fig.  233 


226. 


227. 


223. 


shows  the  final  result.  These  remarks  apply  more  especially  to  oak,  beech,  and  the 
stronger  home  firs.  In  the  softer  woods  the  medullary  rays  are  more  yielding,  and  this 
slightly  modifies  the  result ;  but  the  same  principles  must  be  borne  in  mind  if  we  wish 
to  avoid  the  evils  of  shrinking  which  may  occur  from  negligence  in  this  respect. 


Carpentry— Woods. 


177 


The  peculiar  dii-ection  which  "  shakes  "  or  natural  fractures  sometimes  take  is  due  to 
the  unequal  adhesion  of  the  woody  fibres,  the  weakest  part  yieldinjj;  first.  In  a"  cup-thake," 
which  is  the  separation  of  a  portion  of  2  annual  rings,  the  medullary  rays  arc  deficient 
in  cohesion.  The  fault  sometimes  occurs  in  Dantzic  fir,  and  has  been  attributed  to  the 
action  of  lightning  and  of  severe  frosts.  So  far  we  have  considered  the  shrinking  only 
as  regards  tiie  cross  section  of  various  pieces.  Turning  now  to  the  effect  produced 
when  we  look  at  the  timber  in  the  other  direction,  Fig.  2oi  represents  a  piece  of  timber 
with  the  end  cut  off  square;  as  this  shrinks,  the  end  remains  square,  the  width  alone 
being  affected.    If,  ho\Yever,  the  end  be  bevelled  as  iu  Fig.  235,  we  shall  find  that  in 


229. 


230. 


231. 


A 


\J 


K 


v 


'\i\y 


shrinking  it  assumes  a  more  acute  angle,  and  this  should  be  remembered  in  framing 
roofs,  arranging  the  joints  for  struts,  &c. ,  especially  by  the  carpenters  who  have  to  do 
the  actual  work  of  fitting  the  parts.  If  the  angle  be  an  internal  one  or  bird's-mouth,  it 
will  in  the  same  way  become  more  acute  in  seasoning.  The  transverse  shrinkage  is 
here  considered  to  the  exclusion  of  any  slight  longitudinal  alteration  which  might 
occur,  and  which  would  never  be  sufficient  to  affect  the  angle  of  the  bevel.  When 
seasoned  timber  is  used  in  positions  subject  to  damp,  the  wood  will  swell  in  exactly  the 


232. 


233. 


234. 


reverse  direction  to  the  shrinkage,  and  induce  similar  difficulties  unless  this  point  has 
also  received  due  attention.  Of  course  it  will  be  seen  from  a  study  of  the  cross 
sections  illustrated  in  the  diagrams  that  the  pieces  might  be  selected  iu  such  a  way  that 
the  shrinkage  and  expansion  would  take  place  chiefly  in  the  thickness  instead  of  the 
width,  and  thus  leave  the  bevel  unaltered.  In  this  consists  the  chief  art  of  selecting 
pieces  for  framing  ;  but  in  many  instances  motives  of  economy  unfortunately  favour  the 
use  of  pieces  on  stock,  without  reference  to  their  suitability  for  the  purpose  required. 

It  has  been  proved  tliat  beams  having  the  annual  rings  parallel  witli  their  deptl:  are 
stronger  than  those  having  them  parallel  with  their  breadth.    Thus  in  the  log  shown  in 

N 


178 


Cakpente  Y —  Woods. 


Fig.  236,  the  beam  cut  from  A  -u-ill  be  stronger  than  that  from  B.  In  preparing  floor- 
boards, care  should  be  taken  that  the  heart  does  not  appear  on  the  surface  of  the 
finished  board,  or  it  -will  soon  become  loose  and  kick  up,  as  in  Fig.  237,  forming  a 
rough  and  unpleasant  floor.  When  planks  which  have  curved  in  shrinking  are  needed 
to  form  a  flat  surface,  they  are  sometimes  sawn  down  the  middle,  and  tiie  pieces  are 
alternately  reversed  and  glued  together,  as  in  Fig.  238,  each  piece  tending  to  check  the 
curvature  of  the  others. 

In  converting  fir  timber  in  Sweden  and  Norway,  each  log  is  inspected  before  sawing, 
to  see  how  many  of  the  most  marketable  sizes  it  will  cut,  and  then  it  is  marked  out 
accordingly.    The  most  general  arrangement  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  239,  the  thicker  deals 


236 


237. 


238. 


being  for  the  English  and  the  thinner  for  the  Frcncli  market.  Another  plan,  shown  in 
Fig.  240,  has  the  disadvantage  that  the  central  deal  embraces  all  the  pith,  and  is  thus 
rendered  more  liable  to  dry-rot. 

In  converting  oak,  the  log  is  first  cut  into  4  quarters,  each  of  which  may  then  be 
dealt  with  as  shown  in  Fig.  241.  The  best  method  is  represented  at  a;  it  gives  no 
waste,  as  the  triangular  portions  form  feather-edged  laths  for  tiling,  &c.;  it  also  shows 
the  silver  grain  of  the  wood  to  the  best  advantage,  b  is  the  next  in  order  of  merit ; 
c  is  inferior ;  d  is  most  economical  for  thick  stufi". 

Comimsition. — The  composition  of  wood  is  shown  in  the  following  table  : — 


Carbon. 

Hydrogen. 

Oxygen. 

Nitrogen. 

Ash. 

Beech      

Oak 

Biroh        

Poplar      

Willow     

per  cent. 
49-36 
49-64 
50-20 
49-37 
49-96 

per  cent. 
6-01 
5-02 
6-20 
6-21 
5-96 

per  cent. 

42-69 

41  •  IG 

41-62 

41-60 

39-56 

per  cent. 
0-91 
1-29 
1-15 
0-96 
0-96 

per  cent. 
100 
1-97, 
0-81  ^ 
1-86  ' 
3-37    ■ 

Average     . . 
Practically 

49-70 
50 

6-06 
6 

41-30 
41 

1-05 
1 

1-80 

2    ■' 

CAErENTRY — Woods. 


179 


Wood,  in  its  raw  state,  contains  a  largo  amount  of  water,  which  holds  more  or  less 
soluble  minerals,  and  is  called  sap.  By  drying  wood  a  great  ])art,  but  not  all,  of  this 
water  is  evaporated.  If  wood  is  dried  in  a  closed  vessel,  and  then  exposed  to  tlic  atmo- 
sphere, it  quickly  absorbs  moisture  ;  biit  the  moisture  thus  absorbed  is  much  less  than  the 
wood  originally  contained.  The  amount  of  water  varies  in  diflercnt  kinds  of  wood,  and 
according  to  the  season.  Wood  cut  in  April  contains  10-20  per  cent,  more  water  than 
tliat  cut  in  January.  The  following  table  shows  the  percentage  of  water  in  woods,  dried 
as  far  as  possible  in  the  air  : — 


Beech       18-6 

Poplar      2G-0 

Sugar  and  common  maple  27*0 

Ash 28-0 

Birch 30-0 

Oak,  red 34-7 

Oak,  white       35-5 


Pine,  white      37-0 

Chestnut  .,      38-2 

Pine,  red 39-7 

Pine,  white      45  •  5 

Linden     47-1 

Poplar,  Italian        , .      . .  48-2 

Poplar,  black 51  •  8 


Wood  cut  during  December  and  January  is  not  only  more  solid,  but  will  dry  faster 
than  at  any  other  period  of  the  year,  because  the  sap  by  that  time  has  incorporated  a 
great  part  of  soluble  matter  with  the  woody  fibre ;  what  remains  is  merely  water.  When 
the  sap,  during  February,  March,  and  April,  rises,  it  partly  dissolves  the  woody  fibre, 
and  the  drying  of  the  wood  is  not  only  retarded,  but  the  wood  is  weakened  in  consequence 
of  the  matter  thus  held  in  solution. 

Suitability. — The  properties  which  render  a  wood  most  suitable  for  one  class  of 
purposes  may  preclude  its  use  in  another  class.  It  is  therefore  useful  to  have  a 
general  idea  of  the  relative  order  of  merit  of  woods  according  to  the  application  for  which 
they  are  destined.  The  subjoined  catalogue  is  framed  after  the  ojjinions  of  the  best 
authorities : — 

Elasticity — ash,  hickory,  hazel,  lancewood,  chestnut  (small),  yew,  snakewood. 

Elasticity  and  Toughness — oak,  beech,  elm,  lignum-vita3,  walnut,  hornbeam. 

Even  grain  (for  Carving  or  Engraving) — pear,  pine,  box,  lime  tree. 

Durability  (in  Dry  Works) — cedar,  oak,  yellow  pine,  chestnut. 

Building  (Ship-building)^ — cedar,  pine  (deal),  fir,  larch,  elm,  oak,  locust,  teak. 

Wet  construction  (as  piles,  foundations,  flumes,  &c.) — elm,  alder,  beech,  oak,  white- 
wood,  chestnut,  ash,  spruce,  sycamore. 

Machinery  and  mill  work  (Frames) — ash,  beech,  birch,  pine,  elm,  oak. 

Hollers,  &c. — box,  lignum-vitie,  mahogany. 

Teeth  of  wheels — crab  tree,  hornbeam,  locust. 

Foundry  patterns — alder,  pine,  mahogany. 

Furniture  (Common) — beech,  birch,  cedar,  cherry,  pine,  whitewood. 

Best  furniture — amboyna,  black  ebony,  mahogany,  cherry,  maple,  walnut,  oak, 
rosewood,  satinwood,  sandalwood,  chestnut,  cedar,  tulip-wood,  zebra-wood,  ebony. 

Piles — oak,  beech,  elm.  Posts — chestnut,  acacia,  larch.  Great  Strength  in  Con- 
struction— teak,  oak,  greenheart,  Dantzic  fir,  pitch  pine.  Durable  in  Wet  Positions — 
Ofik,  beech,  elm,  teak,  alder,  plane,  acacia,  greenheart.  Large  Timbers  in  Carpentry — 
Memel,  Dantzic,  and  Riga  fir;  oak,  chestnut,  Bay  mahogany,  pitch  pine,  or  teak,  may  be 
used  if  easily  obtainable.  Floors — Christiania,  St.  Petersburg,  Onega,  Archangel,  make 
the  best;  Gefle  and  spruce  inferior  kinds  ;  Dram  battens  wear  well ;  pitch  pine,  oak,  or 
teak,  where  readily  procurable,  for  floors  to  withstand  great  wear.  Panelling — American 
yellowpiuefor  the  best ;  Christiania  white  deals  are  also  used.  Interior  Joinery — American 
red  and  yellow  pine ;  oak,  pitch  pine,  and  mahogany  for  superior  or  ornamental  work. 
Window  Sills,  Sleepers — oak  ;  mahogany  where  cheaply  procurable.  Treads  of  Stairs — 
oak,  teak.    Handles— ash,  beech.    Patterns — American  yellow  pine,  alder,  mahogany. 

N  2 


180  Carpentry — "Woods. 

Strength. — The  following  table  shows  the  results  of  many  cxpeiiments  ; 


Wood  seasoned. 


Weight  of 

1  cub.  ft. 

(dry.) 


Acacia 

Alder 

Ash,  English    .. 

„     Canadian   . . 

Beech 

Bh-ch 

Cedar  

Chestnut    . . 
Elm,  English    .. 

„     Canadian . . 
Fir,  Spruce 

„  Dantzic 

„  American  red 
pine 

„  American  yel- 
low pine . . 

„  Memel . . 

,,  Kuurie 

„  Pitch  pine  .. 

„  Riga    ..      .. 
Greenheart 
Hornbeam . . 
Jarrali 

Larch 

Mahogany, 

Spanish 
„      Honduras 

Mora 

Oak,  English     .. 

„     American.. 

Plane 

Poplar 
Sycamore  .. 

Teak 

Willow       ..      .. 


Lb. 


48 

50 
43-53 

30 
43-53 
45-49 
35-47 
35-41 
34-37 

47 
29-32 

3G 


32 

34 

34 
41-58 
34-47 
58-72 
47-5 

63 
32-38 

53 

35 
57-68 
49-58 

Gl 

40 
23-26 
36-43 
41-52 
24-35 


Tenacity 
poTfq.  in., 
length- 
ways of 
the  grain. 


Tons. 


From.  To. 


0  8'1 
5  6-3 
8  7-6 
45 

1  6-6 
7 

3  5-1 
5  5-8 

4  6-3 
1 

3 
4 


4-5 
4-5 


2  6-0 

9 

2  4-9 

0 

1  4-4 

8  5-5 

9  4-1 
1 

3 

9  5-3 


7  7-3 

3  8-4 
1 

4  8-8 
0  4-6 
4 

68 

3  5-8 
47  6-7 


Modulus 

of 
Rupture. 


1000  lb. 


6-25 


12-14 

10 
9-12 

11 
7-8 

10 
6-9 

14 
9-12 

13 

7-10 


11 
14 

9 
16-27 

10 
5-10 

7 
11-12 
21-22 
10-13 

12 


9 

12-19 

6 


l\Iodulu8 

of 

Elasticity. 


1000  lb. 


1152-1687 

1086 
1525-2290 

1380 

1350 

1645 
486 

1140 
700-1340 

2470 
1400-1800 

2300 

1460-2350 

1600-2480 
153G-1957 

2880 
1252-3000 
870-3000 

1700 

1187 
1360 

1255-3000 
1596-1970 

18G0 
1200-1750 

2100 

1343 
763 

1040 
2167-2414 


Resistance 
to  Crush- 
ing in 
direction 
of  fibres. 


Tons  per 
sq.  in. 

■e    .      1^  ■ 


H 

•8  4-2 
2-5 
4  4-2 
•5  2-8 
■5  2-6 


2-6  4«6 
4-1 

2-9  3-0 
31 

2-1 

1-8 
6 

2-6 
3-0 
2-1 
5-8  6-8 
3-7 
3-2 
2-6 

3-2 

2-7 

2-9""4-5 
31 

l-4"2-3 

3-1 

2-3  5-4 

1-3  2-7 


Comparative 

Stiffness  and 

Strength,  Oak 

being  100. 


Stiff- 
ness. 


98 
63 
89 

77 
77 

28 
67 
78 

139 
72 

130 

132 

139 

114 

162 

73 

62 

98 

67 
79 

73 
93 

105 
100 
114 

78 

44 

82 

126 


Strength. 


95 
80 

119 
79 

103 

62 
89 
82 

114 
86 

108 

81 

66 

80 

89 

82 

83 

165 

108 

85 

103 

67 

96 

164 

100 

86 

92 

50 

111 

109 


Timber  when  wet  has  not  half  the  strcngtli  of  the  same  when  dry.  The  resistance 
of  wood  to  a  crushing  force  exerted  across  the  fibres  is  much  less  than  in  the  direction  of 
their  length.  Memel  fir  is  indented  with  a  pressure  of  1000  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  and  oak  with 
1400  lb.  The  resistance  to  shearing  is  nearly  twice  as  great  across  the  fibres  as  with 
them. 

Measuring. — Following  are  useful  rules  for  the  measurement  of  timber: — 
Standing  timber. — In  measuring  standing  limber,  the  length  is  talcen  as  high  as  the 
tree  will  measure  24  in.  in  circumference.  At  half  this  height  the  measurement  for 
the  mean  girth  of  the  timber  in  the  stem  of  the  tree  is  taken.  One-fourth  this  girth  is 
assumed  to  be  the  side  of  the  equivalent  square  area.  The  buyer  has  generally  the 
option  of  choosing  any  spot  between  the  butt-end  and  the  half  height  of  the  stem  as  the 


Carpentry — "Woods.  181 

girding  jilace.  All  branches,  as  far  as  they  measure  24  in.  in  girth,  are  measured  in 
with  the  tree  as  timber. 

Uiisquarod  timber. — In  order  to  ascertain  the  contents,  multiply  the  square  of  the 
quarter  giith,  or  of  J  of  the  mean  circumference,  by  tlie  length.  Wlien  the  buyer  ia 
not  allowed  his  choice  of  girth  in  taper  trees,  he  may  take  the  moan  dimensions,  either 
by  girthing  it  in  the  middle  for  the  mean  girth,  or  by  girthing  it  at  tiie  two  ends,  and 
taking  half  of  their  sum.  If  not,  girtli  the  tree  in  so  many  places  as  is  thought  necessary, 
then  the  sum  of  the  several  girths  divided  by  their  number,  will  give  a  mean  circumfer- 
ence, the  foiuth  part  of  which  being  squared,  and  multiplied  by  the  length,  will  give  the 
solid  contents. 

The  sviperficial  ft.  in  a  board  or  plank  are  known  by  multiplying  the  length  by  the 
breadth.  If  the  board  be  tapering,  add  the  breadth  of  the  two  ends  together,  and  take 
half  their  sum  for  the  mean  breadth,  and  multiply  the  length  by  this  mean  breadth. 

The  solid  contents  of  squared  timber  are  found  by  measuring  the  mean  brendth  by 
the  mean  thickness,  and  the  product  again  by  the  length.  Or  multiply  tlie  square  of  what 
is  called  the  quarter  girth,  in  inches  by  the  length  in  feet,  and  divide  by  141,  and  you  have 
the  contents  in  feet. 

Boughs,  the  quarter  girth  of  which  is  less  than  6  in.,  and  jmrts  of  the  trunk  less  than 
2  ft.  in  circumference,  are  not  reckoned  as  timber. 

1^  in.  in  every  foot  of  quarter  girth,  or  I  of  the  girth,  is  allowetl  for  bark,  except  of 
elm.  1  in.  in  the  circumference  of  the  tree,  or  whole  girth,  or  -jV  of  the  quarter  girth  is 
the  general  fair  average  allowance. 

Tlie  quarter  girth  is  half  the  sum  of  the  breadth  and  depth  in  the  middle. 

The  nearest  approach  to  truth  in  the  measuring  of  timber  is  to  multiply  the  square 
of  i  of  the  girth,  or  circumference,  by  double  the  length,  and  the  product  will  be  the 
contents. 

100  superficial  feet  of  planking  equals  1  square. 

120  deals  „       l  hundred. 

50  cub.  ft.  of  squared  timber  „       1  load. 

40  ft.  of  unhewn  timber  „       1  load. 

600  superiicial  ft.  of  1-in.  planking  „         1  load. 

A  fir  pole  is  the  trunk  of  a  fir  tree,  10-lG  ft.  long. 

Battens,  deals,  and  planks,  as  imported  into  this  country,  are  each  similar  in  their 
various  lengths,  but  differing  in  their  widths  and  thicknestes,  and  hence  their  principal 
distinction  ;  thus,  a  batten  is  7  in.  liy  2J  in. 
a  deal      ,,9      „     3     „ 
a  plank  „  11      „      3     „ 

these  being  what  are  termed  the  standard  dimensions,  by  which  they  are  bought  and  sold, 
the  length  of  each  being  taken  at  12  ft. ;  therefore,  in  estimating  for  the  proper  value  of 
any  quantity,  nothing  more  is  required  than  their  lineal  dimensions  by  weich  to 
ascertain  the  number  of  times  12  ft.  there  are  in  the  given  whole.  Thus— if  purchasing 
deals — 


7 

of  6  ft. 

6  X  7  =  42  ft, 

5 

„  14  „ 

14  X  5  =  70  „ 

11 

11  ^"^  11 

19  X  11  =  209,, 

and  6 

„  21  „ 

21  X  6  =  126,, 

12)447(37-25  standard  deals. 

Prices. — In  London,  a  different  system  of  charging  sawing  of  deals  is  adopted  to  that 
in  the  provinces,  viz.  cuts  are  charged  so  much  per  dozen,  the  price  varying  with  (he 
length  ;  ripping  being  called  flat-cuts  in  the  same  way.   In  the  country  method,  all  cuts 


182 


Carpentry — Woods ;  Tools. 


in  tlic  (leal  or  log  are  charged  for  at  per  100  ft.  super,  and  all  rips  or  flat-cuts  under 
6  in.  are  charged  at  per  100  ft.  lineal ;  herewith  are  the  usual  prices  for  this  work,  viz.  :— 


Oak 

Mahogany         

Memel       

Swede  and  Yellow  Pine 

Pitch  Pine        

Deals 

Planing  Deals 

Chipping  do 

Matching,  Rebating,  or  Grooving 


I\-r  100  ft. 
super. 


s.  d. 
4     0 


5 
2 
2 
3 
1 
1 


G 
G 
3 
9 
9 
G 


Ripping  per 
100  ft.  rim. 


X  Cuts. 


s.  d. 

1  6 

1  6 

1  0 

0  10 

1  6 
0  9 


d. 

each  4 

„     * 
.,    2| 

„     3 

„       03 


1     0 

for  Hoop  Iron,  3(7.  per  100  ft.  super. 


Tools. — Carpenters'  tools  may  conveniently  be  divided  into  7  classes,  as  follows: — 
(1)  Guiding  tools— rules,  lines,  squares ;  (2)  Holding  tools— pincers,  vice  ;  (3)  Rasping 
tools— saws,  files ;  (4)  Edge  tools— chisels,  planes ;  (5)  Boring  tools— awls,  gimlets, 
bits ;  (G)  Striking  tools— hammers,  mallets ;  (7)  Chopping  tools— axes,  adzes.  In  an 
eighth  category  may  he  put  such  important  accessories  as  the  carpenter's  bench,  nails, 
screws,  and  various  hints  and  recipes. 

GuiDiXG  TOOLS.— These  comprise  the  chalk  line,  rule,  straight-edge,  square,  spirit 
level,  A-level,  plumb  level,  gauges,  bevel,  mitre-box,  calliiXirs  and  compasses,  trammel, 
and  a  few  modern  contrivances  combining  two  or  more  of  these  tools  in  one. 

Chalk  line.— The  chalk  line  is  used  as  shown  in  Fig.  242  for  the  purix)so  of  markhig 
where  cuts  have  to  be  made  in  wood.     It  consists  of  several  yards  of  cord  wound  on  a 


-42, 


wooden  reel,  and  well  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  chalk  (or  charcoal  when  a  white  line  would 
be  invisible)  just  before  use.  In  applying  it,  first  mark  with  the  carpenter's  pencil^  the 
exact  spots  between  which  the  line  is  to  run,  then  pass  a  bradawl  through  a  loop 
near  the  end  of  the  cord  and  fix  it  firmly  in  the  wood  at  the  first  point  marked,  next 
apply  the  chalk  or  charcoal  to  the  cord,  or  as  much  of  it  as  will  suffice  for  the  length  of 
line  to  be  marked,  this  done,  stretch  the  cord  tightly  to  the  second  point  marked,  and 
cither  fasten  it  by  looping  it  round  a  second  bradawl,  or  hold  it  very  tightly  in  the 
finger  and  thumb  of  one  hand,  whilst  with  the  finger  and  thumb  of  the  other  hand  you 
raise  it  in  the  middle  as  much  as  it  will  stretch ;  on  suddenly  releasing  it,  it  springs 
back  smartly  and  leaves  a  well-defined  Hue  between  the  two  points.  The  novice  may 
find  it  helpful  to  mark  both  sides  of  his  work,  which  is  best  done  by  removing  the 
cord  without  disturbing  the  bradawls. 

Jtule.—The  foot  rule  consists  of  a  thin  narrow  strip  of  metal,  hard  wood,  or  ivory, 
generally  2  ft.  long,  graduated  on  both  sides  into  inches  and  fractions  of  an  inch  (halves, 
4ths,  8ths,  12ths,  IGths,  32ndths),  and  hinged  so  as  to  fold  mto  a  shorter  compass  for 
convenience  in  carrying.  Superior  kinds  are  fitted  with  a  sliding  brass  rule  adding 
another  foot  to  the  length,  and  graduated  in  minute  subihvisions  which  facilitate  calcu- 
lations of  dimensions.  In  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  243,  known  as  "  Stanley's  No.  32," 
this  brass  slide  is  furnished  with  an  elbow  at  the  end,  so  that  it  constitutes  a  combined 


Carpentry — Guiding  Tools. 


183 


rule  and  calliper  (see  p.  189).  Ordinary  prices  are  Is.  to  5s.,  according  to  quality  and 
finish. 

Straight-edge. — The  nature  of  this  tool  is  expressed  in  its  name.  It  consists  of  a 
long  (5  or  G  ft.)  strip  of  well-seasoned  wood  or  of  bright  hardened  steel  (uickel-plated  if 
preferred;,  several  inches  wide,  having  at 

least  one  edge  perfectly  level  and  true  243. 

throughout.  Its  use  is  for  ascertaining 
whether  a  surface  is  uniformly  even, 
which  is  readily  done  by  simply  laying 
the  straight-edge  on  the  surface,  when 
irregularities  of  the  surface  become 
ajiparent  by  spaces  between  the  two 
planes  in  contact.  Steel  straight-edges 
are  made  with  one  bevelled  edge  and 
with  English  or  French  scales  graduated 
on  them. 

Squares. — The  use  of  these  instruments 
is  for  marking  out  work  at  right  angles. 

The  most  usual  forms  are  illustrated  below.  Fig.  244  is  a  common  brass-mounted  square  ; 
Fig.  245  a  mitre  square.  It  consists  generally  of  a  wooden  stock  or  back  with  a  steel 
blade  fitted  into  it  at  right  angles,  and  secured  by  3  screws  or  rivets ;  the  sizes  vary 
from  3  to  30  in.,  and  the  prices  from  Is.  to  10s.  They  are  also  made  of  plain  or  nickel- 
plated  steel,  with  scales  engraved  on  the  edges.  In  use,  the  stock  portion  of  the  square 
is  placed  tight  against   the   edge  which  forms  the  base  of  the  line  to  be  marked,  so 


o   o 


244. 


245. 


that  the  blade  indicates  where  the  new  line  is  to  be  drawn.  The  making  and  application 
of  squares  have  been  well  described  by  Lewis  F.  Lyne  in  the  Aviericun  Machinist.  He 
remarks  that  the  2  sides  of  a  square  should  form  an  angle  of  90^,  or  the  5  of  a  circle  ; 
but  hundreds  of  tools  resembling  squares  in  appearance,  and  s<!>  named,  when  the  test 
is  applied  to  them,  are  found  entirely  inaccurate  :  the  angle  is  in  some  instances  more, 
and  in  others  less,  than  a  right  angle.  The  way  these  tools  are  generally  made  is  by 
taking  a  piece  of  steel  for  the  stock,  planing  it  uj)  to  the  right  size,  and  squaring  up  the 
ends,  after  which  a  slot  is  cut  in  one  end  to  receive  the  blade.  The  blade  is  neatly 
fitted  and  held  securely  by  2  or  3  rivets  passing  through  the  end  of  the  stock  and 
blade.  It  is  a  very  ditficult  undertaking,  witii  ordinary  appliances,  to  cut  this  slot  pre- 
cisely at  right  angles  to  the  sides  and  ends  of  the  stock;  and,  when  the  blade  is  finally 
secured,  it  will  be  found  that  it  leans  to  one  side  or  the  other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  246,  where 
a  represents  the  stock,  and  b  the  blade  ;  c  is  an  end  view,  the  dotted  lines  showing  the 
position  of  blade,  as  described. 

The  best  way  to  produce  a  square  without  special  tools  is  to  make  a  complete  flat 
square  of  the  size  desired  out  of  thin  sheet  steel,  the  thickness  depending  upon  the 
size  of  square  desired.  In  almost  every  instance  where  squares  are  made  by  amateurs 
at  tool-making,  the   blades   are  left  too  thick.    After  the  square  has  been  trued   up 


184 


Carpentry — Guiding  Tools. 


and  finished  upon  the  sides,  2  pieces  of  flat  steel  should  be  made  exactly  alike  as  to 
size,  to  bo  riveted  upon  the  sides  of  the  short  arm  of  tlie  square  to  form  the  stock. 
To  properly  locate  these  pieces,  the  square  should  be  placed  upon  a  surface  plate,  and 
the  parts  clamped  in  position,  care  being  taken  to  get  them  all  to  bear  equally  upon  the 
surface  plate,  after  which,  holes  may  be  drilled  and  countersunk,  and  the  rivets  inserted. 
The  angle  formed  by  the  cutting  edges  of  the  drills  for  countersinking  the  holes  should 
be  about  60°,  so  that  when  the  livets  are  driven,  and  the  sides  of  the  back  finished,  there 
will  be  no  trace  kft  of  the  rivets,  which  should  always  be  of  steel. 

Close  examination  may  reveal  the  fact  that  the  blade  is  -winding,  or  is  slightly 
inclined  to  one  side.  If  inclined,  as  shown  at  e,  in  Fig.  2-l(J,  the  end  of  the  blade  only 
will  touch  a  square  piece  of  work  when  the  tool  is  held  in  a  proper  position,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  247,  where  i  represents  the  piece  of  work,  and  /  the  square.  It  is  a 
cirstom  among  machinists  to  tip  the  stock,  as  shown  at  /;  and  I,  to  enable  the  work- 
man to  see  light  under  the  blade.  This  only  aggravates  any  imperfection  in  the 
squareness  of  the  blade,  for  when  the  stock  is  tipped,  as  shown  at  Jc,  it  will  touch 

€ 


246. 


247. 


(I 


fie 


J 


[ '   / 

/      (  1 

r^   _=. 

'tf?'«F^-G:-tf>:r.r_-^- . -"■  - — 1 

9 
h 

'7> 

V 

z 

'^' 

f 

.1 1 

the  work  at  jr,  occupying  the  position  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  3,  gr;  whereas,  if  the 
stock  be  tipped,  as  shown  at  Z,  the  blade  will  assume  the  position  indicated  by  the 
dotted  lines  h,  h.  These  conditions  will  exist  when  the  blade  of  the  square  is  in- 
clined, as  shown  at  e,  in  Fig.  246.  If  the  blade  is  inclined  to  the  left,  a  precisely 
similar  condition  will  exist,  except  in  the  reverse  order.  It  is  next  to  an  impossi- 
bility to  perform  accurate  work,  or  test  the  same  with  a  square  having  a  thick  edge, 
because  of  the  reason  already  stated  that  the  light  caimot  be  seen  between  the  edge 
of  the  blade  and  the  work. 

The  most  ingenious  tool  for  overcoming  the  foregoing  difficulties  is  a  sort  of  self- 
proving  square,  made  by  a  machinist  in  New  York.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  248,  and 
consists  of  a  steel  beam  j,  shown  in  bottom  view  at  k.  In  the  end  of  this  beam  is 
a  hole  for  the  reception  of  a  screw,  with  a  common  bevelled  head.  A  square  piece 
of  steel,  I,  m,  forms  the  blade  of  this  square,  n  representing  the  end  of  the  blade. 
The  blade  is  first  planed,  then  tapped  and  hardened,  after  which  it  is  ground  to 
bring  the  tides  exactly  parallel  and  of  equal  size,  which  makes  the  bar  perfectly 
square.  The  stock  is  of  a  rectangular  section,  and,  with  this  exception,  is  hardened 
and  ground  in  the  same  manner  as  the  blade.  The  end  .nr  the  screw  is  then  carefully 
ground  at  right  angles  to  the  sides,  after  which  the  parts  are  put  together  and  the  screw 
is  tightened.  If  the  blade  is  not  precisely  at  rig^  t  angles  to  the  stock,  it  will  occupy  a 
position  indicated  by  the  dotted  line  0 ;  then,  if  the  screw  be  loosened  and  the  blade 
turned  half  a  revolution,  the  edge  will  stand  as  shown  by  the  dotted  line  at  p. 

The  end  must  be  so  ground  that  the  blade  will  occupy  precisely  the  same  relation  to 
the  beam  when  turned  in  all  positions.  When  this  is  accomplished,  the  square  is  a  very 
close  approximation  to  perfection.  The  accuracy  of  work  is  tested  with  one  of  the 
corners;  when  it  becomes  worn,  another  may  be  turned  into  position  ;  and  when  all  are 


CARrENTRY- 


-Guiding  Toolso 


185 


worn,  the  blade  is  removed  and  truod  up  by  grinding,  as  at  first.  In  testing  the  accu- 
racy of  the  ordinary  square,  it  is  usually  placed  upon  a  flat  surface  having  a  straij^ht 
edge,  as  shown  in  Fig.  249,  where  s  represents  tlie  surface  with  the  square  upon 
it.    The  stock  is  pressed  firmly  against  the  edge  of  the  surface,  and  with  a  scriber 


248. 


Ttb 


219. 


Q' 

\k 

^' 

1  ■ 

ty 

1 
1 

a^...— 

.— ! 

a  fine  line  is  drawn  along  the  edge  of  the  blade.  The  square  is  then  turned  to  the 
position  f,  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines,  and  a  second  line  is  drawn  along  tlie  edge 
of  the  blade.  If  the  tool  is  less  than  a  right  angle,  the  line  with  the  square  in  the 
former  position  will  incline  towards  g,  while  in  the  latter  position  it  will  appear  as 
shown  at  r\  whereas,  if  the  square  be  correct,  the  two  lines  will  exactly  coincide  with 
each  other.  This  is  not  a  reliable  test  for  the  accuracy  of  a  square,  but  it  answers  very 
well  in  case  of  emergency. 

It  is  difficult  to  draw  the  lines  to  exactly  represent  the  edge  of  the  blade,  owing  to 
the  fact  that  the  slightest  inclination  of  the  hand  holding  the  scribtr  to  either  side 
will  make  a  crooked  line.  The  form  of  square  shown  in  Fig.  248  always  presents  a 
fine  edge  to  work  to,  and  may  always  be  relied  upon  for  accuracy  when  properly  fitted 
up.  This  square  would  seem  to  be  quite  as  easily  made  as  tlie  common  one,  but  the 
construction  of  an  accurate  square  with  ordinary  appliances  is  a  job  that  tests  the  skill 
of  a  good  workman. 

S]}irlt  level. — The  spirit  level  consists  of  a  glass  tube  partially  filled  with  spirit, 
encased  in  a  framework  made  of  hard  wood  and  protected  by  metallic  facing  on  the  most 
important  sides.     The  quantity  of  spirit  placed  in  the  glass  tube  is  just  insufficient  to 

250. 


fill  it,  so  that  a  "  bubble  "  of  air  perhaps  i  in.  long  always  appears  at  the  surface,  being 
rendered  visible  by  means  of  a  sight-hole  in  the  metidlic  plate  which  encloses  and 
secures  the  glass  tube  in  the  wooden  block.  The  ends  of  the  glass  tube  are  hermetically 
sealed  when  tlie  proper  quantity  of  spirit  has  been  introduced.  The  wooden  case  or 
block  must  be  perfectly  level  and  true,  and  of  a  material  that  will  not  change  its  form 
by  climatic  or  other  influences.    Average  sizes  arc  8-1-1  in.  in  length  and  cost  2-lOs. 


186 


Caepentet — Guiding  Tools. 


Some  are  made  with  the  sight-hole  at  the  side  instead  of  the  top.  Others  have  both  top 
and  side  openings.  Such  is  shown  in  Fig.  250,  which  represents  Stanley's  improved 
adjustable  combined  spirit  and  pliunb  level,  by  whicli  it  is  possible  to  adjust  a  surface  to 
a  position  both  truly  horizontal  and  truly  perpendicular.  The  principle  of  action  of  the 
spirit  level  is  that  the  air  bubble  contained  in  the  glass  tube  will  always  travel  towards 
the  highest  point;  when  it  rests  immediately  in  the  centre  of  tlie  sight-hole,  a  true 
level  is  obtained.  It  is  necessary  to  remember,  however,  that  it  is  only  a  guide  to  the 
level  of  that  length  of  surface  on  which  it  lies ;  and  in  levelling  longer  surfaces  the 
spirit  level  should  be  jilaced  on  a  straight-edge  instead  of  du-ectly  on  the  surface  to  be 
tested. 

Plumb  level. — This  consists  of  a  straight-edge  to  which  is  attached  a  cord  liaving  a 
weight  suspended  from  the  end,  as  shown  in  Fig.  251.  The  top  end  a  of  the  straight- 
edge has  3  saw-cuts  made  in  it,  one  being  exactly  in  the  centre.  From  this  centre  cut  a 
line  is  drawn  perfectly  straight  to  the  other  end  h.  On  this  line  at  c  a  pear-shaped  hole 
is  cut  out  of  the  straight-edge.  A  piece  of  supple  cord  is  next  weiglited  by  attacliing  a 
pear-shaped  lump  of  lead,  and  then  fastened  to  the  top  a  of  the  straight-edge  by  passing 
it  iirst  through  the  central  saw-cut,  and  then  through  the  others  to  make  it  fast,  just  so 
that  the  leaden  weight  is  free  to  swing  in  and  out  of  the  hole.  The  law  of  gravity 
forces  tlie  cord  to  hang  (when  free)  in  a  truly  upright  (perpendicular)  position;  on 

251. 


d 


& 


0/ 


^0 


252. 


c 


"4=3' 


^ 


D 


y 


253. 


c 


{^iii^muiL 


placing  the  side  d  of  the  straight-edge  against  a  surface  e,  whose  perpendicularity  is  to 
be  tested,  if  there  is  any  disagreement  between  the  cord  and  the  line  marked  on  the 
straight-edge,  then  the  surface  is  not  upright,  and  it  must  be  altered  until  the  cord 
exactly  corresponds  to  and  covers  the  line  marked  down  the  centre  of  the  straight- 
edge. 

Gauf/es.— There  are  3  kinds  of  gauge  used  in  carpentry,  known  respectively  as  the 
"marking,"  the  "cutting,"  and  the  "mortice"  gauge.  They  are  outlined  in  the  annexed 
illustrations.  Fig.  252  is  a  cutting  gauge  having  the  head  faced  with  brass  ;  Fig^  253  is 
an  improved  form  of  cutting  gauge ;  Fig.  251  is  a  thumb  or  turn-screw  screw-slide  mortice 
gauge ;  Fig.  255  is  an  improved  mortice  gauge  with  improved  stem.  The  marking  gauge 
has  a  shank  about  9  in.  long  with  a  head  or  block  to  slide  along  it ;  a  spike  is  inserted 
near  the  end  of  the  shank,  and  the  movable  head  is  fixed  at  any  required  distance  from 
the  spike  by  a  screw  or  wedge ;  its  use  is  to  make  a  mark  on  the  wood  parallel  to  a 


CxiRPENTRY— Guiding  Tools. 


187 


previously  straightened  edge,  along  wliicli  edge  the  gauge  is  guidotl ;  for  dressing  up 
several  pieces  of  wood  to  exactly  the  same  bieadtli  this  gauge  is  eminently  useful.  The 
cutting  gauge  is  similarly  composed  of  a  shank  and  a  head,  but  tlic  spike  is  replaced  by 
a  thin  steel  plate,  passing  through  the  shank  and  secured  by  a  screw,  and  sharpened  on 
one  edge  so  as  to  be  capable  of  making  a  cut  either  with  or  across  the  grain;  its  main 
applications  are  for  gauging  dovetailed  work  and  cutting  veneers  to  breadth.     The 

254.  nrr 


mortice  gauge  resembles  the  others  in  having  a  shank  (about  G  in.  long)  and  a  movable 
brass-shod  head,  but  it  has  2  spikes,  one  fixed  and  the  other  arranged  to  be  adjusted  by 
means  of  a  screw  at  varying  distances  from  the  first ;  it  is  used  for  gauging  mortice  and 
tenon  work.  Gauges  are  generally  made  of  beech,  and  the  shank  is  often  termed  the 
"strig";  compound  gauges  are  now  made,  consisting  of  marking  and  cutting,  or 
marking  and  mortice  appliances  combined  in  one  tool.  Prices  vary  from  3d.  to  10s., 
according  to  finish.  In  using  the  gauge,  the  marking  point  is  first  adjusted  to  the 
correct  distance,  then  secured  by  turning  the  screw,  and  the  mark  is  made  when  required 
by  holding  the  head  of  the  gauge  firmly  against  the  edge  which  forms  the  basis  of  the 
new  lines,  with  the  marker  resting  on  the  surface  to  be  marked,  and  passing  the 
instrument  to  and  fro. 

Bevels.— These  differ  from  squares,  in  that  they  are  destined  for  marking  lines  at 
angles  to  the  first  side  of  the  work,  but  not  at  right  angles.    Examjjles  are  shown  in  the 


256. 


257. 


258. 


-annexed  illustrations.  Fig.  256 
is  an  ordinary  angle  bevel; 
Fig.  257  is  an  improved  me- 
tallic frame  sliding  bevel;  and 
Fig.  258  is  a  boat-builder's  bevel 
with  2  brass  blades.  The  bevel 
is  used  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  as  the  try  square.  A 
very  useful  bevel  protractor,  with  a  sliding  arm  and  half  circle  divided  into  degrees,  is 
sold  by  Churchills. 

Mdre-ho.v. — The  mitre-box  is  an  arrangement  for  guiding  a  saw-cut  at  an  angle  of  45° 
exactly,  or  half  the  dimensions  of  a  right  angle.  It  is  mostly  required  for  cutting 
mouldings,  where  the  end  of  one  piece  of  wood  meeting  the  end  of  another  has  to  form 
with  it  a  true  corner  of  90°  (a  right  angle).  The  best  illustration  of  a  mitre  is  to  be 
seen  m  either  of  the  4  corners  of  a  jjicture  frame.     lu  its  simplest  form  the  mitre-box 


188 


Caepextry — Guidiutr  Tools. 


239. 


may  be  made  out  of  any  piece  of  good  sound  plank  li  ft.  long  and  say  6  in.  by  3  in.  A 
rebate  is  cut  lengthwise  in  this,  i.e.  half  its  width  and  half  its  thickness  is  cut  away, 
leaving  the  slab  in  the  form  of  2  steps,  thus  constituting  a  rest  for  any  work  to  be 
operated  upon.  Next  "2  saw-cuts,  one  lacing  each  way,  are  carried  down  through  the 
top  step  and  about  J  in.  into  the  lower  step,  these  saw-cuts  being  exactly  at  an  angle 
of  45°  with  tlie  front  edge  of  the  '*  bos." 
When  a  mitre  has  to  be  cut,  the  wood  to  be 
operated  on  is  laid  on  the  lower  step  and 
hold  firmly  into  the  angle,  while  a  saw  is 
passed  down  in  the  old  cuts  in  the  box  and  so 
through  the  wood  to  be  mitred. 

For  cutting  other  angles  than  45^,  other 
saw-cuts  might  be  made  in  the  same  box ; 
but  the  most  convenient  instrument  for  cutting 
a  wide  series  of  angles  is  the  I.angdon 
raitre-box,  sold  by  Churchills,  and  illustr.ited 
in  Fig.  259.  Wliilst  ordinary  mitre-boxes 
range  only  from  right  angles  (00^)  to  45'^,  this 
cuts  from  riglit  angles  to  73^  on  2i-in.  wood, 
and  is  tlie  only  form  adjustable  for  mitreing 
circular  work  in  patterns  and  segments  of 
various  kinds.  Prices  range  between  248.  and 
70s.  without  the  saw,  according  to  depth  and 
width  of  cut. 

The  ordinaiT  mitre-bos  mny  also  be  made 
in  the  form  of  a  wide  shallow  trough,  the 

saw-cuts  at  an  angle  of  45^  being  carried  down  through  the  sides  to  the  floor,  while  the 
sides  and  floor  combined  form  the  rest  for  the  work  in  hand. 

All  the  forms  of  mitre-box  described  above  are  intended  for  use  with  a  saw,  the 
edges  of  the  mitre  being  left  rough  from  the  saw  in  order  to  take  glue  better. 

261. 


Another  form,  admitting  of  the  sawed  work  being  planeil  up,  is  c.illed  a  "  shooting- 
board,"  and  is  shown  in  Fig.  260.  It  consists  of  2  slabs,  a  h,  of  good  sound  mahogany, 
aboirt  30  in.  long,  IS  in.  wide,  and  1  in.  thick,  screwed  together  so  as  to  form  a  step  c ;  on 
the  topmost  are  screwed  2  strips  d  of  hard  wood  11-2  in.  wide,  at  riglit  angles.  The 
piece  of  moulding  e  to  be  mitred  is  laid  agi^inst  one  guide  bar.  and  sawn  ofl'  on  the 
line  c,  or  laid  on  the  other  side  against  the  second  guide  bar,  and  similarly  cut  off.  It 
will  be  necessary  to  use  both  sides  in  this  way,  because,  although  the  piece  cut  oS"  has 


Carpentry— Guiding  Tools. 


189 


also  an  angle  of  45^,  it  would  need  to  be  turned  over  and  applied  to  the  other,  which 
could  not  be  done  without  reversing  the  moulding.  In  a  plain  unmoulded  strip,  this 
would  not  signify.  The  strip  lying  close  to  the  btcp  or  rebate  of  the  board,  can  bo 
trimmed  by  the  plane  by  laying  it  on  its  side,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  plane  the 
edge  of  the  step  itself.   The  plane  must  be  set  very  fine,  and  must  cut  keenly.   To  saw  off 


262. 


a  piece  at  right  angles,  and  not  with  a  mitre,  lay  it  against  the  bar,  and  saw  it  oft' in  a  line 
with  the  other,  when  it  cannot  fail  to  be  cut  correctly,  d  d  forming  2  sides  of  a  square. 
A  handy  mitreing  tool  sold  by  Melhuish  is  shown  in  Fig.  2G1.     It  cuts  a  clean 


264. 


mitre  at  one  thrust  of  the  nandle.    Its  price  is  15s.  to  cut  2-in.  mouldings,  and  30s. 
for  4-in. 

Compasses  and  Callipers. — Tliese  implements  are  used  for  taking  inside  and  outside 
dimensions  where  a  rule  cannot  be  employed,  and  for  striking  out  circular  figures. 
Ordinary  forms  are  shown  in  the  annexed  diagrams.    Fig.  262  is  a  pair  of  ordiuary  plaiu 


190 


Carpentey — Guiding  Tools. 


compasses ;  Fig.  263,  wing  compasses ;  Fig.  264,  spring  callipers ;  Fig.  265,  inside  and 
outside  callipers ;  Fig.  266,  improved  inside  and  outside  callipers.    The  method  of  using 


these  instruments  is  sufficiently  obvious  from  their  shape.    Ordinary  useful  sizes  vary 
in  price  from  1  to  5s. 

Trammel. — This  is  employed  for  drawing  elliptic  or  oval  curves,  and  is  represented 
in  Fig.  267.  It  can  be  purchased  with  varying  degrees  of  finish,  or  may  be  home  made 
in  the  following  manner: — Two  strips  of  dry  hard  wood  a,  18  in.  long,  IJ  in.  wide,  and 
f  in.  thick,  are  ploughed  down  the 
centre  to  a  depth  of  f  in.  and  a  width 
of  I  in. ;  one  is  let  into  the  other  at 
right  angles  so  that  the  bottoms  of  the 
grooves  or  channels  are  exactly  flush, 
a-ad  the  structure  is  strengthened  by 
having  a  piece  of  thin  sheet  brass  cut 
to  the  shape  and  screwed  down  to  its 
upper  surface.  Next  2  hard-wood 
blocks  IJ  in.  long  are  cut  to  slide 
easily  but  firmly  in  these  grooves, 
their  surfaces  coming  barely  flush  with 
the  face  of  the  instrument.  A  hole  is 
drilled  nearly  through  the  centre  of 
each  block  and  about  -^^  in  diam.,  to 
admit  the  pins  h ;  and  thin  strips  of 
brass  are  then  screwed  on  to  the 
surface  of  the  instrument  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  secure  the  blocks   from 


coming  out  of  the  grooves  while  not  interfering  with  the  free  passage  of  the  pins  and 
blocks  along  the  grooves.  To  this  is  added  the  beam  compass  c,  which  consists  of  a 
straight  mahogany  ruler  with  a  narrow  slit  down  the  middle  permitting  it  to  be  adjusted 
on  the  pins.  These  last  may  be  of  brass  or  steel  wire  with  a  shoulder  and  nut,  as  at  d ; 
they  are  fixed  at  the  required  points  on  the  ruler  c,  and  then  inserted  in  the  holes  in 
the  blocks,  where  they  are  free  to  revolve.  A  hollow  brass  socket  e  fitted  with  a  pencil 
is  also  made  to  screw  on  to  the  beam,  and  forms  the  delineator. 

Shooting-hoard. — This  implement,  Fig.  268,isfor  the  purpose  of  securing  a  true  surface 
and  straight  edge  on  wood  when  planing.  It  is  generally  made  by  fastening  one  board 
on  another  in  such  a  way  as  to  form  a  step  between  them ;  shooting-boards  made  by 
gluing  2  jDieces  of  board  together,  are  very  apt  to  twist  and  cast  through  the  action  of 
the  air,  and  once  out  of  square,  are  very  hard  to  set  right,  generally  requiring  to  be  puUed 
apart,  and  made  again.  The  following  plan  renders  this  unnecessary: — Take  2  boards 
(of  the  length  you  require  the  board,  allowing  at  least  1  ft.  extra  for  the  plane  to  run ; 


Caepentey — Guidiuii;  Tools. 


191 


tliug,  to  plane  up  5-ft.  stuff,  make  the  board  at  leabt  G  ft.)  of  thorouglily  dry  pino,  1  in. 
thick  and  11  in.  wide,  and  plane  them  perfectly  true;  cut  4  in.  off  oue  the  whole  lengtli 
of  the  board;   these  2  pieces  are  for  the  bottom  board,  and  across  these  glue  about 


Cr-. 

d 


T  / 


C', 


268. 


Sr 


Up 


*¥" 


^ 


^, 


a 


± 


^ 


¥ 


76. 


--y 


/■ 


8  pieces  of  J.-in.  pine  IJ  in.  ■wide  by  10  in.  in  length  and  one  piece  5  in.  in  width  by 
10  in.  in  length  to  build  up  or  strengthen  the  upper  board  where  the  groove  will  come, 
leaving  a  gajD  4  in.  wide  between  the  2  bottom  boards,  thus  making  it  15  in.  wide ;  now 
glue  on  the  upper  board,  allowing  it  to  lap  1  in.  over  the  cross-pieces  (as  in  cross 
section),  and  screw  together  with  2  1-in.  screws  from  the  bottom.  This  will  allow  the 
top  to  be  planed  if  it  should  cast,  as  the  screws  do  not  come  through,  and  the  edge 
being  raised  and  lajDpiug  over  the  cross-pieces,  allows  the  edge  to  be  squared,  without 
parting  the  boards,  while  the  air  having  free  play  all  round  the  boards  they  are  not  sO' 
likely  to  cast,  and,  in  shooting  an  edge,  the  shavings  and  dust  woik  away  under  the 
top  board,  so  as  not  to  throw  the  plane  out  of  square.  The  blocks  are  generally  screwed 
across  the  board,  but  it  is  better  to  cut  a  groove  across,  wedge-shape,  6  in.  from  the 
end,  and  cut  wedges  of  various  thicknesses  for  planing  wood  of  any  substance,  so  that 
the  plane  may  nm  over  the  block,  as  in  section.  The  measurements  are  a-b,  4  in. ; 
fc-c,  4  in. ;  c-d,  7  in. ;  d-e,  6  ft. ;  f-cj,  10  in. ;  g-li,  5  in. ;  h-h,  4  in. ; 
and  in  the  section  of  the  boards,  a-h,  11  in. ;  c-d,  15  in. 

Bell  centre  ■punch. — This  handy  little  device  enables  any  mechanic 
instantaneously  to  centre  any  round,  square,  oval,  triangular, 
hexagonal,  or  octagonal  article  for  the  purpose  of  drilling  or  turning. 
In  use  the  pimch  is  held  upright  (as  shown  in  Fig.  269)  over  the 
article  to  be  centred,  and  the  punch  centre  tapped,  when  the 
true  centre  of  any  geometrically-shaped  article  will  be  found.  It 
will  centre  any  size  from  J  to  1  in.  diam.,  and  costs  from  3s. 
upwards. 


269. 


270, 


C&D  ^ptW 


Co?n6t?!a<i'ons.— Combination    tools  are  essentially  American  noveltie?,  and   those 
described  here  may  all  be  obtained  of  Cburchills,  Finsbury, 

Starrett's  calliper-square  is  shown  in  Fig.  270 ;  the  jaws  are  hardened,  and,  being 


192 


Caepentky— Guidins:  Tools. 


made  independent  and  accurately  ground,  can  be  reversed  for  an  inside  calliper  of 
larger  scope,  or  used  for  depth  gauge,  &c.  The  beam  is  graduated  to  G4tlis  in.  on 
one,  and  lOOths  on  the  other.  The  4-in.  size  costs  18s.  with  adjusting  screw,  or  14s. 
without. 

The  steel  calliper-rule  is  shown  in  Fig.  271 ;  when  closed  it  is  3  in.  long,  and  the 


271. 


001 


16 


o" 


3: 


oz 


04 


ililliliililiiilillililt 


64 


J  I 


M 


calliper  can  be  drawn  out  to  measure  21  in.     They  are  accurately  graded,  and  durable; 
cost,  15s.  9d. 

Starrett'd  combined  try-square,  level,  plumb,  rule,  and  mitre,  is  shown  in  Fig.  272; 
the  various  parts  are :  a,  centre  hiad  forming  centre  square  both  inside  and  outside, 
one  scale  iitting  both  heads ;  h,  square ;  c,  mitre ;  d,  rule ;  e,  plumb  level.  As  a  try- 
square,  it  is  a  substitute  for  every  size  of  the  common  kind,  and  more  compact ;  as  a 
centre  square,  it  gives  both  inside  and  outside  grades ;  as  a  mitre,  it  affords  both  long 


212. 


'iiiiiimi|iil|lll|limilllHIIII]lll|l|l|ll||lii]llii 

lillmlid' 


12  3 

y.l^lilJ,iihHliMl,lllnlll'lllMlllllml.i 


{in{iii|i{i{iii|iii|iiiirii|iii{i 

'       t        '      2  3  4 


illil!llUill!llT-lTllTllllll!llllllllMllllllllllMlllllllul,llnl,,lMlllllllllllllllllllll 


and  short  tongues ;  and  it  can  be  used  as  a  marking  gauge,  mortice  gauge,  or  f-square. 
Tlie  4-iu.  size  witliout  centre  head  or  level  costs  4s.  Gd.,  and  the  compdete  tool  may  be 
had  for  lis.  3d.  for  the  6-in.  size  to  15s.  9d.  for  the  12-in. 

Ames's  universal  or  centre  square  is  shown  in  Fig.  273.  For  finding  the  centre  of  a 
circle,  as  in  A,  the  instrument  is  placed  with  its  arms  b  a  e  resting  against  the  circum- 
ference, in  which  position  one  edge  of  the  vertical  rule  a  d  will  cross  the  centre.  "  If  a 
line  be  drawn  here,  and  the  instrument  be  similarly  applied  to  auotlier  section  of  the 
circumference,  and  another  line  be  drawn  crossing  the  first,  the  point  of  crossing  will  be 
the  centre  of  the  circle.    B  illustrates  its  use  as  a  try-square  at  n,  and  as  an  outside 


Cakpentrt- 


-Holding  Tools. 


193 


273 


square  at  I.  In  C  it  is  applied  aa  a  mitre,  in  D  as  a  rule  and  T-squarc,  in  E  as  an 
outside  square,  and  in  F  as  a  T-square  for  machinists.  The  prices  range  from  lis.  3d. 
for  the  4-in.  size  to  31s.  Grf.  for  the  12-in. 

HoLPiNG-TOOLs. — These  are  chiefly  repre- 
sented by  pincers,  vices,  and  clamps. 

Pincers. — This  well-known  tool  is  shown 
in  Fig.  274.  It  is  made  in  -various  sizes  and 
qualities,  the  most  generally  useful  being 
the  5-in.  and  8-in.  sizes,  costing  about  '3d. 
per  in. 

Vices. — The  old-fashioned  form  of  hand- 
vice  is  shown  in  Fig.  275  ;  in  size  and  price 
it  ranges  from  3-in.  and  2s.  to  6-in.  and  6s. 
Steer's  patent  hand-vice,  as  sold  by  Melhuish, 
Fetter  Lane,  is  represented  in  Fig.  276 ; 
cost  5s.  The  improved  American  hand-vice, 
as  sold  by  Churcliills  (Fig.  277),  is  of  metal 
throughout,  the  jaws  being  of  forged  steel, 
and  the  handle  of  case-hardened  malleable 
iron ;  price  6s.  6d.  The  2  last  forms  have  a 
hole  through  the  handle,  and  screw  for 
holding  wire.  An  ordinary  wrought-iron 
parallel  vice  is  shown  in  Fig.  278. 

Great  improvements  have  been  made  of 
late  years  in  vices,  more  especially  in  the 
American  forms  sold  by  Churchills.  The 
one  shown  in  Fig.  279  has  a  3-in.  jaw,  with 
swivel  base;  and  beckhorn  and  swivel-jaw 
attachment,  allowing  it  to  take  hold  in  any 

position  that  may  be  found  convenient ;  its  price  is  20s.  Fig.  280  illustrates  Parker's 
saw-filer's  vice,  made  with  a  ball-and-socket  joint,  by  which  the  jaws  may  be  turned  to 
any  position ;  price  7s.  for  9-in.  jaws.  Hall's  patent  sudden-grip  vice  is  shown  in 
Fig.  281.    To  open  the  jaws,  lift  the  handle  to  a  horizontal  position,  or  as  high  as  it 


274. 


276. 


■will  go,  and  draw  it  towards  you.  In  this  way  the  sliding  jaw  can  be  moved  to  any 
position,  and  the  vice  swivelled  if  desired.  In  order  to  grasp  the  work,  push  in  the 
sliding  jaw  till  it  presses  against  the  work,  then  depress  the  handle,  which  causes  the 


194 


Carpentry — Holding  Tools. 


jaws  to  securely  grasp  tlio  work  and  at  the  same  time  lock  the  swivel.    If  the  handle 
should  not  go  low  enough  for  convenience,  it  can  bo  made  to  go  lower  by  dei^ressing  it 
just  before  it  touches  the  work  to  be  held.     If  the  vice  swivels  too  easily,  drive  in  the 
key  W  in  the  bottom  plate ;  but  if 
it    does   not   turn    easily   enough, 
drive  out  the  key  a  little.     If  the 
handle   fails   to  remain  in  a  hori- 
zontal position,  the  screw  S  can  be 
tightened  to  hold  it.     Care  should 
be  taken  that  the  screw  N  is  down, 
so  as  to  keep  the  rack  H  from  lifting 


218. 


279 


with  the  clutch  G.  The  sliding  jaw  can  be 
removed  by  taking  out  the  pin  at  the  end  of 
the  slide,  keeping  the  handle  horizontal. 
If  grease  or  dirt  gets  on  the  rack  H,  the 
slide  should  be  withdrawn,  and  the  rack  and 
clutch  thoroughly  cleaned.  Sizes  and  prices 
vary  from  2-in.  jaw,  opening  2  in.,  weighing 
Gib.,  cost  22s.  Gd.,  to  5-in.  jaw,  opening  6  in., 
cost  95s. 

A  very  handy  little  "  instantaneous  grip  " 
vice,  sold  by  Melhuish,  Fetter  Lane,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  282 ;  the  size  with  9-iu.  jaws 
opening  12  in.  costs  16s. 

The  picture-frame  vice  illustrated  in  Fig.  283  is  a  useful  novelty,  sold  by  Churchills. 
It  is  operated  by  means  of  a  cam  lever  attached  to  a  treadle,  thus  allowing  entire 
freedom  to  both  hands  of  the  workman.    It  is  easily  and  quickly  adjusted  of  mouldiuga 


Carpentry — Holdino;  Tools. 


195 


of  any  width  and  frames  of  all  sizes ;  and  holds  both  pieces,  whether  twisted  or  straight, 
so  firmly  that  perfect  joints  are  made  without  re-adjusting  ;  price,  228.  6d. 

Stephens'  parallel  vice,  as  sold  by  Churchills,  is  shown  in  Fig.  284.    The  working 
parts  consist  simply  of  a  toggle  G  and  toothed  bar  T,  hold  together  by  a  spring  S,  and 


281. 


worked  by  a  cam  C,  and  hook  M,  on  the  handle  H.  Pressing  the  handle  hard  back, 
the  tooth  M  is  brought  to  bear  under  the  tooth  m,  on  the  left  joint  of  the  toggle,  thus 
disengaging  the  racks  by  raising  the  tooth  bar  t  away  from  the  rack  T.    The  movable 


'282. 


jaw  B  can  now  be  slid  in  and  out,  to  its  ex- 
treme limits,  with  perfect  ease,  and  an  article 
of  any  size  be  held  at  any  point  between 
these  limits,  simply  by  placing  it  between 
the  jaws  of  the  vice,  then  pressing  tlie  movable 
jaw  B  against  it  and  pulling  the  handle  out. 
At  the  first  start  of  the  handle  outward,  the 
tooth  M  slips  from  under  the  tooth  ni,  and 
the  spring  S  draws  down  and  firmly  holds  the 
tooth  bar  t  against  the  rack  T  ;  as  the  handle 
is    pulled    farther   outward,   the    cam   0   is 

brought  to  bear  against  the  ridge  n,  thus  straightening  the  toggle  and  forcing  the 
movable  jaw  B  against  the  article  to  be  held.  The  parts  are  interchangeable.  The 
racks  and  all  parts  where  pressure  cornea  are  made  of  steel.  ^  There  is  no  wear  to  the 

o  2 


ffl 


196 


Oarpentet — Holding  Tools. 


racks,  for  they  merely  engage  without  rubhing.  Great  solidity  and  strengtli  are  added 
to  the  movable  jaw  by  a  projection  from  the  stock  strengthened  by  two  upright  flanges 
Occasionally  put  a  drop  of  oil  on  the  cam  C  and  tooth  M. 


284. 


Fig.  285  represents  Stephens'  adjusting  taper  attachment,  for  holding  all  kinds  of 
taper  or  irregular  work ;  and  Fig.  286  illustrates  the  pipe  attachment  for  holding  gas- 
pipes  or  round  rods.      The  width  of  jaw  varies  from  2  to  6|  in.;  opening,  2J-11  in.; 


'  285. 


236. 


price  14-1 50s.  with  plain  base,  or  18-1 76s.  with  swivel  base;  taper  attachment  costs 
6-32s.,  and  pipe  attachment,  12s.  6d.-36s. 

Vices  also  form  an  essential  part  of  the  carpenter's  bench,  and  will  be  further  noticed 
under  that  section  (p.  261). 

Clamps. — The  ordinary  carpenter's  clamp  (or  cramp),  shown  in  Fig.  287,  is  employed 
for  tightening  up  the  joints  of  boards,  whether  for  the  purpose  of  nailing  or  to  allow 


Carpentry — Holding  Tools. 


197 


time  for  glue  to  harden.  It  is  composed  of  a  long  iron  bar  a  provided  with  holes  h  at 
intervals  for  receiving  iron  bolts  which  hold  the  sliding  bracket  c  ;  the  length  of  slide 
of  the  second  bracket  d  is  limited  by  the  screw  e  which  actuates  it.  The  length  of 
opening  varies  from  3  to  6  ft.,  cost  25-38s. 

Murphy's  bench  clamp,  as  sold  by  Churchills  for  148.  6d,  is  shown  in  Fig.  288.  It  is 


290. 


reliable,  does  not  injure  the  work,  is  adapted  to  any  thickness  of  29i 

bench  top,  can  be  changed  to  any  position,  and  laid  aside  when  not 
in  use. 

Hammer's  adjustable  clamp.  Fig.  289,  is  a  strong  tool  made  of 
malleable  iron  ;  prices  range  from  228.  6d.  a  doz.  for  the  3-in.  size, 
to  55s.  for  the  8-in. 

For  simple  rough  work  a  suitable  clamp  can  be  made  by  driving 
wedges  in  to  tighten  up  the  work  laid  between  stops  on  a  plank. 

A  very  useful  corner  clamp  for  securely  gripping  2  sides  of 
a  picture  frame  during  nailing  or  gluing  together,  is  shown  iu 
Fig.  290.  The  two  pieces  being  accurately  mitred  are  placed  in 
close  contact  and  so  held  while  the  clamp  is  being  tightened. 
These  clamps  are  sold  by  Melhuish  at  2s.  a  pair  for  taking  l|-in. 
mouldings,  up  to  5s.  for  4-in. 

Fig,  291  shows  a  clamp  designed  for  holding  a  circular-saw  while  being  filed :  a  has 
2  jaws,  one  of  which  is  seen  at  6 ;  they  are  of  metal  lined  with  wood,  and  are  closed  or 


198 


Carpentry — Holding  Tools. 


unclosed  by  turning  the  handle  c.  The  temporary  mandrel  of  the  saw  may  be  placed 
in  either  of  the  holes  oi  the  clamp  standards  at  d,  so  as  to  bring  the  saw  to  the  right 
height  in  the  jaws. 

Bench  clamps  and  holdfasts  will  be  described  under  another  section  (p.  259). 

Easping  Tools. — These  comprise  the  various  forms  of  saw  as  well  as  files  and 
rasps. 

Saws. — Tlie  saw  is  a  tool  for  cutting  and  dividing  substances,  chiefly  wood,  and 
consisting  of  a  thin  plate  or  blade  of  steel  with  a  series  of  sharp  teeth  on  one  edge, 
which  remove  successive  portions  of  the  material  by  cutting  or  tearing.  Some  repre- 
sentative examples  of  handsaws  are  illustrated  below :  Fig.  292  is  a  panel  and  ripping- 


29*>. 


293. 


vwwvw^VVWvvvvvVyv/MAMiWvv^MWNWAWAi 


295. 


saw  ;  Fig.  293,  a  grafter  saw  ,  Fig.  294,  a  tenon  saw ;  Fig.  295,  a  dovetail  saw ;  Fig.  296, 
an  iron  bow  saw  ;  Fig.  297,  a  frame  turning  saw. 

Principles. — The  saw  is  essentially  a  tool  for  use  across  or  at  right  angles  to  the  fibres  of 
the  wood,  although  custom  and 

convenience   have    arranged   it  294. 

for  use  along  the  fibres,  still  not  -=^=^=====^== 
when  those  fibres  are  straight 
and  parallel.  If  in  the  growth 
of  timber  there  was  not  any 
discontinuity  in  the  straight 
lines  of  the  fibres,  then  all  lon- 
gitudinal separation  would  be 
accomplished  by  axes  or  chisels. 
It  is  because  this  rectilineal 
continuity  is  interrupted  by 
branches  and  other  incidents  of 
growta  that  the  saw  is  used 
for  ripping  purposes.  Were  not 
some  tool  substituted  for  the 
wedge-like  action    of   the  axe, 

timber  could  not  as  a  general  rule  be  obtained  from  the  log  with  flat  surfaces.  Hence 
the  ripping  saw,  a  tool  which  is  intermediate  between  an  axe  and  a  saw  proper.  To 
study  the  saw  as  a  tool  fulfilling  its  own  proper  and  undisturbed  duties,  it  must  be 

296. 


Wv/V/'/*/-/s/WW^VsA^S^w»^/7S^A^WS^v/<AA(»iAA'S^A-^. 


regarded  in  the  character  of  a  cross-cut  saw.    In  this  character  it  is  called  upon  to  meet 
the  two  opposing  elements — cohesion  and  elasticity  of  fibre. 

To  deal  with  the  treatment  of  fibrous  wood  at  right  angles  to  the  length  of  the 


Carpentry — Kasping  Tools. 


199 


297. 


:):CZ> 


fibre  is  then  clearly  an  operation  in  which  considerations  must  enter,  differing  in  many 

respects  from  those  that  decide  action  in  direction  of  the  grain.     The  object  now  is,  as 

it  were,  to  divide  with  the  least  expenditure  of  power  a  string  which  connects  two  ends 

of  a  tensioned  bow.     If  a  blow  be  given  in  the  middle  of  a  bow-string,  the  elasticity 

imparted  by  the  bow  to  the  string  renders  the  blow  Inoperative.     Tiic  amount  of  this 

elasticity  is  very  apparent  when  one  notes  the  distance  it  can  project  an  arrow.     Indeed, 

any  one  who  has  struck  a  tensioned  cord  or  a  spring  is  well  aware  that  the  recoil 

throws  back  the  instrument,  and  by  so  mucli  abstracts  from  the  intensity  of  the  blow. 

To  separate  the  string  in  this  experiment  even  the  pressure  of  a  knife  blade  is  in- 

sulBcient ;  for  a  heavy  pressure,  as  manifested  by  the  bending  of  the  string,  is  borne 

before  separation   takes  place.     It 

may  be  taken  for  granted  that  in 

thus  severing  the  string,  the  power 

expended  has  been  employed  in  two 

ways ;  first  in  bending  the  string  ; 

second   in   separating    it.      If   the 

string  be  supported  and  prevented 

from  bending,  and  the  same  cutting 

edge  be  applied,  and  the  power  be 

measured  by  weights  or  a  spring 

balance,  it  will  be  seen  how  much 

of  the  former  was  expended  in  the 

useless  act  of  bending  the  string, 

and    therefore    quite    lost    in    the 

separating  of  it. 

If  the  cutting  instrument  were 
a  short  narrow  edge,  or  almost  a  sharpened  point,  and  drawn  forward,  each  fibre  would 
be  partially  cut.  A  repetition  of  this  action  in  the  same  line  would  still  further  deepen 
the  cut.  But  a  cutting  edge  requires  support  from  a  back,  i.e.  from  the  thicknessing 
of  the  metal,  otherwise  it  would  yield.  Further,  a  cutting  edge  held  at  right  angles 
to  the  surface  of  the  fibres  may  not  be  the  most  effective  position.  Let  any  one  draw 
the  point  of  a  knife  across  the  grain  of  a  smooth  pine  plank,  holding  the  blade  first  at 
right  angles  to  the  surface,  and,  secondly,  inclining  forward,  he  will  observe  that  by 
the  first  operation  the  fibres  are  roughly  scratched ;  by  the  second  they  arc  smootlily 
divided. 

Hence,  even  where  the  edge  has  deepened,  this  back  support  or  metal  strengthen- 
ing must  follow.  It  cannot  do  so  upon  this  knife  contrivance,  because  the  sharp  edge 
has  not  prepared  a  broad  way  for  the  thick  back,  which  being  of  a  wedge-like  character 
should  be  acted  upon  by  impact  and  not  by  such  tension  or  thrust  as  in  this  case  is  only 
available.  Therefore  simple  cutting  is  insufficient  for  the  purpose  of  separating  the 
fibres,  but  it  has  been  suggestive. 

If  now  something  must  enter  the  cut  thicker  than  the  edge,  then  it  is  clear  that  the 
edge  alone  is  insufficient  for  the  required  purpose,  and  an  edge,  as  a  cutting  edge  alone, 
cannot  bo  used  for  the  separation  of  the  fibres  cross-wise.  Longitudinally  it  may  be, 
and  is  used,  but  in  reality  what  appears  to  be  thus  used  is  a  wedge,  and  not  a  cutting 
edge,  for  in  a  true  cut  the  draw  principle  must  enter.  The  axe  and  chisel  do  not  work 
upon  the  cutting  "  edge,"  but  upon  the  driven  "  wedge "  principle.  They  are  driven 
by  impact,  and  not  drawn  by  tension  or  thrust  by  pressure. 

The  consideration  now  suggested  is  not  simply  how  to  cross-cut  the  fibres,  but, 
further,  how  to  permit  the  material  on  which  the  edge  ic  formed  to  follow  without 
involving  an  inadmissible  wedge  action.  It  may  be  done  as  in  a  class  of  saws  called 
metal  saws,  viz.  making  the  "edge"  the  thickest  part  of  the  metal  of  the  saw.  Tiiis 
however,  ignores  the  true  principle  of  the  saw,  and  introduces  the  file.    It  may,  in 


200  Caepentry — Easping  Tools. 

passing,  be  well  to  remark  that  in  marble  cutting,  where  the  apparent  saw  is  only  a 
blade  of  metal  without  teeth,  this  want  of  metal  teeth  is  supplied  by  sharp  sand,  each 
grain  of  which  becomes  in  turn  a  tooth,  all  acting  in  the  manner  of  a  file,  and  not  a  saw 
proper.  A  former  method  of  cutting  diamonds  was  similar  to  this.  Two  thin  iron 
wires  were  twisted,  and  formed  the  string  of  a  bow.  These  were  used  as  a  saw,  the 
movable  teeth  being  formed  of  diamond  dust.  A  similar  remark  applies  to  a  butcher's 
saw  ;  its  metal  teeth  really  act  as  files. 

For  the  purpose  of  separating  a  bundle  of  fibres,  the  "edge"  cannot  be  the  edge 
with  which  we  are  familiar  in  axes  and  chisels.  Such  an  edge  drawn  across  will  cut 
fibres  on  a  surface  only ;  this  is  insufficient,  for  a  saw  is  required  to  cut  fibres  below  a 
surface. 

The  tearing  also  of  upper  fibres  from  lower  ones  is  not  consistent  with  true  work. 
To  actually  cut  or  separate  these  is  the  question  to  be  considered,  and  the  simple  answer 
is  another  question.  Can  a  narrow  chisel  be  introduced  which  shall  remove  the  piece 
of  fibre  whose  continuity  has  been  destroyed  by  cutting  edges  previously  alluded  to  ? 
If  so,  then  an  opening  or  way  will  have  been  found  along  which  the  back  or  strengthen- 
ing part  of  the  cutting  edge  can  be  moved.  If,  however,  we  look  at  the  work  of  a 
single  cutting  edge,  we  notice  that,  although  the  continuity  of  the  fibre  is  destroyed,  yet 
the  separated  ends  are  still  interlaced  amongst  the  other  fibres.  To  obtain  a  piece 
removable  as  by  a  small  narrow  chisel,  it  will  be  requisite  to  make  a  second  cut 
parallel  to  the  first.  This  being  done,  there  is  the  short  piece,  retained  in  i^sition 
by  adhesion  only,  which  must  by  some  contrivance  be  removed,  for  it  is  in  the  way, 
and  the  room  it  occupies  is  that  in  which  the  back  of  the  cutting  edge  must  move.  To 
slide,  as  it  were,  a  narrow  chisel  along  and  cut  it  out  is  more  simple  in  suggestion  than 
in  execution. 

There  is  another  defect  upon  the  application  of  what  at  first  seems  sufficient  in 
principle,  but  only  wanting  in  physical  strength — it  is  the  absence  of  any  guide.  To 
draw  a  pointed  cutting  edge  along  the  same  deepening  line  needs  a  very  steady  hand 
and  eye.  This  consideration  of  the  problem  requires  that  some  guide  principle  must 
enter. 

To  increase  the  number  of  cutting  edges,  and  form  as  it  were  a  linear  sequence  of 
them,  may  give  a  partial  guidance,  and  if  the  introduction  of  our  chisel  suggestion  be 
imi^racticable,  then  another  device  must  be  sought.  Instead  of  the  2  parallel  cutters, 
it  will  be  possible  to  make  these  externally  parallel  but  internally  oblique  to  the  line  of 
cut,  in  other  words  to  sharpen  them  as  an  adze  is  sharpened  and  not  as  an  axe,  and  in 
doing  so  one  obstacle  will  be  removed,  it  is  true,  but  a  blemish  which  was  non-existent 
will  appear.  The  combining  obliquity  of  the  dividing  edges  will  so  press  upon  the 
intervening  piece  of  fibre  as  to  press  it  downwards  into  and  upon  the  lower  fibres,  thus 
solidifying,  and,  in  so  far  as  this  is  done,  increasing  the  difficulty  of  progressing  through 
the  timber. 

Note  the  mode  of  operating,  as  shown  by  Fig.  298.     The  portions  of  wood  ah  d  and 
ecd  have  been  removed  by  the  gradual  penetration  of  the  oblique  arms — not  only  have 
they  been  cut,  but  they  have  been  carried  forward  and  backward  and 
removed,  leaving  a  clear  space  behind  them  of  the  width  a  e.      But  how  293. 

with  regard  to  the   portion  within  the  oblique  arms  ?     That  part  would  ^ 

either  be  left  as  an  impeding  hillock,  or  it  would  have  to  be  removed  by  j 

the  introduction  of  such  a  plan  as  making  rough  the  insides  of  these 
oblique  arms.  If  we  consider  the  nature  of  the  material  left,  it  will  be 
admitted  to  consist  of  parlicles  of  woody  fibre  adhering  to  each  other 
only  by  the  glutinous  or  gummy  matter  of  the  timber,  and  not  cohering. 
If  the  breadth  a  e  is  not  too  large,  the  whole  of  the  heap  would  be  rubbed  away  by  the 
power  exerted  by  the  workman.  There  will  therefore  be  not  only  economy  in  power,  but 
economy  also  in  material  in  narrowing  a  e.   If  attention  be  given  to  the  form  of  the  pieces 


,    3 

lA 


■<z/ 


Caepentry — Easping  Tools.  201 

bent  from  the  plane  of  the  metal  of  which  this  cutting  instrument  is  made,  it  will  be 
observed  that  the  active  portion  has  3  edges,  of  which  the  lower  or  horizontal  one  only  is 
operative,  for  the  tool  rides  upon  the  fibres,  divides  them,  and  when  the  dividing  has 
been  accomplished,  the  sloping  parts  will  remove  the  hillock.  To  act  thus,  the  lower  edges 
would  require  to  be  sharpened  at  a  and  e  so  as  to  clear  a  gate  for  the  metal  to  follow. 
The  action  of  the  tool  as  described  would  require  a  downward  pressure,  in  order  to  cause 
the  cutting  segments  to  penetrate  vertically.  The  resistance  to  this  downward  entrance 
is  the  breadth  of  the  "  tooth,"  for  it  rides  upon  a  number  of  fibres  and  divides  them  by 
sliding  over  ;  the  complete  action  requires  not  only  downward  pressure  for  the  cut,  but 
also  horizontal  pressure  for  the  motion,  the  latter  both  in  the  advance  and  withdrawal 
of  the  tool.  These  2  pressures  being  at  right  angles  do  not  aid  each  other,  and  will 
employ  both  hands  of  the  workman.  It  is  very  obvious  that  the  compounding  of  these 
will  give  freedom  to  at  least  one  hand. 

For  the  jiresent,  assume  that  the  2  pressures  to  be  compounded  are  equal,  then  the 
simple  operation  is  to  employ  one  pressure  making  (say)  an  angle  of  45°  with  the 
horizontal  line  of  thrust.  Although  this  be  done,  yet  if  the  saws  be  any  length,  clearly 
the  angle  will  vary,  and  therefore  the  etFtct  of  the  sawyer's  labour  will  be  counteracted, 
either  as  a  consequence  of  excessive  thrust  or  of  excessive  pressure  at  the  beginning  or 
ending  of  the  stroke.  In  fact,  not  only  the  position  in  which  the  handle  is  fixed 
on  the  saw,  but  the  very  handling  itself  will  require  those  adaptations  which  experience 
alone  can  give. 

The  effect  of  this  will  be  to  cause  the  forward  points  to  penetrate,  and  cross-cut  the 
fibres  obliquely.  The  return  action  will  be  altogether  lost  unless  the  instrument  is 
arranged  accordingly,  and  sloped  in  the  other  direction. 

If  the  tool  becomes  a  single-handed  one,  and  relies  for  its  operation  upon  thrust  or 
tension  in  one  direction  only  (say  thrust),  then  cutting  edges  on  the  back  portions  of  the 
teeth  are  useless,  and  had  better  be  removed. 

The  experiment  worthy  of  trial  is,  can  tlie  whole  power,  or  nearly  the  whole  power, 
be  converted  into  a  tension  or  thrust  for  cutting  purposes.  To  do  this  the  cutting  edge 
must  be  so  formed  as  to  be  almost  self-penetrating ;  then  the  cutting  edge  is  no  longer 
a  horizontal  edge,  but  it  becomes  oblique,  on  the  advancing  face,  and  formed  thus  there 
is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  also  be  oblique  on  the  back  face,  and  so  cut  equally  in 
both  directions.  The  inclination  of  these  faces  to  the  path  of  the  saw  must  be  determined 
by  the  power — whether  it  is  capable  of  separating  as  many  fibres  as  the  teeth  ride 
between,  and  if  these  are  formed  to  cut  each  way  (as  a  single-handed  tool)  whether  it 
could  be  done ;  because  it  necessitates  a  construction  to  which  tension  and  thrust  may 
be  alternately  applied.  The  nature  of  the  wood,  the  power  and  skill  of  the  workman, 
and  the  strength  of  the  metal,  must  answer  this  suggestion. 

The  depth,  or  rather  length,  of  the  cutting  face  may  be  decreased,  and  the  number 
of  teeth  increased,  for  the  fibres  to  be  cut  cannot  be  more  vertically  than  can  be  contaiued 
between  2  teeth.  The  operative  length  of  the  tool  must  also  be  taken  into  account,  for 
the  combined  resistance  of  all  the  fibres  resting  within  the  teeth  must  be  less  than  the 
power  of  the  workman.  It  may  be  well  to  remark  that  this  difficulty  is  generally  met 
in  practice  by  the  workman  so  raising  certain  teeth  out  of  cut  as  to  leave  only  so  many 
in  operation  as  the  circumstances  enable  him  to  work.  One  advantage  results  by  so 
doing— the  guide  principle  of  a  longer  blade  is  gained  than  could  be  done  had  the  length 
been  limited  by  that  of  the  operating  teeth,  or  had  there  been  a  prolongation  of  metal 
without  any  teeth  upon  it.  To  avoid  complicating  an  attempt  to  deal  progressively  with 
the  action  of  the  saw,  this,  and  perhaps  other  considerations  may  for  a  while  pass  from 
notice.  Considered  as  hitherto  the  teeth  and  tool  are  planned  for  operation  in  both 
tension  and  thrust.  Now  these  are  of  so  opposite  a  nature  that  a  tool  perfect  under  the 
one  is  likely  to  be  imperfect  under  the  other.  "When  the  necessary  thinness  of  the 
material  and  the  tenacity  of  it  are  taken  into  account,  tension  seems  the  most  suitable  ; 


202  Caepentkt — Easping  Tools. 

but  although  the  ancients  and  the  •workmen  in  Asia  are  of  this-  way  of  thinking,  yet  in 
England  the  opposite  practice  is  adopted.  It  may  be  well  to  give  a  few  minutes  to  this 
branch  of  the  subject. 

The  form  of  a  saw  must  in  one  dimension  at  least  be  very  thin,  and  that  without  any 
opportunity  for  strengthening  any  part  by  means  of  ribs.  Wlien  a  strengthening  bar  is 
introduced  at  the  back  as  in  dovetail  saws,  the  depth  of  cut  is  limited.  In  order, 
then,  to  permit  the  guide  principle  to  operate  eflSoiently,  this  thin  material  must  be 
so  i^rolonged  as  under  all  circinnstances  to  guide  the  cutting  edge  in  a  straight  line. 
Of  course  we  arc  dealing  with  saws  to  be  used  by  hand,  and  not  with  ribbon  or 
machine-driven  saws. 

If  a  light  saw  blade  be  hooked  on  an  object,  or  placed  against  one,  then  tension 
causes  this  straight  blade  to  be  more  and  more  straightened.  On  the  contrary,  if  pressed 
forward  by  thrust,  the  weakness  of  the  blade  is  evidenced  by  the  bending.  Now,  formed 
as  saw  teeth  are,  either  to  cut  in  both  directions,  or  in  tlie  forward  direction  only, 
then  there  is  always  one  direction  in  which  the  work  to  be  done  is  accomplished  by  a 
thrust  upon  this  thin  metal.  Clearly  the  metal  will  bend.  If,  however,  the  teeth  are 
such  as  to  cut  in  one  direction  only,  and  tliat  when  the  tension  is  on  the  metal,  the  work 
tends  to  preserve  that  straightness  of  blade  upon  which  an  important  quality  and  use  of 
the  tool  depends.  That  this  tension  system  can  be  efficient  with  a  very  narrow  blade  is 
clear  from  the  extensive  use  of  ribbon  saws.  There  is,  however,  a  property  in  the 
breadth  of  the  blade  which  applies  equally  to  the  tension  and  thrust  systems — it  is  the 
guide  principle.  The  breadth  of  the  blade  operates  by  touching  the  sides  of  the  gate- 
way opened  by  the  teeth.  When  it  is  desired  to  dispense  with  a  straight  guide  for 
sawing  purposes,  it  is  done  by  narrowing  the  blade  as  in  lock  saws,  tension  frame 
saws,  &c. 

There  is  obviously  a  limit  to  the  required  breadth  even  for  the  most  effectual  guid- 
ance and  movement :  this  guidance  should  be  uniform  through  the  entire  cut ;  hence 
upon  the  guide  princijjle  alone,  there  is  required  a  breadth  of  saw  beyond  what  is 
requisite  for  the  teeth.  The  reasoning  hitherto  has  landed  us  upon  a  parallel  blade  of 
some  (as  yet)  undecided  breadth.  When  one  of  our  ordinary  hand  cross-cutting  saws  is 
examined,  it  is  observed  to  be  taper  and  not  parallel,  the  tapering  being  at  the  edge  or 
back,  where  the  teeth  are  not.  This  has  been  done  to  meet  our  practice  of  using  the  saw 
as  an  instrument  for  thrust  instead  of  tension.  When  the  teeth  near  the  end  farthest 
from  the  handle  are  to  operate,  and  there  is  no  steadiness  obtained  from  the  guidance  of 
the  sides  of  the  already  separated  timber,  then  the  whole  of  the  thrust  must  be 
transmitted  through  the  necessarily  thin  blade.  An  attempt  to  compensate  for  this  thin- 
ness by  increasing  the  breadth  is  the  only  course  open.  It  is  one  not  defensible  upon 
any  true  principles  of  constructive  mechanism,  for  it  is  not  in  the  increased  breadth  or 
extension  of  surface  that  resistance  to  bending  is  wanted,  but  it  is  in  the  thickness,  and 
that  is  impracticable. 

In  thrust  saws,  the  hand  and  the  arm  of  the  workman  occupy  a  definite  position,  and 
the  line  of  pressure  on  the  saw  is  thus  very  much  determined  by  the  inclination  of  the 
handle  (that  part  grasped  in  the  hand)  to  the  line  of  teeth  prolonged  backwards.  If  the 
handle  be  placed  at  such  an  angle  that  a  large  part  of  the  resolved  thrust  be  perpendi- 
cular to  the  line  of  teeth,  then  the  "  bite  "  may  be  greater  than  the  other  resolved  portion 
of  the  power  can  overcome.  At  another  angle  the  "bite"  may  be  very  little,  and 
althougli  the  saw  thus  constructed  would  move  easily,  it  would  work  "  sweetly,"  but 
slowly.  The  construction  is  suitable  for  saws  with  fine  teeth  and  for  clear  cuttings.  It 
will  be  seen  from  these  considerations  that  there  should  be  preserved  a  very  carefully 
considered  relationship  between  the  size  and  angle  of  the  teeth  and  the  position  in  which 
the  handle  is  fixed,  or  rather  the  varyingadaptability  of  the  workman's  thrust.  Indeed, 
upon  fully  developed  and  accurate  principles,  the  timber  to  be  cut  should  first  be 
examined,  its  fibrous  texture  determined  physically,  and  a  saw  deduced  from  these  data» 


Caepentky — Rasping  Tools.  203 

having  teeth  and  handle  so  related  as  to  do  the  required  work  with  a  minimum  of  power. 
This  multiplicity  of  saws  is  not  available ;  and  as  in  music  the  multiplicity  of  notes 
which  only  the  violin  can  produce  are  rtyected  in  other  instruments,  so  here  the  multi- 
plicity of  theoretical  saws  is  rejected,  and  a  kind  of  rough  and  ready  compromise  is 
eflfected  between  the  position  of  the  handle  and  the  angle  and  depths  of  the  teeth.  It 
would,  however,  well  repay  those  whose  works  are  usually  of  the  same  character  and  of 
the  same  class  of  timber,  to  consider  these  points,  witli  a  view  to  the  selection  of  saws 
and  position  of  handle  suitably  constructed  to  do  the  work  with  the  least  expenditure  of 
power. 

A  few  words  upon  the  handles  of  single-handed  saws.  Whatever  may  be  the  other 
conditions  required  in  handles,  the  large  majority  of  saw-handles  have  the  curved  hooked 
projections  a  and  b.  Fig.  299;  these  are  connected  with  the  pressure  of  the  sawyer  on  the 
teeth.  If,  in  sawing,  the  hand  bears  upon  the  upper  hook  a,  then  an  increased  pressure 
is  given  to  the  forward  teeth ;  if  upon  the  hook  b,  the  pressure  on 
the  forward  teeth  is  released,  and  consequent  ease  in  sawing  results,  ~^^' 

also  a  pressure  may  be  given  to  the  back  teeth.  The  angle  at 
which  direct  thrust  ought  to  act  upon  the  line  of  teeth  in  tlie  saws 
is  obviously  very  different.  Each  material  may  be  said  to  have 
its  own  proi^er  angle.  Provision  may  be  made  by  2  set  screws 
above  a  and  6  for  varying  the  intersection  of  the  line  of  thrust  with 
the  line  of  teeth.  It  will  be  further  noticed  that  in  the  handle  of 
the  "  one-man  saw,"  Fig.  301,  the  upper  hook  is  wanting,  and  this 
because  under  any  circumstances  the  weight  of  the  saw  is  more 
than  sufficient,  and  therefore  it  is  not  requisite  that  any  resolved  portion  of  the  work- 
man's energy  should  be  compounded  with  this.  Not  so  with  the  other  hook  ;  that  is 
retained  in  order  that  thus  the  weight  of  the  saw  may  be  taken  from  the  work.  For 
these  reasons  the  line  of  direct  thrust  is  nearly  parallel  with  that  of  the  teeth.  We 
seem  to  be  guilty  of  much  inconsistency  in  the  placing  as  well  as  in  the  formation  of 
saw  handles. 

A  brief  recapitulation  of  what  has  been  said  may  suitably  close  this  far  from 
exhausted  branch  of  the  subject. 

There  have  been  considered  : — 

The  effect;  of  impact  transverse  to  fibre. 

The  efiect  of  thrust  transverse  to  fibre. 

The  passing  of  a  cutting  edge  transverse  to  fibre. 

The  reduction  of  length  of  cutting  edge  transverse  to  fibre. 

The  introduction  of  combined  vertical  with  horizontal  cut. 

The  rounding  off  the  back  of  cutting  edge. 

The  pressures  required  in  sawing. 

Tension  compared  with  thrust. 

The  angular  position  of  handle. 

The  resolution  of  forces  operating. 

Now  may  be  considered  the  circumstances  which  influence  the  form  and  position  both 
of  the  teetli  and  the  edges  to  be  put  upon  them,  in  the  case  of  hand-saws  operating 
either  by  thrust  alone,  or  by  thrust  and  tension  combined  (as  in  the  2-handled  cross- 
cutting  saws  used  by  2  men,  or  in  the  whip  and  frame  saw  used  in  saw  pits).  Unless 
specially  mentioned  the  thrust  hand-saw  for  cross-cutting  will  be  the  only  one 
considered. 

It  may  be  well  at  the  outset  to  explain  that  the  coarseness  and  fineness  of  saw» 
are  estimated  by  the  number  of  teeth  points  in  an  inch.  The  sawmaker  uses  the 
term  "  pitch,"  but  not  in  the  sense  as  employed  in  wheels  and  screws.  By  pitch  he 
"  means  the  inclination  of  the  face  of  the  teeth  up  which  the  shaving  ascends."  Clearly 
if  the  saw  is  to  cut  when  drawn  in  both  du-ections,  the  slope  of  the  teeth  from  the  points 


204  Carpentky — Easping  Tools. 

must  be  the  same  on  both  sides ;  indeed,  tliis  may  be  considered  the  primitive  form  of 
saw  teeth,  and  derived  as  the  saw  is  said  to  have  been  from  the  backbone  of  a  fish,  it  is 
tlie  form  that  would  be  suggested.  To  use  a  saw  with  such  teeth  in  the  most  perfec/' 
manner  would  require  that  the  action  at  each  end  sliould  be  the  same ;  hence,  tliese  are 
the  forms  of  teeth  generally  met  in  the  ordinary  2-handled  saw  used  for  the  cross-cutting 
of  timber.  The  teeth  of  these  saws  are  generally  wide  spaced,  and  the  angle  included  in 
their  point  is  from  40°  to  60°.  The  forms,  however,  of  teeth,  to  cut  in  both  directions, 
are  sometimes  more  varied,  especially  when  the  material  is  not  of  uniform  non-fibrous 
character.  When  this  equality  of  tension  in  both  directions  cannot  be  had,  and  the 
workman  is  required  to  cross-cut  the  timber  by  a  one-handled  saw,  it  is  clear  that  he 
must  consider  the  action  as  tliat  of  tension  or  thrust  alone— one  of  these  only.  The  sole 
reason  why  both  are  not  adoi^ted  seems  to  be  that  were  it  so,  very  different  muscular 
motions  and  postures  of  the  body  would  be  introduced,  and  probably  experience  has 
shown  that  these  are  more  fatiguing  than  the  alternate  pressure  and  relaxation  which 
takes  place  in  the  ordinary  process  of  hand-sawing.  Now,  if  the  cut  is  in  the  thrust 
only,  then  the  form  of  the  back  of  the  tooth  must  be  the  very  reverse  of  that  of  the  front, 
for  it  ought  to  slide  past  the  wood,  because  not  required  to  separate  the  fibres.  In  this 
case  the  back  of  the  tooth  may  be  sloped  away,  or  it  may  be  shaped  otherwise.  The 
faces  of  the  teeth  are  no  longer  bound  to  be  formed  in  reference  to  an  equality  at  the 
back.  Indeed,  with  the  liberty  thus  accorded,  there  has  arisen  an  amount  of  fancy 
in  the  forms  of  teeth,  which  fancy  has  developed  into  prejudice  and  fashion.  Names 
dependent  either  upon  uses  or  forms  are  given  to  these,  and  they  are  distinguished  by 
such  names  in  the  trade.  Peg  tooth,  M  tooth,  half-moon  tooth,  gullet  tenth,  briar  tooth ; 
also  "  upright  pitch,"  "  flat  pitch,"  "  slight  pitch."  0^  these  varieties,  custom  has  selected 
for  most  general  use  in  England  the  one  in  which  the  face  of  the  tooth  is  at  right  angles 
to  the  line  of  the  teeth.  The  backs  of  the  teeth  are,  therefore,  sloped  according  to  the 
distance  between  the  teeth  and  the  coarseness  or  fineness  of  the  saw.  This  is  called 
ordinary,  or  hand-saw  pitch. 

A  consideration  of  the  action  of  the  saw  in  cross-cutting  timber  settles  the  cutting 
■edge,  and  so  suggests  the  mode  of  sharpening.  Taking  our  ordinary  cross-cutting 
single-handed  saw  as  the  type,  the  forward  thrust  is  intended  to  separate  the  fibres,  and 
this  not  in  the  way  of  driving  a  wedge,  but  in  the  actual  removal  of  a  small  piece  by  two 
parallel  cuts.  For  example,  if  O  O.  Fig.  300,  be  a  fibre,  then  the  action  of  the  saw  must 
be  to  cut  clean  out  the  piece  a,  h,  so  making  a  space  a,  h,  wider  than  the  steel  of  which  the 
saw  is  made.  The  cleaner  the  cuts  a  d,hc  are  the  better. 
Now  this  clean  cut  is  to  be  made  by  the  teeth  advancing  300. 

toward  the  fibre.     If  they  come  on  in  axe  fashion,  then    rt^         t> 

the  separation  is  accomplished  by  the  direct  thrust  of  Cj I I £> 

a  sharp  edge,  in   fact,   by  a  direct  wedge-like   action.  *^ 

Now  a  wedge-like  action  may  be  the  best  for  separating 

fibre  adhering  to  fibre,  but  it  is  an  action  quite  out  of  place  in  the  cross-cutting  of  a 
single  fibre,  in  which  cohesion  has  to  be  destroyed.  There  is  needed  a  cutting  action, 
i.e.  a  drawing  of  an  edge,  however  sharp,  across  the  mark  for  separation;  this 
drawing  action  is  very  important.  Admit  for  the  present  that  such  action  is  essential, 
then  the  saw  tooth  as  constructed  does  not  supply  it.  Clearly  the  sharp  edge  must 
somehow  or  other  be  drawn  and  pressed  as  drawn  across  the  fibre.  Two  ways  of  accom- 
plishing this  present  themselves.  The  ofiect  on  the  action  of  the  workman  is  very 
different  in  these  cases.  In  the  first  we  must  press  the  saw  upon  the  fibre,  and  at; 
the  same  time  thrust  it  lengthwise.  Now  in  soft  timber,  and  with  a  saw  having  teeth 
only  moderately  sharp,  this  pressure  will  tend  rather  to  force  the  fibres  into  closer 
contact,  to  squeeze  them  amongst  each  other,  to  solidify  the  timber,  and  increase  the 
diflSculty  in  cutting.  Two  actions  are  here,  pressure  and  thrust.  In  the  second  case 
the  pressure  must  be  very  light  indeed ;  if  otherwise,  the  point  of  the  tooth  will  gather 


Cakpentry— Rasping  Tools.  205 

lip  more  fibres  than  the  strength  of  the  workman  can  separate ;  indeed,  as  a  rule,  in 
the  cross-cutting  of  broad  timber,  with  all  the  saw  teeth  in  action,  pressure  is  not 
required,  the  average  weight  of  the  saw-blade  sufficing  for  the  picking  up  of  the  fibres. 
It  is  probably  from  the  delicate  and  skilful  handling  which  a  tooth  thus  constructed 
requires,  that  hand-saws  are  not  more  generally  constructed  with  teeth  of  this  form. 
In  addition  to  these  there  is  the  penetrating  tooth,  as  the  points  of  the  peg  tooth 
and  others.  Whatever  may  be  the  form  of  the  teeth,  the  small  piece  ah,  cd,  Fig.  300, 
has  to  be  removed  so  as  to  leave  the  ends  from  which  it  is  taken  as  smooth  and 
clean  cut  as  possible,  therefore  the  cutting  edge  must  be  on  the  outside  of  the  tooth. 
This  being  so,  it  follows  that  the  act  of  severing  a  fibre  will  be  attended  with  com- 
pression whose  effect  is  to  shorten  it.  Thus  condensed  it  is  forced  up  into  the  space 
between  the  teeth.  If  now  this  space  is  not  so  formed  as  to  allow  the  condensed 
piece  to  drop  freely  away  so  soon  as  the  tooth  passes  from  the  timber,  then  the  saw  will 
become  choked,  and  its  proper  action  will  necessarily  cease.  In  large  saws  this  is 
provided  for  in  the  shape  of  the  "gums"  in  which  the  teeth  may  be  said  to  be  set. 
What  in  America  are  called  "  gums  "  are  frequently  in  England  called  "  throats." 
Saws  cannot  work  easily  unless  as  much  care  is  bestowed  upon  the  "  throats  "  or 
"  gums  "  as  is  given  to  the  teeth. 

Any  exhaustive  attempt  to  deal  with  the  considerations  which  present  themselves 
to  one  who  enters  upon  the  question,  what  under  all  the  varying  conditions  of  the 
problems  should  be  the  form  and  set  of  a  saw-tooth,  would  require  more  experimental 
knowledge  and  patient  research  than  the  subject  seems  to  have  received.  There  are 
more  than  100  different  forms  of  teeth.  Sheffield  and  London  do  not  agree  upon  the 
shape  of  the  handle.  The  Eastern  hemisphere  and  the  Western  do  not  agree  whether 
sawing  should  be  an  act  of  tension  or  one  of  thrust. 

The  quantity  of  timber  cut  down  in  America  must  have  led  to  investigations  with 
respect  to  saws  such  as  the  requirements  of  this  country  were  not  likely  to  call  forth. 
Hence  wo  have  very  much  to  learn  from  the  Americans  on  this  point. 

As  it  seems  most  judicious  to  investigate  the  principles  by  considering  a  large  and 
heavy  tool,  perhaps  it  may  be  well  to  examine  the  largest  handicraft  saw.  This  (Fig.  301)' 

301. 


J 


is  a  "one-man  saw"  4  ft.  long,  by  Disston,  Philadelphia.  Long  as  the  blade  is,  it  is 
not  too  long.  The  travel  is  near,  but  still,  within  the  limit  of  a  man's  arm.  To  enter 
the  wood,  the  teeth  at  the  extreme  end  are  used.  These  are  strong,  but  of  the  form 
generally  met  with  in  the  largest  of  our  own  cross-cut  saws.  The  acting  teeth  are  of 
an  M  shape,  with  a  gullet  or  space  between  them.  The  angle  at  Avhich  the  teeth  are 
sharpened  is  very  acute ;  the  consequence  of  this  and  of  their  form  is,  that  they  cut 
smoothly  as  a  sharp  knife  would  do;  indeed,  much  as  a  surgeon's  lancet  would. 
Some  teeth  are  formed  on  the  principle  of  the  surgeon's  lancet,  and  these  are  called 
"  fleam  "  teeth.  The  spaces  between  the  M's  in  the  "  one-man  saw"  are  "gums"  for 
the  reception  and  removal  of  the  pieces  cut  out  of  the  separated  fibre.  In  the  particular 
case  before  us,  the  M  is  f  in.  broad  and  f  in.  deep ;  the  upright  legs  of  the  M  are 
sharpened  from  within,  the  V  of  the  M  is  sharpened  on  both  sides.  The  legs  are  "  set" 
to  one  side  and  the  V  to  the  other  side.  Thus  arranged,  tlie  saw  cuts  equally  in  tension 
and  in  thrust,  and  the  debris  is  brought  out  freely  at  each  end.    The  M  tooth  for  this 


206 


Caepentry — Easping  Tools. 


302. 


Oy 


^^^f^n-r^^'^ 


double-cutting  results  from  an  observation  on  two  carefully-toothed  short  cross-cut 
elementary  saws,  where  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  form  of  tooth  to  cut  both  ways, 
resulting  from  the  combination,  is  M.  The  set  of  this  large  "  one-man  saw  "  is  worthy 
of  notice.  An  inspection  of  the  cutting  points  will  show  that  each  point  is  diverted 
from  the  plane  of  the  saw  blades  not  more  than  about  -J^  in.  When  the  object  of 
*'  set "  is  considered,  it  will  be  allowed  that  so  little  is  sufficient. 

The  annexed  diagrams  (Fig.  302)  of  teeth  of  certain  cross-cut  saws  used  in  America 
may  illustrate  tlie  present  subject.  A  single  tooth  will  in  some  instances  be  observed 
between  the  M  teeth:  this  is  a  "clearance"  tooth,  and  is  generally  shorter  than  the 
cutting  tooth.  Sometimes  it  is  hooked,  as  may  be  seen  in  c;  in  such  case  it  is  shorter 
by  -i-  in.  than  the  cutting  teeth,  and  acts  the 
part  of  a  plane  iron  by  cutting  out  the  pieces 
of  fibre  separated  by  the  other  or  cutting 
teeth,  which  cutting  teeth  under  these  cir- 
cumstances are  lancet-like  sharpened  to  very 
thin  edges. 

That  the  "  set "  of  the  teeth  should  be 
vmiform  in  the  length  of  the  saw  follows 
from  a  moment's  reflection  upon  the  object 
of  this  set.  If  one  tooth  projects  beyond  the 
line  of  the  otliers,  that  tooth  will  clearly 
scratch  the  wood,  and  therefore  leave  a 
roughness  on  the  plank.  As  more  than  its 
share  of  work  is  then  allotted  to  it,  the 
keenness  of  edge  soon  leaves  it,  and  thus 
increases  the  labour  of  the  sawyer.  The 
American  contrivance  for  securing  a  uni- 
formity in  the  set  of  the  teeth  is  the  "  side- 
file."  The  three  set  screws  determine  the 
elevation  of  the  file  above  the  face,  and  the 
travel  of  the  short  length  of  fine  cut  file 
reduces  all  excessive  "  sets "  to  a  uniform 
*'  set "  through  the  entire  length  of  the  saw. 

The  "  crotch  punch  "  is  also  an  American 
contrivance  for  obtaining  a  clearance  set  out  of  a  spreading  of  the  thick  steel  of  the  saw 
by  an  ingeniously  formed  angular  punch. 

It  is  occasionally  required  to  saw  certain  cuts  to  the  same  depth,  as,  for  instance,  in 
the  making  of  tenons.  The  saw  to  which  tlie  term  "  tenon  "  is  apphed  is  more  suited  for 
cabinet  than  for  carpenters'  work.  However,  an  ordinary  saw  may  be  provided  with 
a  gauge,  which  can  be  adjusted  so  as  to  secure  a  uniform  depth  in  any  number  of  cuts, 
and  in  this  respect  it  is  even  superior  to  a  tenon-saw,  and  may  be  suggestive  to  some 
whose  labours  might  be  facilitated  by  the  adoption  of  such  a  contrivance. 

The  rip-saw  considered  as  a  cutting  tool,  may  be  likened  to  a  compound  chisel,  and  the 
form  of  teeth  which  would  operate  with  the  least  application  of  power  would  be  the  same 
as  that  of  a  mortising  chisel ;  but  knots  and  hard  wood  are  conditions  which  call  for 
rigid  teetli,  rendering  the  chisel  form  impracticable,  except  for  sawing  clear  lumber,  and 
with  a  high  degree  of  skill  in  filing  and  setting.  The  limit  of  endurance  of  such  steel 
as  must  be  employed  for  saws,  will  not  admit  of  pointed  teetli ;  these  will  break  in 
cutting  through  knots  and  hard  wood,  and  no  form  of  saw-teeth  which  permits  their 
points  to  crumble  and  break  should  Ixj  adopted.  In  actual  practice,  with  the  skilled 
filer,  there  is  a  tendency  to  create  pointed  saw-teeth,  and  when  there  is  a  want  of  skill  in 
the  filer  the  tendency  is  the  other  way,  and  teeth  unnecessarily  blunt  are  common.  "  The 
action  of  a  saw  when  ripping  or  cutting  with  the  fibres  of  the  wood  is  entirely  different 


Carpentry— Easping  Tools.  207 

from  that  when  cross-cutting  or  severing  the  fibres  of  the  wood  transversely ;  the  shape 
of  the  teeth  and  the  method  of  sharjiening  should  therefore  differ.     In  the  case  of  a  rii)- 
saw,  the  action  of  the  saw  is  chiefly  splitting,  the  teeth  acting  like  a  scries  of  small 
wedges  driven  into  and  separating  the  longitudinal  fibres  of  the  wood ;  whilst  with  cross- 
cutting  saws,  the  fibre  of  the  wood  has  to  be  severed  across  the  grain  :  it  is  comparatively 
unyielding,  the  teeth  of  the  saw  meet  with  much  more  resistance,  and   it  is  found 
necessary  to  make  the  teeth  more  upright  and  more  acute  or  lancet-shaped  than  for 
cutting  with  the  grain.     The  faces  of  the  teeth  should  be  sharpened  to  a  keen  ed-e  and 
for  hard  wood  filed  well  buck,  so  that  in  work  they  may  have  a  direct  cutting  action 
similar  to  a  number  of  knives.     Care  should  also  be  taken  that  the  teeth  are  made  of 
sufficient  depth  to  afford  a  free  clearance  for  the  sawdust.     This  is  an  important  point 
too  with  rip-saws.      The  teeth  should  also  be  equal  in  kngth ;  if  not,  the  longest  teeth 
get  the  most  work,  and  the  cutting  power  of  the  saw  is  much  lessened.     The  length  of 
the  teeth  should  depend  on  the  nature  of  the  wood  being  sawn :  for  sawing  sappy  or 
fibrous  woods,  long,  sharp,  teeth  are  necessary,  arranged  with  ample  throat  space  for 
sawdust  clearance ;  care  must  be  taken,  however,  that  the  teeth  are  not  too  long,  or  they 
will  be  found  to  spring  and  buckle  in  work.     In  sawing  resinous  woods,  such  as  pitch 
pine,  the  teeth  of  the  saw  should  have  a  considerably  coarser  set  and  space  than  for  hard 
woods.     It  will  also  be  found  advisable— especially  with  circular  saws— to  lubricate  the 
blades  well,  as  the  resinous  matter  is  thus  more  easily  got  rid  of.     In  sawing  hard  woods, 
either  with  reciprocating  or  circular  saws,  the  feed  should  be  not  more  than  one-half  as 
fast  as  for  soft  wood,  the  saw  should  contain  more  teeth,  which  should  be  made  consider- 
ably shorter  than  those  used  for  soft  wood,  roughly  speaking,  about  J  ;   it  is  impossible, 
however,  to  make  a  fixed  rule,  owing  to  the  great  variety  of  woods  and  their  difterent 
hardnesses ;  the  length  of  teeth  which  may  be  found  to  suit  one  wood  well  may  in 
another  case  require  to  be  increased  or  decreased.      In  cutting  woods  which  are  much 
given  to  hang  and  clog  the  saw-teeth,  increment  teeth  may  be  used  with  advantage  ; 
these  are  arranged  with  fine  teeth  at  the  point  of  the  saw,  wliich  gradually  get  coarser 
till  the  heel  of  the  saw  is  reached  ;  thus  the  fine  teeth  commence  the  cut  and  the  coarser 
ones  finish  it,  obviating  in  a  great  degree  the  splintering  and  tearing  of  the  wood  caused 
by  coarse  teeth  striking  the  wood  at  the  commencement  of  the  cut.  As  regards  the  angles 
of  the  teeth  best  adapted  for  cutting  soft  or  hard  woods  no  absolute  rule  can  be  laid 
down.     The  following  may  be  modified  according  to  circumstances.     If  a  line  be  drawn 
through  the  points  of  the  teeth,  the  angle  formed  by  the  fiice  of  the  tooth  with  this  line 
should  be  :  For  cutting  soft  woods,  about  65°-70° ;  for  cutting  hard  wood,  about  80°-85°. 
The  angle  formed  by  the  face  and  top  of  the  tooth  should  be  about  45°-50°for  soft  wood, 
and  65°-70°  for  hard.     The  angle  of  the  tooth  found  best  for  cutting  soft  woods  is  much 
more  acute  than  for  hard.     Terms  used  in  describing  the  parts  of  a  saw  are : — "  Space  "  : 
the  distance  from  tooth  to  tooth  measured  at  the  points.  "  Pitch  "  or  "  rate  "  :  the  angle  of 
the  face  of  the  tooth  up  which  the  shaving  ascends,  and  not  the  interval  between  the 
teeth,  as  with  the  threads  of  a  screw.     "Gullet"  or  "  throat"  :  the  depth  of  the  tootli 
from  the  point  to  the  root.     "  Gauge  "  :  the  thickness  of  the  saw,  generally  measured  by 
the  wire  gauge.     "Set":  the  amount  of  inclination  given  to  the  saw-teeth  in  either 
direction  to  effect  a  clearance  of  the  sawdust.    "  Points  "  :  small  teeth  are  reckoned  by 
the  number  of  teeth   points  to    the   inch.     The  chief  facts  to  be  borne  in   mind  in 
selecting  a  saw  with  the  teeth  best  suited  to  the  work  in  hand  are  the  nature  and  con- 
dition of  the  wood  to  be  operated  on.     No  fixed  rule  can,  however,  be  laid  down,  and  the 
user  must  be  guided  by  circumstances.     All  saws  should  be  ground  thinner  towards  the 
back,   as   less   set    is   thus   necessary,  the  friction  on  the  blade  is  reduced,  and  the 
clearance  for  sawdust  is  improved.     Care  should  also  be  taken  that  they  are  perfectly 
true  and  uniform  in  toothing  and  temper.    The  angle  of  the  point  of  a  tooth  can  be 
found  by  subtracting  its  back  angle  from  its  front,  and  to  do  the  best  and  cleanest  work 
this  angle  should  be  uniform  in  all  the  teeth  of  the  saw."    (M.  Powis  Bale,  M.I.M.E., 
A.M.I.C.E.) 


208 


Carpentry — Easping  Tools. 


The  following  table  includes  saws  generally  used  by  mecliauic3  who  work  wood  by 
hand : — 


Names. 


Without  Bachs. 

Rip-saw       

Fine  rip-saw 

Haud-saw 

Cut-off  saw 

Panel-saw 

Fiue  panel-saw  .. 

Siding-saw 

Table-saw 

Compass  or  lock-saw 
Keyhole  or  pad-saw  . . 

With  Backs. 

Tenon-saw 

Sash-saw     

Carcass-saw 
Dovetail-saw 


Length 

in 
Inches. 


Breadth  in  Inches. 


At  Handle.  1     At  End. 


Thickness 

in 

Inches. 


Teeth  to 

the 

Inch. 


28-30 
26-28 
22-24 
22-24 
20-24 
20-24 
10-20 
18-26 
8-18 
6-12 


16-20 

14-16 

10-14 

6-10 


7  -9 
6  -8 
5  -Ih 
5  -ll 

H-n 

4  -6 

2i-3^ 
13-91 

1  -u 


3  -4 

3  -3J 

21-3 

2i-3 

2'-2i 

2  -Ih 

11-2" 

1  -n 

1_     3 

i-    1 

8        4 


3J-41 
2i-3i 
2  -3 
U-2 


0-05 

0-042 

0-042 

0-042 

0-042 

0-035 

0-032 


0-032 
0-0-28 
0-025 
0-022 


31 

4 
5 
6 

7 

8 

6-12 

7-8 
8-9 
9-10 


10 
11 

12 
14-18 


(Holtzapfel.) 

Qualities. — Hodgson  made  a  number  of  experiments  on  saws  to  test  their  qualities 
and  capabilities  ;  and  after  using  them  in  various  ways,  fairly  and  unfairly,  he  arrived 
at  the  following  conclusions  : — 

(1)  That  a  saw  with  a  thick  blade  is,  9  cases  out  of  10,  of  a  very  inferior  quality,  and 
is  more  apt  to  break  than  a  thin-bladed  saw ;  it  requires  more  "set,"  will  not  stand  an 
edge  nearly  so  long  as  a  thin  one,  is  more  difficult  to  file,  and  being  heavier  and  cutting 
a  wider  kerf,  is  more  tiresome  to  use. 

(2)  Saws  hung  in  plain  beech  handles,  with  the  rivets  flush  or  countersunk,  are 
lighter,  easier  to  handle,  less  liable  to  receive  injury,  occupy  less  space  in  the  tool  chest, 
and  can  be  placed  with  other  saws  without  dulling  the  teeth  of  the  latter  by  abrasion 
on  the  rivets. 

(3)  Blades  that  are  dark  in  colour,  and  that  have  a  clear  bell-like  ring  when  struck 
with  tlie  ball  of  the  finger,  appear  to  be  made  of  better  stuff  than  those  having  a  light 
iron-grey  colour ;  and  he  noticed,  in  proof  of  this,  that  the  thinner  the  blades  were,  the 
darker  the  colour  was,  and  that  saws  of  this  description  were  less  liable  to  "  buckle  "  or 
"  twist." 

(4)  American-made  saws,  as  a  rule,  are  better  "  hung "  than  English  ones.  And, 
■where  beech  is  used  for  handles,  and  the  rivets  are  flush  or  countersimk,  all  other 
things  being  equal,  the  American  make  is  the  most  desirable. 

(5)  Polished  blades,  although  mechanics  have  a  strong  prejudice  against  them,  cut 
freer  and  much  easier  than  blades  left  in  the  rough,  and  they  are  less  liable  to  rust. 

(G)  Saws  that  ring  clear  and  without  tremor,  when  held  by  the  handle  in  one  hand 
and  struck  on  the  point  with  the  other  hand  and  held  over  at  a  curve,  will  be  found  to 
be  well  and  securely  handled ;  but  saws  that  tremble  or  jar  in  the  handle,  when  struck 
on  tlie  point  of  the  blade,  will  never  give  satisfaction. 

Selecting. — The  following  valuable  suggestions  on  the  purchasing  of  saws  are  given 
by  Disston,  the  well-known  saw-maker  of  Philadelphia.  The  first  point  to  be  observed 
in  the  selection  of  a  hand-saw  is  to  see  that  it  "  hangs  "  right.  Grasp  it  by  the  handle 
and  hold  it  in  position  for  working.    Then  try  if  the  handle  fits  the  hand  properly^ 


Carpentry — Kasping  Tools.  209 

These  are  points  of  great  importance.  A  handle  ought  to  be  symmetrical,  and  aa 
handsome  as  a  beautiful  picture.  Many  handles  are  made  out  of  green  wood ;  they  soon 
shrink  and  become  loose,  the  screws  standing  above  the  wood.  An  unseasoned  liandlu 
is  liable  to  warp  and  throw  the  saw  out  of  truth.  The  next  thing  in  order  is  to  try  the 
blade  by  springing  it.  Then  see  that  it  bends  regular  and  even  from  point  to  butt  in 
proportion  as  the  width  of  the  saw  varies.  If  the  blade  bo  too  heavy  in  comparison  to 
the  teeth  the  saw  will  never  give  satisfaction,  because  it  will  require  twice  the  labour  to 
use  it.  The  thinner  j'ou  can  get  a  stiff  saw  the  better.  It  makes  less  kerf,  and  takes 
less  muscle  to  drive  it.  A  narrow  true  saw  is  better  than  a  wide  true  saw ;  there  is  less 
danger  of  dragging  or  creating  friction.  You  will  get  a  smaller  portion  of  saw-blade, 
but  you  will  save  100  dollars'  worth  of  muscle  and  manual  labour  before  the  saw  is  worn 
out.  Always  try  a  saw  before  you  buy  it.  See  that  it  is  well  set  and  sharpened,  and 
has  a  good  crowning  breast ;  place  it  at  a  distance  from  you,  and  get  a  proper  light  to 
strike  on  it,  and  you  can  see  if  there  be  any  imperfections  in  grinding  or  hammering. 
We  set  our  saws  on  a  stake  or  small  anvil  with  one  blow  of  a  hammer.  This  is  a  severe 
test,  and  no  tooth  ought  to  break  afterwards  in  setting,  nor  will  it,  if  the  mechanic 
adopts  the  proper  method.  The  saw  that  is  easily  filed  aud  set  is  easily  made  dull.  We 
have  frequent  complaints  about  hard  saws,  but  they  are  not  as  hard  as  we  would  make 
them  if  we  dared;  but  we  shall  never  be  able  to  introduce  a  harder  saw  until  the 
mechanic  is  educated  to  a  more  correct  method  of  setting  his  saw.  The  principal  point 
is  that  he  tries  to  get  part  of  the  set  out  of  the  body  of  the  plate  when  the  whole  of  the 
set  must  be  got  out  of  the  tooth.  As  soon  as  he  gets  below  the  root  of  the  tooth  to  get 
his  set,  he  distorts  and  strains  the  saw-plate.  Tliis  will  cause  a  full-tempered  cast-steel 
blade  to  crack,  and  the  saw  will  eventually  break  at  this  spot. 

Grimshaw  says  that  a  hand-saw  must  be  springy  and  elastic,  with  almost  a  "  Toledo 
blade  "  temper.  There  is  no  economy  in  buying  a  soft  saw ;  it  costs  more  in  a  year  for 
files  and  filing  than  a  hard  one  does,  dulls  sooner,  drives  harder,  and  does  not  last  so 
long.  A  good  hand-saw  should  spring  regularly  in  proportion  to  its  width  and  gauge ; 
that  is,  the  iwint  should  spring  more  than  the  heel,  and  hence  the  curve  should  not  be 
a  jDerfect  arc  of  a  circle.  If  the  blade  is  too  thick  for  the  size  of  the  teeth,  the  saw  will 
work  stiffly.  If  the  blade  is  not  well,  evenly,  aud  smoothly  ground,  it  will  drive  hard 
and  tend  to  spring.  The  thinner  the  gauge  and  narrower  the  blade,  the  more  need  for 
perfectly  uniform  and  smooth  grinding  ;  the  smoother  and  more  uniform  the  grinding, 
the  thinner  aud  narrower  a  saw  you  can  use.  The  cutting  edge  is  very  often  made  on 
a  convex  curve,  or  with  a  "crown"  or  "breast,"  to  adapt  it  to  tlie  natural  rocking 
motion  of  the  hand  and  arm.  By  holding  the  blade  in  a  good  light,  and  tapping  it, 
you  can  see  if  there  are  imperfections  in  grinding  or  hammering.  Before  buying  a  saw, 
test  it  on  about  the  same  grade  of  work  as  it  is  intended  to  bo  put  to.  It  is  a  mistake 
to  suppose  that  a  saw  which  is  easily  set  and  filed  is  the  best  for  use.  Quite  the  reverse 
is  the  case.  A  saw  that  will  take  a  few  more  minutes  and  a  little  harder  work  to  sharpen 
will  keep  its  edge  and  set  longer  than  one  which  can  be  put  in  order  quickly,  and  it 
will  work  better  in  knots  and  hard  wood. 

Using. — The  first  thing  to  be  considered  is  the  position  of  the  stuff  while  being 
operated  upon.  Board  or  plank  should  be  laid  on  one  or  more  saw-horses  a  in  either  a 
sloping  or  flat  position,  the  saw  being  held  more  or  less  nearly  vertical,  while  the  work- 
man rests  his  right  knee  firmly  on  the  work  to  secure  it.  If  the  stuff  is  more  than  3  in. 
thick  it  should  be  lined  on  both  sides,  and  repeatedly  turned  so  that  the  sawing  proceeds 
from  opposite  sides  alternately;  this  helps  to  ensure  straight  and  regular  cutting.  The 
saw  is  held  firmly  in  the  right  hand  with  the  forefinger  extended  against  the  right  side  of 
the  handle.  The  workman's  eyes  should  look  down  on  both  sides  of  the  saw.  As  the 
work  progresses,  a  wooden  wedge  should  be  driven  into  the  slit  or  "  saw  kerf"  6,  to 
allow  a  free  passage  for  the  saw.  Care  is  needed  not  to  draw  the  tool  too  far  out  of  the 
cut,  or  the  end  will  be  "  crippled  "  by  sticking  it  into  the  wood  when  returning  it  to  the 

p 


210  Cakpentry — Easping  Tools. 

cut.  Grease  should  be  applied  freely  to  lubricate  the  teeth.  Sometimes  the  saw-horse 
is  dispensed  with  and  the  work  is  laid  on  the  bench  and  ht-ld  down  by  the  baud  or  by 
mechaniail  contrivances,  either  with  the  end  of  the  stuff  hanging  over  the  end  of  the 
bench,  or  witli  the  edge  hanging  over  the  side.  Tlie  operator  can  then  stand  erect  at  his 
work  and  can  use  one  or  both  hands.  Continental  workmen  often  use  the  rip-saw  with 
tlie  back  of  the  saw  towards  them ;  they  place  the  work  on  saw-horses  and  commence 
in  the  usual  way,  then  turn  round  and  sit  on  the  work  and  drive  the  saw  before  them, 
using  both  hands. 

For  cutting  wide  tenons,  the  stuff  is  first  gauged  with  a  mortice  gauge  (p.  186),  and 
then  secured  in  a  bencli  vice  in  a  more  or  less  vertical  position.  The  saw  is  first 
applied  in  an  almost  horizontal  position,  the  workman  taking  care  to  adliere  to  the  line 
so  that  the  tenon  may  have  the  proper  size  when  done.  As  soon  as  the  saw  has  entered 
the  line  it  is  inclined  in  such  a  way  as  to  cut  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  mark  on  the 
side  farthest  from  the  operator.  When  that  has  been  reached,  the  stuff  is  reversed,  and 
the  saw  is  worked  in  an  inclined  position  till  the  opposite  shoulder  has  been  reached. 
This  gives  the  limit  of  tlie  cut  at  each  edge,  leaving  a  triangular  piece  uncut  in  the 
middle  of  the  slit,  wliich  is  finally  removed  by  setting  the  work  and  using  the  saw  in  an 
exactly  horizontal  position.  This  facilitates  working  witli  truth  and  accuracy  to  the 
square.  Large  work  is  best  done  with  a  rip-saw;  small,  witli  a  hand-  or  panel-saw. 
The  left  hand  seizes  the  wood  to  steady  the  work  and  the  workman.  The  workman 
makes  a  cut  with  the  grain  of  the  wood,  which  should  always  be  the  first  half  to  be 
performed.  When  the  longitudinal  cuts  have  been  made,  the  cross-cuts  or  shoulders  are 
made  by  laying  the  wood  flat  on  the  bench  against  a  stop. 

For  cross-cutting  timber,  the  hand-saw  is  commonly  used;  the  teeth  are  finer  than 
in  the  rip-saw,  and  are  set  a  little  more  to  give  greater  clearance  in  the  kerf,  as  the  tool 
is  more  liable  to  gain  wlien  cutting  across  tlie  fibres  of  the  wood.  The  saw  is  held  in 
the  right  hand,  the  left  hand  and  left  knee  being  placed  on  the  work  to  steady  it  on  the 
saw-horses.  The  workman  must  proceed  very  cautiously  towards  the  end  of  the  cut, 
and  provide  some  support  (generally  his  left  hand)  for  the  piece  which  is  about  to  be 
detached,  or  it  will  finally  break  off  and  perhaps  produce  long  splinters  that  will 
render  the  work  useless  for  its  intended  purpose.  AVhen  cross-cutting  on  the  bench,  the 
work  rests  firmly  and  flat  on  the  bench,  the  end  to  be  removed  hanging  over  the  side 
so  that  it  can  be  held  by  the  left  hand.  Unless  the  piece  is  very  heavy,  some  means 
must  be  provided  for  holding  it  still  during  the  sawing,  or  a  slight  movement  may  twist 
and  damage  the  saw. 

For  sawing  work  that  is  slightly  curved,  a  narrow  rip-saw  must  be  used,  and  the 
kerf  must  be  kept  well  open  by  inserting  a  wedge.  In  ripping  planks  or  tenons,  both 
hands  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  guiding  the  saw.  In  all  tawing,  the  tool  should  be 
grasped  in  the  right  hand,  while  the  Jeft  may  rest  on  the  material,  or  may  be  used  to 
assist  in  working  the  saw.  In  the  first  few  strokes,  the  length  and  vigour  of  the  stroke 
of  the  saw  should  bo  gradually  increased,  until  the  blade  has  made  a  cut  of  2-4  in.  in 
depth,  after  which  the  entire  force  of  the  arm  is  employed  :  the  saw  is  used  from  point 
to  heel,  and  in  extreme  cases  the  whole  force  of  both  arms  is  used  to  urge  it  forward. 
In  most  instances,  little  or  no  pressure  is  directed  downwards,  or  on  the  teeth  ;  when 
excessive  effort  is  thus  applied,  the  saw  sticks  so  forcibly  into  the  wood  that  it  refuses 
to  yield  to  the  thrust  otherwise  than  by  assuming  a  curved  form,  which  is  apt  permanently 
to  distort  it.  The  fingers  should  never  extend  beyond  the  handle,  or  they  may  be 
pinclied  between  it  and  the  work.  To  acquire  a  habit  of  sawing  well,  the  work  should, 
as  often  as  practicable,  be  placed  either  exactly  horizontal  or  vertical ;  the  positions  of 
the  tool  and  the  movements  of  the  person  will  then  be  constant.  The  top  of  saw- 
benches  should  be  level.  The  edge  of  the  saw  should  be  exactly  perpendicular,  when 
seen  edgeways,  and  nearly  so  when  seen  sideways ;  the  eye  must  narrowly  watch  the 
path  of  _the  saw,  to  check  its  first  disposition  to  depart  from  the  line  set  out  for  it :  look 


Carpentry — Rasping  Tools.  211 

only  so  far  on  the  right  and  left  of  tho  blade  alternately  as  to  bo  just  able  to  eeo  tho 
line.  To  correct  a  small  deviation  at  the  comraenceincnt,  twist  the  bhule  as  far  as  tlie 
saw  kerf  will  allow ;  the  back  being  somewhat  tiiinner  tlian  tho  edge,  tlie  true  line  may 
be  thus  returned  to.  Make  it  a  habit  to  watch  the  blade  so  closely  as  scarcely  to 
require  any  correction.  The  saw,  if  most  "  set "  (having  the  teeth  standing  higher)  on 
one  side,  cuts  more  freely  on  that  side,  and  has  a  tendency  to  run  towards  it. 

The  "  table  "  or  "  ship-carpenters'  "  saw  has  a  long  narrow  blade  intended  for  cutting 
sweeps  of  long  radius ;  it  is  handled  similarly  to  the  rip-saw.  The  "  compass "  saw 
with  its  long  (12  in.)  and  narrow  (tapering  from i in.  to  IJ  in.)  blado  generally  icsombleg 
the  hand-saw ;  in  use  it  is  apt  to  buckle  and  snap  in  short  curves,  unless  it  is  filed  so  as 
to  cut  by  a  pulling  motion  instead  of  with  a  thrust..  The  "pad"  or  "socket"  saw 
is  a  more  diminutive  form  of  the  preceding,  made  to  slide  into  a  hollow  handle,  where 
it  is  held  by  screws,  only  so  much  of  the  blade  being  drawn  out  as  is  required ;  it 
should  be  filed  for  the  pulling  stroke.  The  "  web  "  or  "  bow  "  saw  is  a  narrow  ribbon- 
saw  fastened  in  a  frame ;  it  has  very  line  teeth,  adapted  for  cutting  both  with  and  across 
the  grain ;  the  chief  use  is  for  fretwork,  the  blades  being  made  to  twist  round  to  suit 
the  work.  "  Back  "  saws  are  of  several  kinds,  all  characterised  by  deep  thin  blades : 
the  "  dovetail "  is  the  thinnest,  and  simple  filing  usually  gives  it  sufficient  set ;  great 
care  is  necessary  with  it  to  prevent  buckling  and  kinking,  a  twist  of  the  hand  sufficing  to 
ruin  it.  "  Tenon  "  and  "  sash  "  saws  being  somewhat  thicker  require  a  little  set.  All 
back-saws  need  to  be  kept  well  oiled  and  polished,  and  are  best  used  in  a  mitre-box 
(p.  187)  or  other  guide  rest ;  they  should  be  held  firmly  when  in  use,  but  with  the  least 
possible  force  exerted  in  controlling  their  direction ;  the  cut  should  be  commenced  by 
placing  the  heel  (handle  end  of  tho  blade)  of  the  saw  on  the  farthest  edge  of  the  work 
and  drawing  it  towards  the  body  of  the  operator  (Hodgson). 

This  tool,  it  must  be  remembered,  in  forming  its  saw  kerf,  removes,  in  the  shape  of 
sawdust,  a  solid  bit  of  the  material,  wliich  is  thereby  channelled  as  much  as  if  the  kerf 
had  been  formed  by  a  very  narrow  iron  fitted  in  a  grooving  plane.  This  is  practically 
ignored  by  many  amateurs,  who  carefully  saw  to  line,  and  remove  that  line  in  doing  so, 
and  then  find  that  the  piece  is  cut  too  small.  Of  course,  the  wider  the  saw  is  set,  the 
broader  is  the  piece  removed.  A  great  many  apparently  unaccountable  misfits  are  due 
to  this  error,  which  accounts  also  for  the  absence  of  squareness  in  framed  work — for 
all  the  marked  lines  are  seldom  thus  efifaced.  Casting  the  eye  along  a  saw  of  which 
the  teeth  are  turned  upwards,  this  tool  will  be  seen  to  contain  an  angular  groove 
caused  by  tlie  alternate  bending  outwards  of  its  teeth.  These,  if  properly  filed,  present 
also,  taken  together,  2  knife-like  edges  d  e  (Fig.  303),  which  are  very  keen,  and  form 
the  outside  limits  of  the  saw  kerf:  one  of  these  edges,  therefore,  right  or  left,  as 
the  case  may  be,  must  just  touch  the  ruled  line  upon  the  work,  but  must  not  encroach 
upon  it.  The  result  will  be  a  clean  true  cut  if  the  saw  be  in  good  order ;  but  one 
tooth  having  too  much  set  (projecting  beyond  the  general  line)  will  spoil  it.  Thus, 
in  Fig.  303,  h  c  are  the  limits  of  the  intended  kerf,  of  which  the  darker  line  b  is  the  guide 
line  to  be  left  on  the  work;  but  the  tooth  which  stands  out  too  far  reaches  to  the 
line  a  and  quite  effaces  b. 

Filing  and  Setting. — These  subjects  have  been  so  ably  discussed  in  such  works  as 
Grimshaw  on  'Saw  Filing';  Holly  on  the  'Art  of  Saw  Filing';  and  Hodgson  on 
'  Hand  Saws,'  that  it  is  difficult  to  attack  them  without  in  some  measure  traversing  the 
same  ground. 

A  saw  tooth  consists  of  4  parts— face,  point,  back,  and  gullet  or  throat.  Teeth 
vary  in  spacing,  length,  angle,  rake,  set,  fleam,  and  form  of  gullet.  A  saw  blade  may 
contain  several  kinds  of  teeth  in  succession ;  but  all  teeth  of  a  kind  must  be  either 
quite  uniform  or  arranged  in  a  regular  order  of  change. 

The  ordinary  spacing  of  saw  teeth  is  as  follows  :  Hand-saws,  5-12  points  in  an  inch ; 
rip,  3-5  at  the  heel  and  6-8  at  the  point;  panel,  8-12 ;  tenon,  11-15 ;  mitre,  10-11 :  band- 

p  2 


212 


Carpentky — Easping  Tools. 


saw  teeth  should  have  a  tooth  space  equal  to  J  the  width  of  the  blade  for  soft  wood,  and 
i  for  hard,  while  the  depth  of  the  tooth  in  each  case  should  be  i  the  width  of  the  blade. 

The  length  of  tooth  is  governed  by  tlie  hardness  of  the  wood,  the  longest  teeth  being 
best  adapted  for  wet,  fibrous,  and  soft  woods,  as  giving 
greater  clearance  ;  but  more  care  is  needed  in  having  a  303. 

moderate  and  regular  set. 

The  angle  of  saw  teeth  may  vary  between  about  60° 
and  40°.  The  fundamental  angle  is  60°.  This  may  be 
in  the  form  of  an  equilateral  triangle  for  hard  and 
knotty  wood,  but  for  soft  wood  it  is  better  that  all  the 
pitch  should  be  on  tlie  cutting  face, — an  upright  edge 
with  sloping  back.  For  varied  work  the  usual  angle  is 
40°,  the  pitch  being  equally  divided.  Teeth  of  any  angle 
but  60°  are  not  so  readily  filed  with  an  ordinary  file. 

The  degree  of  rake  may  increase  in  proportion  to 
the  softness  of  the  wood ;  in  hard  woods  it  causes  a 
tendency  to  spring  in.  It  may  also  be  greater  in  a 
circular  saw  on  account  of  its  greater  speed.  Fig.  304 
(from  Grirasliaw)  shows  various  degrees  of  rake,  the 
arrows  indicating  the  direction  of  the  strain. 

The  set  of  a  tooth  may  be  either  "  spring  "  (bent)  or  "  swaged  "  (spread).  The  former 
cut  only  on  one  side,  have  more  tendency  to  spring  in,  and  are  more  subject  to  side  strains  : 
the  latter  cut  on  both  sides,  unless  they  are  sheared,  and  they  are  less  liable  to  spring 
in  and  suffer  from  side  strains.  The  more  gummy  the  wood,  the  greater  set  is  needed. 
Circular  saws  require  more  set  than  straight  ones. 

The  fleam  or  side  angle  of  the  teeth  varies  from  80°  or  90°  horizontally  for  hard 

304. 


woods,  to  C0°  or  70°  horizontally  and  30°  or  35°  vertically  for  soft.  It  is  most  effective 
in  the  case  of  soft  woods  free  from  knots ;  and  should  not  accompany  a  bent  set,  as 
both  tend  to  aggravate  the  tendency  to  spring  in. 

The  gullet  or  throat  should  always  be  rounding  and  never  square,  as  the  latter  con- 
dition gives  a  tendency  to  crack.  Fig.  305  (modified  from  Grimshaw)  shows  when  the 
gullet  requires  deepening,  by  a  process  known  as  "  gumming."  The  tooth  a  is  in  perfect 
order ;  b  is  still  capable  of  doing  good  work ;  but  c  demands  gumming.  The  higher  the 
speed  and  the  faster  the  feed,  the  greater  the  necessity  for  rounding  the  gullet,  especially 
in  band-saws.  Spaulding's  rule  for  finding  the  amount  of  gullet  in  sq.  in.  per  tooth  for 
circular  saws  is  to  double  the  number  of  cub.  in.  of  wood  removed  at  one  revolution,  and 
divide  by  the  number  of  teeth.  Insufficient  gullet  causes  choking,  heating,  and  uneven 
running. 

The  depth,  fleam,  hook,  and  rake  of  teeth  may  increase  in  direct  proportion  to  the 


Carpentry — Easping  Tools.  213 

softness  of  the  wood  ;  the  spacing  nnd  depth  of  gullet  should  be  augmented  for  fibrous 
and  porous  wood ;  thin  blade  and  slight  set  are  desirable  for  costly  wood  ;  a  thick  blado 
is  demanded  for  hard  wood. 

The  operations  entailed  in  keeping  a  saw  in  working  order  are  threefold — filin"-, 
setting,  and  gumming.     These  will  be  described  in  succession. 

First  of  filing.  It  is  a  great  deal  easier  to  keep  a  saw  sharp  by  frequent  light  file- 
touches,  than  to  let  it  get  so  dull  as  to  need  a  long-continued  filing  down,  after  it  gets  so 

305. 


dulled  as  to  refuse  to  work.  The  saving  in  power,  by  using  a  sharp  saw,  is  very  great. 
Thinner  blades  may  be  used  than  where  the  teeth  are  dull ;  because  the  duller  the  saw, 
the  more  power  required  to  drive  it  through  the  wood,  and  the  more  strain  on  each  tooth 
separately,  and  on  the  blade  as  a  whole.  For  the  same  reason,  longer  teeth  may  be  used 
where  they  are  sharp,  than  where  they  are  dull.  The  advantage  of  using  sharp  teeth 
is  greatest  in  those  saws  in  which  the  strain  of  cutting  tends  to  deform  the  blade — as  in 
all  "  push-cut "  straight  saws  and  in  circulars.     (Grimshaw.) 

The  saw,  secured  in  a  proper  clamp,  should  be  placed  where  a  strong  light  will 
fall  on  the  teeth,  so  that  the  filer  can  have  the  full  advantage  of  all  the  light  he 
requires.  Should  there  be  a  deficiency  of  light,  the  filer  should  provide  a  good  lamp, 
and  place  a  dark  shade  between  the  light  and  his  eyes,  so  that  he  can  see  at  a  glance 
when  every  tooth  is  filed  to  a  complete  point.  One  careless  thrust  of  the  file,  when  a 
tooth  is  filed  enough,  will  do  a  saw  more  harm  than  can  be  repaired  by  h  hour's  filing. 
A  beginner  should  always  take  a  try-square  and  the  sharp  point  of  a  small  file,  and 
make  a  hair-mark  from  the  point  of  every  tooth  at  a  right  angle  with  the  teeth  on 
the  sides  of  the  blade.  This  should  be  done  when  the  points  of  the  teeth  are  all  at 
a  uniform  distance  apart.  Such  marks  will  enable  the  filer  to  keep  tlie  face  of 
every  tooth  dressed  at  the  most  desirable  angle.  These  directions,  however,  are  only 
applicable  to  saws  intended  for  cross-cutting.  Beginners  must  always  exercise  un- 
usual care  when  filing  the  back  of  each  tooth  that  has  been  finished.  After  the  teeth 
are  filed  to  complete  points,  it  is  an  excellent  practice  to  go  over  them  carefully 
with  a  half  worn-out  file,  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  the  points  to  a  more  perfect  cut- 
ting edge.    (Hodgson.) 

Both  hand  filing  and  machine  filing  have  their  advocates.  The  former  is  generally 
more  convenient,  and  may  be  rendered  sufficiently  regular  by  means  of  guides.  The 
latter  gives  greater  speed  and  regularity  at  less  cost. 

For  hand  filing,  reference  has  already  (p.  193)  been  made  to  a  clamp  for  holding  the 
saw.  A  very  old  and  convenient  form  is  shown  in  Fig.  30G,  and  consists  merely  of  2 
strips  of  wood  (which  may  be  pine,  but  hard  wood  is  better),  about  3  in.  wide  and 
•|-li  in.  thick,  joined  laterally  by  a  wooden  screw  passing  through  both  at  one  end,  and 
having  their  upper  outside  edges  chamfered  off.  The  toothed  edge  of  the  saw  stands 
sufiBciently  high  above  the  clamp  to  allow  the  saw  to  be  used  in  a  slanting  direction 
without  coming  into  contact  with  the  clamp.  Another  form  consists  of  an  A-shaped 
horse,  whose  standards  are  hinged  together  along  the  top,  wliere  the  saw  is  placed  and 
held  fast  by  putting  the  foot  down  firmly  on  the  cross  bars  supporting  the  legs  of 
the  horse.  Other  forms  have  been  already  described  under  Holding  tools.  Much 
of  the  noise  produced  in  saw  filing  may  be  remedied  by  having  a  layer  of  leather, 


214 


Caepentey — Rasping  Tools. 


rubber,  or  a  few  folds  of  paper  between  the  saw  blade  and  the  jaws  of  the  clamp.  There 
must  be  no  shake  or  jar  in  the  saw  while  under  operation,  or  the  teeth  of  the  file 
will  be  damaged. 

To  put  a  saw  in  order,  the  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  joint  the  tops  of  the  teeth,  or 
render  them  uniform  in  length.    This 

is  termed  "  top-jointing  "  in  straight  306. 

saws  and  "  rounding  "  in  circular  saws 
To  carry  it  out,  Hodgson  recommends 
the  following  cheap  and  expeditious 
plan.  Procure  a  block  of  wood,  say 
6  in.  long,  3  in.  wide,  1  in.  thick, 
dressed  straight  and  true,  then  nail  a 
similar  piece  on  one  edge,  thus  form- 
in"-  a  corner  in  which  to  place  a  file. 
The  file  can  then  be  lield  with  the 
fingers,  or  be  secured  in  various  ways. 
Place  the  file  flatly  on  the  teeth,  and 
press  the  larger  block  against  the  side 
of  the  saw  blade,  then  file  off  tlie 
points  of  the  longest  teeth  until  the 
file  just  touches  the  extremities  of  the 
short  teeth.  It  is  important  that  the  file  be  held  in  such  a  position  that  it  will  take 
off  the  points  exactly  at  right  angles  with  the  blade,  otherwise  the  teeth  will  be  longer 
on  one  side  than  the  other,  which  will  cause  tlie  saw  to  deviate  or  "  run"  more  or  less. 
Grimshaw  remarks  that  the  operation  is  generally  performed  with  a  flat  or  "  mill  "  file, 
although  it  may  be  done  with  a  plane  emery  rubber  or  a  whetstone.  "  Side-jointing" 
is  the  term  applied  to  a  process  for  correcting  irregularity  in  the  set,  or  preventing  undue 
side  projection  of  any  tooth ;  each  tooth  is  thus  made  to  do  only  its  fair  share  of  the  work, 
and  scratching  or  ridging  of  the  sawn  surface  is  avoided.     It  is  most  effective  on  swaged 

eeth,  and  is  performed  by  a  side  file  set  in  an  adjustable  clamp  as  shown  in  Fig.  307. 
"Very  useful  adjuncts  to  inexperienced  workmen  are  the  so-called  filing  guides,  which 

determine  the  angle  of  contact  and  degree  of  force  with  which  the  file  is  applied. 

Fig.  308  shows  a  simple  form,  easily  worked,  and  adapted  to  both  stmight  and  circular 


307. 


308. 


Baws.  The  saw  is  held  in  the  clamp  a.  On  the  guide  is  a  circular  plate  b  graduated  to 
a  scale  for  setting  the  file  to  a  bevel  for  either  side  or  square  across  the  saw.  Legs  c 
extend  from  the  plate  over  the  clamp  into  grooves  in  the  sides  of  the  clamp.  On  the 
nether  side  of  the  plate  b  are  a  number  of  grooves  corresponding  to  the  scale  on  the 
edge,  and  into  which  a  raised  rib  on  the  arched  piece  e  mashes,  and  is  held  in  place  by 


Caepentry — Rasping  Tools. 


215 


the  thumb-screw  d  on  the  top  of  the  plate.  Through  the  ends  of  the  arched  piece  e 
slides  a  rod/,  to  which  are  secured  by  screws  the  arms  that  carry  the  file  g.  By  loosen- 
ing the  thumb-screw  d,  the  file  is  readily  changed  to  any  desired  bevel,  and  the  handle 
of  tlie  tool  may  be  lowered.  When  the  file  is  set  to  the  required  bevel  it  is  secured  by 
tightening  the  thumb-screw  d,  and  its  pitch  is  regulated  by  a  set-screw  in  tlie  socket 
of  the  arm  at  the  handle.  During  the  operation  of  filing,  the  rod  /  governs  the  pitch 
and  bevel,  so  that  every  tooth  is  equally  filed.  The  machine  is  adapted  for  full, 
hollow,  straight-edged,  or  circular  saws.  A  table  is  issued  with  the  machine,  giving  the 
correct  bevels  and  pitches  for  the  various  kinds  of  saw  to  be  filed. 

Fig.  309  shows  the  Amcsbury  band-saw  filing  machine,  fastened  to  an  ordinary 
bench.  The  file  is  in  2  sections,  one  stationary,  the  other  movable  in  the  direction  of 
the    axis;  the    stationary  section 

carries  the  feeders  and  a  thin  seg-  s;09. 

mental  file,  which  files  only  the 
gullets  and  faces  of  the  teeth ;  the 
movable  section  carries  a  thick 
bevelled  file  with  varying  grades 
of  teeth,  rotating  in  a  higher  plane, 
and  destined  to  file  the  backs  and 
take  the  burr  from  the  points.  The 
thumb-screw  a  varies  the  height  of 
this  section  to  suit  the  grade  of 
teeth  and  to  change  the  pressure. 
The  thin  face  and  throat  file  is  cut 
only  on  its  face  and  corner.  The 
filing  head  runs  in  an  oblong  bear- 
ing, so  that  it  can  move  to  allow 
for  high  teeth.  An  adjustable  pres- 
sure spring  b  holds  it  to  the  work, 
and  another  spring  under  the  head 
keeps  it  to  the  tooth-face,  thus 
giving  the  high  teeth  the  most 
l)ressure,  and  bringing  them  down 
to  the  general  bevel.  The  saw  is 
held  in  a  clamping-jaw,  with  the 
back  resting  against  the  gauge  c, 

which  is  adjustable  to  any  saw  width  by  the  screw  d,  and  can  be  set  at  any  angle.  The 
clamping-jaw  is  operated  by  a  cam  on  the  hub  of  the  gear,  and  opens  and  closes  as  the 
machine  is  feeding  or  filing.  This  jaw  acts  like  a  vice  upon  the  saw  when  the  files  are 
in  contact  with  the  teeth,  and  releases  it  when  in  contact  with  the  feeder.  The  filer 
will  work  on  saws  from  -^  in.  to  2  in.  in  width,  and  having  2-20  teeth  to  the  inch. 

Elkin's  patent  saw  sharpener,  Fig.  310,  enables  any  person  to  accurately  and  quickly 
sharpen  any  straight  saw,  including  rip,  cross-cut,  buck,  band,  jig,  &c.  It  is  a  combination 
of  clamps  and  adjustable  guides,  by  means  of  which  the  saw  can  be  firmly  clamped  and 
correctly  sharpened.  The  adjustable  guides  can  be  so  marked  as  to  give  the  tooth  the 
same  bevel,  pitch,  and  elevation.  The  machine  is  simple,  strong,  and  durable  in  con- 
struction, being  made  from  the  best  iron  and  steel.  It  only  occupies  a  space  in  inches 
of  16  X  3  X  3.  For  use,  secure  it  to  a  bench  with  2  screws,  place  the  saw  in  the  clamp, 
with  the  teeth  just  above  the  face  or  upper  part  of  the  jaws — the  handle  to  the  right. 
The  rod,  upon  which  the  travelling  plate  slides  as  each  tooth  is  filed,  can  be  secured  at 
any  desired  elevation  by  means  of  the  thumb-nuts  at  the  ends.  Having  obtained  the 
elevation,  the  file  is  brought  across  the  saw  at  an  angle  corresponding  with  tlie  bevel  of 
the  tooth,  and  there  made  fast  by  turning  the  thumb -screw  beneath  the  travelling  plato 


216 


Caepentey — Easping  Tools. 


In  order  to  get  the  correct  pitch  of  the  tooth,  the  loose  bushing,  through  which  the  file 
carrier  passes,  must  be  perfectly  free,  and  by  pressing  the  file  down  between  the  teeth, 
you  have  the  pitch.  This  bushing  is  held  in  its  proper  position  by  a  set  screw.  Always 
file  from  the  handle  toward  the  point  of  the  saw,  and  never  press  down  upon  the  file 
when  it  is  being  drawn  back.  Having  filed  one  side  of  the  saw,  it  should  then  be 
reversed  with  the  handle  at  the  left.    Then  swing  the  handle  of  the  file  to  the  left. 


bringing  the  file  across  the  saw  to  the  correct  bevel.  The  pitch  of  the  tooth  is  again  to 
be  obtained  as  before.    The  price,  including  1  file,  is  20s.     It  is  sold  by  Churchills. 

The  files  employed  for  sharpening  saws  include  flat  ("  mill  "),  triangular,  round  (for 
gulleting),  and  special  shapes,  varying  of  course  in  size  and  in  grade  of  cut.  The  width 
of  the  file  should  always  be  double  the  width  of  the  surface  to  be  filed.  Preference  is 
given  to  files  in  which  the  grade  of  the  cut  (distance  between  the  teeth)  increases  pro- 
gressively from  point  to  heel ;  with  this  exception,  hand-cut  files  are  esteemed  superior 
to  machine-cut.  For  small  teeth  set  at  60°  it  is  convenient  to  use  a  file  which  will 
sharpen  the  back  of  one  tootli  and  face  of  the  next  at  the  same  time.  "  Float "  or  single- 
cut  files  are  the  best.  Double-tapered  triangular  files  are  not  to  be  recommended ; 
when  used,  they  should  have  a  button  at  the  point  end.  Files  for  band-saws  are  made 
with  rounded  angles  to  suit  the  gullets  of  the  teeth.  Order  and  regularity  in  filing  are 
essential.  Common  rules  for  filing  are  :  (1)  File  the  faces  before  the  backs ;  (2)  if  the 
teeth  are  to  be  square,  file  in  regular  succession — ^I,  2,  3,  4 ;  (3)  if  they  are  to  have  fleam, 
file  ],  3,  5,  7  to  right,  and  2,  4,  0,  8  to  left ;  (4)  file  the  fronts  of  all  teeth  set  from  you, 
and  the  backs  of  those  set  towards  you.   (Grimshaw.) 

In  sharpening  saws  by  means  of  emery  wheels,  the  speed  of  the  wheel  has  great  in- 
fluence on  the  cutting  action.  The  coarseness  or  fineness  of  the  grit  composing  the  wheel 
must  be  suited  to  the  nature  of  the  work.  The  average  speed  of  periphery  adapted  for 
most  purposes  is  4500-GOOO  ft.  per  minute,  the  slower  speed  being  for  wheels  of  12  in. 
diam.  and  less.     These  wheels  are  only  employed  satisfactorily  on  large  circular  saws. 

Setting,  wliether  of  the  bent  or  spread  kind,  is  performed  both  by  simple  hand-tools, 
and  by  more  modem  and  complicated  appliances. 

(a)  In  bent  setting  by  blows,  the  saw  is  laid  nearly  flat  with  its  teeth  along  the 
ridge  of  a  round-edged  anvil  held  in  a  vice,  of  varying  curve  to  produce  an  angle  suited 
to  the  character  of  the  saw,  or  the  saw  blade  is  gripped  in  a  horizontal  vice  close  to  the 


Caepentry— Easping  Tools. 


217 


ends  of  the  teeth.  Alternate  teeth  are  then  struck  in  a  most  careful  and  uniform 
manner  with  a  peculiar  hammer,  the  object  of  the  blow  being  to  bend  every  tooth  in 
exactly  the  same  degree  sideways.  When  half  the  teeth  have  been  so  treated,  the  saw  is 
reversed,  and  the  second  half  are  similarly  served,  only  in  the  opposite  direction.  There 
is  a  risk  of  giving  either  too  short  or  too  long  set :  the  former  results  in  bending  the 
tooth  too  sharply  near  the  point,  while  the  latter  requires  greater  expenditure  of  force. 
Over-setting  may  be  corrected  by  slight  blows  in  the  opposite  direction.  A  very  simple 
apparatus  for  bent  setting  may  be  made  as  shown  in  Fig.  311.  It  consists  of  a  wooden 
framework  a,  carrying  at  the  base  a  movable  steel  anvil  h,  each  of  whose  8  edges  may  be 
chamfered  to  a  different  bevel.  The  framework  also  supports  a  steel  punch  c  free  tO' 
slide  up  and  down  ;  the  end  of  the  punch  is  bevelled,  the  angle  corresponding  (there  are 
8  punches)  to  the  angle  of  the  side  of  the  anvil  to  be  used,  which  varies  with  the  kind  of 
saw  required  to  be  set.  To  set  the  saw,  it  is  laid  on  the  anvil  with  the  teeth  overliang- 
ing  the  bevel  desired  and  under  the  line  of  fall  of  the  punch,  which  latter  is  applied  to- 
alternate  teeth  in  succession  by  striking  it  with  a  hammer.  The  advantage  of  the 
apparatus  is  that  the  amount  of  set  given  to  each  tooth  must  agree  with  the  bevel  of  tho- 
punch  and  anvil. 

(h)  Bent  setting  is  perhaps  more  commonly  effected  by  leverage.  The  simplest  form, 
is  a  notch  cut  in  the  end  of  a  file,  which  is  applied  to  each  tooth  in  order,  and  the 
requisite  set  is  given  by  a  turn  of  the  wrist.  Fig.  312  shows  a  handsaw-set  with  6 
different  gauges  to  suit  the  thickness  of  the  saw  blade ;  and  Fig.  313  is  an  improved  set 


311. 


312. 


ZI 


a< 


TTT\. 


3 


C 


313. 


Zi^ 


i      & 


O/ 


for  fastening  to  a  bench.  In  using  these  tools,  the  saw  must  first  "be  securely  clamped. 
For  bent-setting  band  and  circular  saws  by  leverage,  special  machines  are  necessary,  of 
which  there  are  several  forms  in  the  market.  Goodell  and  Waters,  Philadelphia,  mako 
a  band-saw  set  suited  to  saws  I  in.  to  2  in.  wide,  holding  the  saw  in  a  rigid  position  and. 
setting  the  teeth  without  straining  the  blade.  It  works  by  an  easy,  uniform  crank 
motion,  and  when  the  tooth  to  be  set  is  fed  into  position,  the  blade  is  firmly  locked 
between  the  steel  jaws  of  a  vice,  and  remains  immovable  while  tiie  tooth  is  set  to  any 
degree  required.  As  the  crank  goes  forward,  the  blade  is  released,  when  the  next  tooth 
is  fed  up  to  tlie  dies,  the  blade  again  locked  in  vice,  and  this  tooth  set  in  the  opposite 
direction.  All  these  movements  are  automatic,  and  can  be  carried  on  at  a  speed  oi 
300  teeth  per  minute.  The  feeder  picks  up  only  the  tooth  that  is  to  be  set,  consequently 
each  tooth  is  fed  to  its  proper  position,  regardless  of  their  irregularity.    The  band-saw 


218 


Caepentry — Kasping  Tools. 


314. 


316. 


315. 


is  simply  hung  up  over  the  machine  on  a  wooden  bracket,  and  the  lower  part  left 
pendent  near  the  floor. 

(c)  Spread  setting  is  generally  performed  by  "  crotch  punches  "  or  "  upset  dies " 
having  suitable  outline  and  faces,  applied  to  the  tooth-point  by  sharp  blows  from  a 
hammer.  There  should  be  2  notches,  one  for  spreading  the  tooth- 
point  and  the  other  for  regulating  the  side  play  and  making  the  cutting 
edge  concave  when  necessary.  Care  should  be  taken  to  always  leave 
sufficient  metal  behind  the  corners  of  the  saw  teeth,  or  they  will 
break  off.  The  accompanying  illustrations,  reduced  from  Grimshaw, 
represent  the  edges  of  teeth  when  "  swaged  "  or  "  upset."  In  Fig.  314, 
a  is  the  best  attainable  in  practice ;  h  has  extremely  weak  corners. 
In  forming  the  swage,  the  tool  should  be  held  so  as  to  deliver  the 
blow  in  a  straight  line  with  the  face  of  the  tooth,  otherwise  cracks 
may  be  started  in  the  gullet,  especially  in  frosty  weather. 

Many  appliances  for  bending  and  spreading  teeth  are  described  in 
Grimshaw's  large  work  on  '  Saws.'  The  crotch-punch  of  ordinary 
form  is  shown  in  Fig.  315.  It  is  made  of  steel  and  case-hardened  in 
the  fork,  where  it  comes  into  contact  with  the  points  of  the  saw 


' 

/ 

cu 

h 

teeth.    There  is  much  difficulty  in  making  crotch-punches  of  a  satisfactory  character, 

as  the  tempering  has  to  be  extremely  hard  just  for  the  jaws,  while  if  it  runs  back 

too  far  they  have  a  tendency  to  split.     They  should  be  fitted  with  a  side  guard  to 

prevent  the  operator's  hand  being 

injured  by  the  punch  slipping 

off  a  tooth.     This  guide  may  be 

made  to  serve  also  as  a  means  of 

keeping  the  punch  central  or  of 

giving  it  an  inclination  to  either 

side.    Crotch-punches  have  been 

introduced  which  are  claimed  to 

act  on    the    teeth    behind    the 

cutting  edge  as  well  as  at  tlie     .■ 

edge,  spreading  the  teeth  with-  \ 

out  reducing  their  length  and 

consequently  the  diameter  of  the 

saw  (circular).     Fig.   316  is  a 

diagram  of  the  end  of  the  punch 

with  part  of  the  covering  sleeve 

removed  to  show  the  form.     If  a 

tooth  is  struck  with  the  convex-sided  lower  angle,  the  resulting  tooth  is  as  shown  at  a  ; 

a  second  blow  with  the  upper  angle  produces  the  flattened  and  double  set  tooth  h. 

Disston's  revolving  saw  set  is  shown  in  Fig.  317.    Its  price  is  Is.  6d.  or  2s.,  according 


Carpentry — Kasping  Tools. 


219 


to  size.     Among  the  advantages  claimed  for  this  useful  little  tool  are  the  following: 

it  is  portable,  simple,  effectual,  and  cheap  ;  it  can  be  readily  adjusted  to  any  size  tooth 
from  a  14-point  back-saw  to  a  4-point  rip-saw.  The  tooth  in  front  of  the  one  bcinf  set 
forms  a  guide  for  the  tool,  and  the  operator  can  readily  and  with  certainty  slide  the  set 
from  tooth  to  tootli.  The  different  bevels  on  the  disc  are  in  accord  with  the  different 
slots  for  the  various-sized  teeth.  The  screws  on  each  side  determine  the  amount  of  set. 
The  implement  is  sold  by  Churchills. 

Trickett's  lever  saw  set,  sold  by  Melhuish,  at  3s.  Qd.,  is  represented  in  Fig.  318. 


For  use,  place  the  set  on  the  saw  as  indicated,  holding  it  in  the  right  hand ;  place  the 
punch  in  line  to  tooth  requiring  to  be  set,  then  grasp  the  lever  and  handle  together ; 
the  punch  in  lever  forces  the  saw  tooth  over  on  the  bevelled  head  of  the  bolt,  and  the 
tooth  is  set. 

Morrill's  saw  sets  for  hand,  band,  scroll,  cross-cut,  circular,  and  mill  saws,  are  sold  by 


319 


Churchills  at  prices  ranging  from  3s.  Scl.  to  16s.  Fig.  319  illustrates  the  application 
of  the  implement.  Hold  the  saw  on  any  level  place,  teeth  upwards.  Place  the  set  on 
the  saw  as  shown.    The  anvil  b  is  movable  up  and  down,  and  must  be  regulated  to  suit 


220  Caepentry— Easping  Tools. 

the  distance  that  the  operator  desires  to  set  his  saw  teeth  down  from  their  points.  Care 
must  be  taken  not  to  have  the  angle  or  the  point  where  the  bend  is  made  below  the 
base  of  the  tooth.  The  nut  or  screw  a  fastens  the  anvil  in  any  desired  position.  The 
guard  e,  when  moved  forward,  increases  the  amount  of  set  to  be  given ;  when  moved 
back,  decreases  it.  The  guard  is  made  fast  by  the  screw  d.  The  set  is  operated  by 
compressing  the  handles  /,  which  carries  the  plunger  g  forward,  and  takes  effect  on  the 
tooth  of  the  saw  c,  as  shown.  Great  care  should  be  taken  against  setting  saws  too  wide, 
as,  with  too  much  latitude,  they  will  chatter  and  tear  rather  than  cut,  at  a  great  cost  of 
power  and  waste  of  lumber.  All  saws  should  be  set  or  pressed  into  line  3  times  to  1 
filing,  as  by  constant  use  the  teetli  wear  off  on  the  outside  at  their  points,  causing  them 
to  heat  and  spring  out  of  true,  thus  spoiling  the  saws,  burning  the  wood,  consuming 
power,  and  retarding  the  work,  besides  rendering  it  dangerous  to  the  operator. 

A  spring  set  with  a  slightly  shearing  tooth  performs  its  cutting  in  the  easiest 
manner,  but  as  only  the  corners  of  the  teeth  operate,  twice  as  many  teeth  are  required  to 
do  the  same  amount  of  work  in  a  spring  set  saw  as  in  a  fully  swaged  one ;  the  latter  is 
generally  preferred  as  being  more  easily  kept  in  order.  In  bent  setting,  care  must  be 
taken  that  it  is  only  the  tooth  and  not  the  plate  of  the  saw  that  is  operated  upon,  or  there 
is  a  risk  of  distorting  or  cracking  the  blade. 

Gumming  consists  in  deepening  the  throat  or  gullet  of  a  saw,  and  is  effected  by  means 
of  punches,  or  preferably  by  rotuting  steel  cutters  or  emery  wheels.  Too  often  the 
gumming  is  neglected,  more  of  the  face  of  the  tooth  being  filed  away  instead,  thus 
reducing  the  diameter  of  the  saws  and  causing  waste.  Grimshaw  illustrates  several 
efficient  machines  for  gumming. 

According  to  Duncan  Paret,  the  simplest  method  by  which  solid  emery  wheels  can 
be  applied  for  saw  gumming  is  by  placing  them  on  the  spindle  of  the  circular  saw. 
The  saw  to  be  gummed  can  then  be  laid  on  the  saw  table,  or  supported  in  any 
convenient  way.  A  simple  way  is  to  pass  the  end  of  a  rope  with  a  small  cross 
stick  on  it  through  the  eye  of  tlie  saw,  and  tims  suspend  the  saw  so  tliat  it 
swings  evenly  balanced  just  in  front  of  the  emery  wheel.  The  weight  being  thus 
carried,  the  operator  only  has  to  use  his  hands  to  guide  the  saw  against  the  wheel. 
Where  expensive  machinery  is  scanty,  and  where  people  are  slow  to  introduce  the 
latest  improvements,  tliere  is  a  steady  demand  for  saw-gumming  wheels  14-24  in. 
in  diameter.  Where  the  latest  improvements  are  quickly  added,  regardless  of  price, 
nearly  all  the  emery  wheels  used  for  saw  gumming  are  12-8  in.,  none  of  the  machines 
specially  designed  fur  saw  gumming  being  intended  to  carry  anything  above  a  12-in. 
wheel.  Emery  wheels  are  unfavourably  contrasted  with  grindstones  as  causing  a 
heating  of  the  saw,  but  this  can  be  obviated  by  using  the  wheel  under  a  small  constant 
stream  of  water.  One  advantage  of  a  rotating  steel-cutter  gummer  over  an  emery 
wheel  is  that,  whereas  an  inexperienced  hand  can  ruin  a  saw  by  case-hardening  with  an 
emery  wheel,  this  cannot  be  done  with  a  steel  cutter  or  "  burr  gummer."  Most  of  the 
emery  gummers  for  circulars  require  that  the  saw  shall  be  taken  otf  its  arbor  to  be 
gummed ;  all  burr  gummers  work  with  the  saw  in  position.    (Grimshaw.) 

The  order  followed  in  renovating  the  cutting  edge  of  a  sawsliould  be  (1)  gumming, 
(2)  setting,  (3)  filing ;  but  as  the  last  named  is  often  the  only  kind  of  attention  the 
saw  receives,  it  has  been  described  first. 

Having  discussed  the  general  principles  on  which  the  renovation  of  saw  teeth  is 
based,  and  detailed  the  manner  in  which  the  operation  is  conducted,  a  few  illustrated 
examples  may  be  given  of  the  teeth  of  the  chief  kinds  of  saw  in  use  (see  Fig.  320). 

(1)  Cross-cut  saws  (hand)  vary  from  12  to  32  in.  in  length.  Their  tooth  edge  should 
be  straight  or  a  trifle  bulged  in  tlie  middle.  The  teeth  should  be  fully  set  and  well- 
jointed,  a  (Fig.  320)  shows  the  best  tooth  for  soft  wood  ;  b  is  better  adapted  for  wood  of 
medium  hardness  and  for  mitreing  soft  wood  ;  c,  for  harder  wood,  has  the  back  of  the 
teeth  tiled  square.     For  cutting  timber,  the  teeth  are  made  much  larger,  but  resemble 


Carpentry — Rasping  Tools. 


221 


those  in  h,  the  set  being  increased  with  the  wetness  of  tlie  wood.  The  long  cross-cut 
for  2  men  is  toothed  as  at  i  (Fig.  320),  the  cutting  edge  of  the  saw  being  approciably 
highest  in  the  middle  and  gradually  tapering  towards  each  end ;  the  bevel  shown  is 
adapted  to  soft  or  wet  wood,  and  must  be  lessened  for  harder  or  drier  material. 
li  represents  an  American  hook  tooth,  which  is  based  on  the  principle  that  the  while  the 
fleam  teeth  or  knives  cut  into  the  wood,  the  hook  teeth  remove  the  "  dust."  These  saws 
work  easily  and  cut  rapidly.    The  rake  of  a  cross-cut  saw  is  at  the  side.    It  takes  less 


320. 


r^V\^:yvVN:V^^V\^ 


o 


(  c 


WWVVs 


inclination  than  the  cross-cut.  The  cross-cut  requires  finer  and  more  particular  filing 
than  the  rip  or  web  saw,  and  cannot  be  considered  well  filed  unless  a  needle  will  travel 
down  the  angular  groove  which  is  formed  by  the  line  of  alternating  points  of  teeth  seen 
in  all  well-filed  saws.  When  the  teeth  are  so  regularly  formed  that  a  needle  will  travel 
from  end  to  end  in  the  angular  groove,  and  the  points  are  sharp  and  keen,  the  saw  will 
cut  a  kerf  in  the  wood  that  will  have  a  flat  bottom.  The  last  teeth  of  cross-cuts  may 
be  rounded  at  the  points,  to  prevent  tearing  the  wood  when  entering  and  leaving  the  cut. 
(2)  Back-saws  are  shown  at  d  and  e  (Fig.  320) ;  the  former  suits  soft  wood,  whilo 


222  Carpentry — Kasping  Tools. 

the  latter  is  for  harder  wood  and  for  mitreing.     The  thinness  of  the  blade  of  the  back- 
saw  is  compensated  for  by  the  extra  back,  which  must  be  kept  tightly  in  place. 

(3)  The  fleam  tooth  is  illustrated  at  /  (Fig.  320).  It  is  only  adapted  for  very 
clean  soft  wood,  which  it  cuts  rapidly  and  smoothly.  It  has  no  set,  and  is  filed  while 
lying  quite  flat. 

(4)  Buck-saws  are  represented  at  g  and  h  (Fig.  320),  the  former  being  for  wet  or 
soft  wood,  and  the  latter  for  dry  or  hard. 

(5)  Web,  scroll,  and  compass  saws  are  best  prorided  with  teeth  as  shown  at  I  (Fig. 
320),  for  whilst  they  have  to  perform  both  ripping  and  cross-cutting,  a  tooth  adapted  for 
the  latter  will  perform  the  former  operation,  though  more  slowly,  but  the  converse  rule 
does  not  hold  good.  Finer  teeth  will  be  necessary  for  hard  wood.  The  backs  of  all  saws 
of  this  class  are  made  very  thin,  to  avoid  the  necessity  for  giving  a  set  to  the  teeth. 

(6)  The  rip-saw,  for  cutting  wood  longitudinally,  requires  an  essentially  different 
tooth  from  the  cross-cut.  For  a  vertical  mill-saw,  the  best  form  of  tooth  is  that  shown 
at  TO  (Fig.  320),  the  edge  of  each  tooth  being  spread  out  by  means  of  the  crotch-punch. 
An  inferior-shaped  tooth  is  seen  at  n,  the  setting  being  on  one  side  of  the  tooth  only, 
taking  opposite  sides  in  succession,  o  illustrates  the  best  form  of  tooth  for  a  hand  rip- 
saw, the  action  being  precisely  like  that  of  a  mortice  chisel.  The  rake  of  a  rip-saw  is 
in  front.  It  takes  more  inclination  than  a  cross-cut.  The  points  of  the  teeth  should  b& 
trued  with  a  straight-edge,  f>s,  in  general  experience,  a  rip-saw  does  more  work,  with 
greater  ease,  straight,  than  when  either  rounding  or  hollow  on  the  cutting  edge ;  some 
good  workmen,  however,  prefer  rip-saws  slightly  hollow,  not  more  than  i  in.  in  the 
?ength  of  the  blade.  The  hand  rip-saw  is  usually  a  few  inches  longer  than  the  cross- 
cut, but  has  far  fewer  teeth.  Rip-saws  are  often  given  too  little  rake  and  gullet.  The 
first  6  or  8  in.  at  the  point  of  a  hand  rip-saw  may  have  cross-cut  pitch,  to  allow  of 
cutting  through  knots  without  having  to  change  the  saw  for  a  cross-cut. 

(7)  Circular-saw  teeth  generally  have  greater  space,  angle,  and  set  than  the  teeth  of 
straight  saws.     They  should  be  filed  on  the  under  side ;  widely  spaced,  very  hooking,, 
and  with  plenty  of  gullet  to  let  out  the  chips.     Teeth  of  circular  saws  can  be  gauged  to 
exact  shape  by  having  a  piece  of  sheet  steel  cut  out  to  fit.     Absolute  likeness  in  all 
respects  can  be  controlled  by  having  a  piece  of  sheet  metal  cut  to  the  required  outline 
and  attached  to  an  arm  forming  a  radius  of  a  circle  from  the  shaft  carrying  the  saw. 
Three  light  filings  are  preferable  to  one  heavy.    The  shape  of  under-cut  teeth  is  apt  to 
be  altered  in  filing.     The  flaring  sides  of  M  teeth  require  special  files.     When  a  tooth 
is  broken  so  as  to  be  only  slightly  short,  it  can  often  be  brought  out  to  line  by  using  the 
crotch-swage  as  a  lever  while  hammering  upon  it.    The  saw  should  always  be  allowed 
to  run  free  for  a  few  minutes  before  removing  it  from  the  shaft.     Circular  saws  should 
always  be  either  hung  up  in  a  free  perpendicular  position,  or  laid  quite  flat.    Fig.  321 
shows  a  series  of  circular-saw  teeth  of  varying  shape  and  rake.    The  softer  the  wood, 
the  greater  rake  admissible.    In  some  cases  (b,  c)  the  back  rake  tends  to  reduce  the 
acuteness.     e  is  recommended  for  ripping  hard  wood  in  winter ;   c,  for  hard  wood  in 
summer ;   g,  for  all  kinds  of  wood  in  summer  ;  h,  c,  for  harder  woods  than  when  no  back 
rake  is  given ;  /,  with  a  rounded  gullet,  2  in.  long  for  soft  wood,  1£  in.  for  hard ;  h,  i,  j, 
h,  n,  are  forms  of  ripping  teeth  little  used  in  soft  wood ;  I  is  popular  in  Europe ;  m  is  a 
cross-cutting  tooth,  very  liable  to  break  on  a  knot  in  frosty  weather.     The  question  of 
few  or  many  teeth  in  a  circular  rip-saw  depends  almost  entirely  upon  the  character  of 
timber  being  ripped ;   and  the  feed  per  revolution  should  be  made  dependent  upon  the 
strength  of  the  teeth  to  resist  breaking,  and  the  capacity  of  the  gullet  to  hold  the 
cuttings.    In  a  cross-cut,  the  conditions  are  different.    To  straighten  a  circular  saw,  get 
a  hard-wood  block  12  in.  by  12  in. ;  bed  it  on  end  on  the  ground  (not  floor)  ;   round  the 
top  off  with  I  in.  rise ;   nail  up  a  joist  at  the  back  of  the  block,  for  the  saw  to  rest  on ; 
let  its  face  be  an  inch  below  the  top  of  the  block.    Use  a  3  or  4  lb.  blacksmiths"  hammer 
for  saws  over  50  in. ;  a  lighter  one  for  smaller  and  thinner  blades.    For  large  saws,  the 


Cakpentey — Easping  Tools. 


223 


straight  edge  should  be  about  J^  in.  thick,  20  in.  long,  3^  in.  •wide  in  centre,  1  in.  at 
end ;  the  edge  of  the  straight  side  chamfered  or  rounded  off".  Balance  the  saw  on  a 
mandrel,  and  apply  the  straight-edge ;  mark  the  high  places  with  chalk ;  have  a  helper 
to  hold  the  saw  ou  the  block,  and  hammer  on  the  humps,  testing  freiiuuutly. 
(Grimshaw.) 

When  a  saw  is  not  round,  the  defect  may  be  corrected  by  adopting  the  followiu"- 
directions :  Take  a  piece  of  grindstone  or  a  cobblestone  and  hold  it  against  the  points  of 
the  teeth  while  the  saw  ia  revolving,  and  thus  reduce  or  -wear  down  the  most  prominent 


teeth ;  or  a  piece  of  red  chalk  may  be  held  against  the  points,  which  will  mark  them  in 
proportion  as  they  are  long  or  short,  when  the  long  teeth  are  reduced  by  filing.  Circular 
saws  sometimes  burst  from  what  appear  as  unknown  causes.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
when  a  saw  does  fly  in  pieces  that  a  thorough  investigation  would  trace  the  occurrence 
to  one  of  the  following  causes :  (1)  Square  corners  at  bottom  of  tooth ;  (2)  Out  of  round, 
with  the  backs  higher  than  the  points,  so  that  instead  of  cutting,  they  scrape  the  dust 
off  with  the  back  ;  (3)  Undue  strain  put  upon  tlie  saw  by  the  plate  rubbing  against  the 
timber,  causing  it  to  heat,  which  takes  the  life  out  of  a  saw.  In  a  recent  report  of  the 
French  Society  for  Preventing  Accidents  from  Machines,  a  recommendation  is  made  for 
the  avoidance  of  the  use  of  circular  saws  in  workshops  where  practicable.  The  following 
are  the  reasons  for  this  recommendation :  (1)  Circular  saws  are  dangerous  to  workmen  ; 
(2)  they  require  more  power  than  other  saws;  (3)  they  cut  a  broader  line,  and  are 
consequently  more  wasteful.  The  speed  of  circular  saws  varies  with  the  size,  approxi- 
mately as  follows:— 8  in.  diam.,  4500  rev.  per  minute;  12  in.,  3000;  16  in.,  2200;  20  in.. 
1800.  The  speed  for  cross-cutting  can  be  increased  with  advantnge  1000  ft.  beyond 
those  used  for  ripping,  say  to  10,000  ft.  per  minute.  Never  cut  stuff  that  measures 
more  than  i  the  diameter  of  the  saw.  The  manner  in  which  a  circular  saw  is  hammered 
has  much  to  do  with  the  speed  at  which  it  can  be  run,  and  often  when  a  saw  becomes 


224  CAKrENTRY — Easping  Tools. 

limber  and  "  runs,"  it  is  the  fanlt  of  the  hammering  instead  of  the  speed.  "When  slack 
on  the  periphery,  it  will  not  stand  speed,  and  becomes  weaker  and  bends  more  readily 
wlien  in  motion  than  when  it  is  still ;  on  the  contrary,  if  it  is  properly  hammered,  a 
little  tight,  as  it  is  termed,  on  the  periphery,  it  becomes  more  rigid  when  in  motion  up 
to  a  certain  limit.  The  theory  of  this  is  that  the  steel  is  elastic,  and  is  stretched  by  the 
centrifugal  strain  in  proportion  to  the  speed,  which  is  greatest  on  the  line  of  teeth,  and 
diminishes  to  the  centre.  If  saws  evince  a  tendency  to  spring  and  a  want  of  rigidity, 
have  them  renammered  at  once,  before  changing  the  speed  in  an  endeavour  to  remedy 
the  defect. 

(8)  The  band-saw  is  never  used  for  cross-cutting,  except  when  cutting  scroll-work, 
and  may  generally  be  treated  as  a  rip-saw.  It  requires  special  regularity  in  shape  and 
set  of  teeth  to  prevent  it  from  breaking  and  from  running  into  the  work.  In  order  to 
set  it  up,  or  join  the  2  ends  together,  the  2  tongues  are  introduced  simultaneously  into 
the  2  corresponding  openings,  and  the  ends  of  the  saw  are  pressed  together  laterally  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  cause  the  snugs  on  the  tungues  to  engage  with  or  hook  on  to  the 
bevelled  edges  in  the  openings,  and  the  thin  ends  of  the  tongues  then  lie  in  the  inclined 
recesses  in  the  sides  of  the  saw.  When  the  pai  ts  are  in  this  position,  the  2  extremities 
of  the  saw  cannot  be  separated  either  by  a  considerable  strain  in  the  direction  of  its 
length  or  by  a  diminution  of  the  tension.  To  disconnect  the  ends  of  the  saw,  separate 
the  hooked  and  bevelled  edges  by  applying  lateral  pressure,  and  at  the  same  time  draw 
the  ends  apart  in  opposite  directions.  The  junction  of  the  2  extremities  is  effected  by 
means  of  a  hook  or  interlocking  joint.  A  portion  of  the  saw  near  each  extremity  is 
reduced  in  thickness  in  such  a  manner  that,  when  the  ends  are  laid  together,  the  two 
combined  do  not  exceed  the  thickness  of  the  remaining  part  of  the  saw.  Portions  of 
the  back  and  front  of  the  extreme  ends  are  also  cut  away,  so  as  to  leave  narrow  tongues 
at  each  extremity  of  the  saw,  and  these  tongues  are  provided  on  opposite  sides  relatively 
to  each  other  with  snugs  or  hooks.  In  the  thin  portions  at  the  extremities  of  the  saw 
there  are  formed,  at  equal  distances  from  the  tongues,  2  longitudinal  slits  or  openings, 
presenting  bevelled  or  inclined  surfaces  at  the  edges  nearest  the  ends  of  the  saw,  corre- 
sponding exactly  to  the  snugs  on  the  tongues.  The  opposite  edge  of  each  opening  is 
also  bevelled  or  inclined,  but  at  a  much  more  acute  angle,  so  as  to  form  a  recess  in  the 
side  of  the  saw  for  the  reception  of  the  extreme  end  of  the  corresponding  tongue,  which 
is  suitably  reduced  in  thickness  towards  the  extremity,  in  order  to  enable  it  to  be  well 
within  the  said  recess.  Where  gas  is  used  for  lighting  purposes,  it  is  often  employed 
for  brazing  band-saws,  and  nearly  in  every  case  where  this  is  done,  the  blade  of  the  saw 
operated  upon  deteriorates,  and  breakages  gradually  increase.  As  these  breakages  do 
not  occur  exactly  at  the  joint,  no  blame  is  attached  to  the  use  of  gas,  and  the  cause  of 
continual  failures  is  rarely  discovered.  A  gas  flame  not  only  scales  steel  deeply,  but  also 
destroys  its  nature  by  burning  the  carbon  out,  and  this  occurs  especially  at  the  edge  of 
the  flame.  Band-saws  brazed  by  gas  almost  invariably  break  again  at  a  point  some 
little  distance  from  the  previous  fracture,  at  the  point  where  the  outer  edge  of  the  flame 
has  damaged  the  metal.  The  only  really  satisfactory  way  of  repairing  is  to  make  a 
thick,  heavy  pair  of  tongs  bright  red-hot,  and  clamp  the  joint  with  them.  The  heat 
melts  the  spelter  instantly,  and  makes  a  good  joint  without  scaling  or  damaging  the 
steel. 

For  a  joint  which  has  to  stand  constant  heavy  strains  and  bending,  it  is  better 
to  use  an  alloy  of  equal  parts  of  coin-silver  and  copper,  melted  together  and  rolled  out 
thin.  This  alloy  never  burns,  cannot  be  overheated,  and  makes  first-rate  joints,  which 
will  stand  hammering  and  bending  to  almost  any  extent.  The  working  action  of  a 
band-saw  is,  generally  speakmg,  similar  to  the  working  action  of  a  circular  saw, — con- 
tinuous. "  Owing  chiefly  to  the  thinness  of  the  gauge,  the  small  area  of  the  blade  which 
operates  on  the  wood  at  one  time,  and  the  constant  cooling  action  which  is  going  on,  as 
the  saw  passes  through  the  air,  a  comparatively  small  amount  of  heat  is  engendered ; 


Carpentry — Easping  Tools.  225 

the  saw  therefore  can  bo  run  at  a  considerable  speed  without  detriment.  On  machines 
in  which  the  saw-wbeels  are  of  small  diameter,  say  below  30  in.,  and  where  the  arc  ot 
contact  of  the  saw  on  the  wheels  is  necessarily  more  acute,  the  speed  of  the  saw-blado 
should  not  much  exceed  4500  ft.  per  minute  for  all  ordinary  kinds  of  sawing.  With 
saw-wheels  above  3G  in.  diameter,  this  speed  may  safely  be  increased  up  to  GOOO  ft.  per 
minute;  this  is,  however,  on  the  supposition  tliat  the  top  wheel  is  of  the  lightest  con- 
struction, and  is  mounted  elastically,  i.e.  has  a  spring  or  other  adjustment  to  allow  for 
the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  saw-blade.  There  is  no  advantage  in  running  band- 
saws  beyond  GOOO  ft.  per  minute,  as  the  risk  of  breakage  is  increased  without  affording 
any  corresponding  gain.  In  sawing  hard  woods,  tlie  speed  should  be  reduced.  The 
band-saw  may  be  said  to  have  a  blade  of  superior  thinness,  capable  of  tension  in  varying 
degrees,  moving  in  right  lines  through  the  material  at  a  speed  that  is  almost  unlimited  and 
can  exceed  that  of  circular  saws,  operating  by  machinery  consisting  only  of  rotating  parts 
and  of  the  most  simple  construction,  the  sawdust  all  carried  down  through  the  timber 
and  offering  no  obstruction  in  following  lines  and  peculiar  adaptation  to  curved  lines. 

"  The  speed  of  sawing,  or  the  cost  of  sawing,  which  is  much  the  same  thing  as  the 
movement  of  the  teeth,  is  with  the  band-saw  almost  unlimited.  Its  performance,  con- 
trasted with  jig-saws  for  cutting  plain  sweeps  or  scroll-work,  shows  a  gain  of  time  or 
cost  of  3  to  I,  with  the  important  advantage  of  being  easier  to  operate,  and  much  more 
popular  with  workmen.  The  greatest  objection  to  a  band-saw  is  that  it  cannot  be  used 
for  cutting  inside  work.  Some  workmen  saw  clean  through  the  stuff  to  get  at  the  inside, 
when  the  nature  of  the  work  will  admit  of  such  treatment  without  weakening  or  injuring 
the  design.  Strips  of  the  same  kind  of  wood  as  the  design  are  firmly  glued  into  the 
saw-kerfs  when  the  work  is  comiileted.  Of  course,  this  method  of  reaching  inside  cut- 
ting can  only  be  adopted  where  the  design  is  not  intended  to  bear  any  strain.  Many 
devices  have  been  suggested  for  separating  and  joining  band-saws,  but  most  of  them  are 
unavailable  or  impracticable.  One,  however,  enables  the  operator  to  separate  the  saw, 
pass  it  through  a  hole  bored  in  the  wood  and  join  it  again,  in  less  time  than  it  takes  to 
disconnect  the  blade  of  a  jig-saw,  pass  it  through  the  wood  and  connect  it  again  to  the 
machinery.  This  arrangement  gives  the  band-saw  an  important  advantage  over  the 
jig-saw  in  its  own  special  province,  as  it  renders  it  possible  for  much  thicker  material 
to  be  sawn  than  could  be  done  with  the  jig-saw,  and  the  work  will  be  better  done  in 
less  time."     (M.  Powis  Bale,  M.I.M.E.,  A.M.I.C.E.) 

(9)  "  The  jig-saw  or  reciprocating  saw  is  a  blade  arranged  to  work  upright  by  means 
of  a  crank  in  a  table.  One  is  shown  in  Fig.  322,  p.  226.  In  setting  up  a  jig-saw,  choose 
the  most  solid  part  in  the  building,  over  a  post,  pier,  or  timber ;  if  on  a  ground  tioor,  it 
should  be  set  on  solid  masonry  or  piles.  If  obliged  to  put  the  saw  on  an  upper  floor, 
use  a  counter-balance  equal  to  three-fourths  the  weight  of  the  movable  parts;  this  will 
tlirow  the  vibration  on  a  horizontal  plane.  When  a  jig-saw  is  set  en  solid  masonry,  no 
counter-balance  is  required,  as  it  is  better  to  let  the  vibration  fall  vertically  on  the 
masonry.  It  is  not  wise  to  drive  jig-saws  a  too  high  a  speed,  as  the  wear  and  tear  of 
the  machinery  will  more  than  balance  the  gain  in  speed  of  sawing :  300  strokes  per 
minute  is  about  the  correct  pace.  The  speed  of  the  feed  may  be  varied  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  wood  being  sawn.  For  very  hard  wood,  a  feed  of  6  in.  per  minute  is 
suitable,  whilst  for  very  soft  wood  as  much  as  30  in.  may  be  cut  in  the  same  time ;  it  is 
a  great  mistake,  however,  to  force  the  feed,  as  the  sawdust  has  not  time  to  escape,  and 
the  saws  become  choked  and  buckled,  and  run  out  of  line."  (M,  Powis  Bale,  M.I.M.E., 
A.M.I.C.E.) 

(10)  A  sa"wing  table  for  using  cither  a  jig-saw  or  a  circular  saw  may  conclude  this 
section.  An  example  is  shown  in  Fig.  322.  The  table  consists  of  l§-in.  planed  plank 
a,  about  3  ft.  by  2  ft.,  of  beech  or  good  deal,  supported  on  4  legs  b,  2  or  3  in.  square,  tied 
by  a  framing  c  to  which  the  plank  is  screwed.  From  the  centre  of  the  buck  of  the  table 
rises  a  wooden  pillar  d,  21  ft.  high  and  measuring  3  in.  by  2,  mortised  into  the  table 

Q 


226 


Caepentry — Easping  Tools. 


and  further  held  and  strengthened  by  screw-bolts  and  a  T-iron  brace,  or  carried  to  the 
floor,  or  to  a  longitudinal  brace  (not  shown)  joining  the  2  back  legs  near  the  ground.  A 
strong  rubber  door-spring/ attached  to  a  screwed  eye  in  the  arm  e  pulls  the  saw  g  up  at 
each  stroke.  The  lower  end  of  the  saw  g  may  be  attached  directly  to  the  crank  of  the 
treadle  h,  giving  only  1  stroke  of  the  saw  for  each  revolution  of  the  fly-wheel  i ;  or,  to 
obtain  several  strokes  for  each  revolution,  the  saw  is  attached  by  a  hook  and  band  to  a 
smaller  crank  and  axle  worked  by  a  strap  from  the  fly-wheel,  and  the  saw  is  at  the 

322. 


same  time  made  to  work  vertically  by  passing  the  band  over  a  pulley  under  the  table 
exactly  in  line  with  the  upper  end  of  the  saw,  before  taking  it  to  the  crank.  For  hold- 
ing down  the  work  whilst  sawing,  and  simultaneously  acting  as  a  bearer  to  keep  the  saw 
engaged  in  its  work,  a  convenient  arrangement  is  to  have  a  block  of  hard  wood  /.;  with  a 
slit  in  the  front  edge  I  carried  by  an  iron  rod  m  fitting  into  the  hole  n  in  the  arm  e,  and 
adjustable  by  screw-nuts.  The  fly-wheel  may  be  18  in.  diam.  with  a  heavy  rim,  and  the 
main  crank  1 J-2  in.,  giving  a  3-in.  stroke.  For  working  a  small  circular  saw,  the 
wooden  poppets  op  are  used,  o  being  tenoned  into  a  square  hole  in  the  table,  while  ^  is 
free  to  slide  in  a  groove.  The  circular  saw  and  its  pulley  work  in  the  holes  r  s 
respectively  in  tlie  table. 

Fig.  323  shows  a  home-made  fret-saw,  having  a  capacity  ranging  from  -'-in.  to  6-in. 
stuff".  The  2  uprights  a  are  of  spruce,  and  measure  7  ft.  high  and  4  in.  sq. ;  they  are 
mortised  at  foot  into  stout  planks  b  screwed  down  to  the  workshop  floor,  and  at  top  into  a 
beam  c,  G  ft.  long,  4  in.  wide,  and  3  in.  thick.  Tlie  space  between  the  uprights  is 
5  ft.  G  in.  in  the  clear.     The  inner  frame  d  is  of  pine,  3  in.  wide  and  2  in.  thick,  the 


CARrENTRY— Easping  Tools. 


227 


transverse  pieces  being  composed  of  2  lengths  of  1-in.  stuff,  glued  and  screwed  together 
with  the  grain  reversed.  Tlie  spring  e  at  the  top  of  the  frame  is  made  of  3  pieces  of 
ash,  I  in.  thick,  planed  down  to  a  in.  at  each  extremity  ;  a  bolt  and  nut  attaches  the 
spring  to  the  frame,  and  short  lengths  of  chain  or  rope  connect  it  with  the  saw-frame  d. 
The  treadle  /  is  hinged  to  tlie  floor  at  the  lower  end,  and  suspended  by  straps  g  from 
the  frame  at  the  upper  end.     The  table  h  for  carrying  the  work,  and  through  which  the 

323. 


saw  passes,  is  supported  by  2  strips  of  batten  screwed  to  the  outer  frame,  and  measures 
2  ft.  long  and  18  in.  wide.  The  saw  is  set  up  in  the  usual  manner.  Obviously  tlie 
dimensions  may  be  altered  to  suit  any  particular  need. 

Files.  Principles. — A  file  is  a  stetl  instrument  having  the  surface  covered  witli 
shnrp-edged  furrows  or  teeth,  used  for  abrading  or  smoothing  substances,  chiefly  wood 
and  metals.  A  file  proper  differs  from  a  rasp,  in  having  the  furrows  made  by  straight 
cuts  (produced  by  a  chisel  or  a  sand  blast),  cither  single  or  crossed,  while  the  rasp  has 
coarse  single  teetli  raised  by  the  pyramidal  end  of  a  triangular  punch.  The  effective 
power  of  the  file  resembles  that  of  the  saw,  represented  by  a  wedge  not  encumbered  by 
the  friction  of  one  of  the  faces.  The  angle  of  the  faces  of  the  wedge  is  formed  by  the 
direction  of  the  applied  power  and  a  tangent  to  the  teeth.  The  diagonal  position  of  the 
furrows  of  the  file  gives  an  additional  shearing  wedge  power. 

Forms. — Examples  of  the  cutting  faces  of  files  and  rasps  12  in.  long  are  shown  in 
the  annexed  illustrations ;  the  cuts  of  longer  and  shorter  sizes  vary  in  proportion. 
Figs.  330-335  are  float  cut;  Figs.  324-329,  double  cut;  and  Figs.  336-341,  rasp  cut. 
Fig.  324  is  rough  ;  325,  mi<ldle  ;  326,  bastard ;  327,  second  cut ;  328,  smooth  ;  329,  dead 
smooth;  330,  rough  ;  331,  middle;  332,  bastard;  333,  smooth  ;  334,  dead  smooth ;  335, 

q2 


228 


Caepentry — Easping  Tools. 


324. 


325. 


326. 


Eough. 


<!y;j\.^'>t''V"i''>---'-'.-::'r'^J^'^J&'W 


Middle. 


Bastard. 


327. 


328. 


Second  Cut. 


Smooth. 


329. 


Dead  Smooth. 


330. 


331. 


332. 


Eough. 


New  Cut. 


Middle. 


333. 


334. 


335. 


Second  Cut. 


Smooth. 


Jllll 

tiiiii 


Bastard. 


336. 


337. 


Horse, 


Eough. 


33S. 


V       ^i    '^/t, 


L  L.  L'   ^f  isTf  *»!/• 


Middle. 


CAcrENTRY— Easping  Tools. 


229 


new  cut;  336,  horse;  337,  rough;  338,  midtUe ;  339,  bastard;  340,  second  cut;  341, 
smooth. 

Using. — In  using  a  file  care  should  be  taken  that  it  is  applied  evenly  to  the  work,  or 
there  is  a  danger  of  wearing  it  away  rapidly  in  one  siiot.  When  a  file  loses  its  cutting 
power  it  may  be  resharpened. 

Sharpening. — Until  recently  this  was  done  by  recutting  the  grooves  in  machines 
devoted  to  that  class  of  work,  but  lately  the  sand  blast  has  been  most  successfully 


339. 


310. 


341. 


fii&,i,/,*'"!t  ra-S# 


Bastard. 


'Lit,  ^-.i  ^i  v^L*ai 


'•J 


'iiiM 


Second  Cut. 


Smooth. 


342. 


applied  to  the  purpose.  The  operator  holds  the  files  which  have  to  be  sharpened,  one  at 
a  time,  in  a  long  gas-pipe  handle,  into  the  end  of  which  has  been  driven  a  plug  of  wood ; 
the  file  is  not  held  still,  but  is  moved  to  and  fro,  resting  upon  a  slip  of  gun  metal,  the 
file  being  also  occasionally  turned  over.  The  slip  not  only  forms  a  rest,  but  as  the 
operator  moves  the  file  backward  and  forward  upon  it  he  learns  when  the  file  has 
reached  a  good  cutting  state.  As  far  as  the  sharpening  is  concerned,  this  is  the 
whole  operation.  It  will  be  easily  understood  that  a  little  practice  is  necessary  to 
enable  a  man  to  make  the  best  job  of  a  file.  In  Fig.  342,  a  h  are  sections  of  file  teeth. 
a  shows  the  form  of  the  teeth  as  they  come  from  the  file  cutter  or  machine.  From  this 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  upper  part  of  the 
tooth  is  turned  backward  somewhat,  and  the 
top  is  rather  weak.  The  effect  of  the  sand 
blast  is  to  remove  this  bent-over  or  rounded 
top,  and  to  take  off  the  tops  of  the  extra  high 
teeth.  The  form  then  is  as  shown  at  6. 
It  might  be  expected  that  the  sand  would 
cut  the  point  or  fine  edge  of  the  teeth,  but 
this  is  not  the  case,  for  smooth  files  are 
improved  as  much  as  those  of  the  coarser 
descriptions.  The  sand  used  is  exceedingly 
fine,    and    is    the   waste   material    resulting 

from  the  grinding  of  plate  glass.  It  is  so  fine  as  to  be  like  smooth,  clean  mud,  and  it 
seems  remarkable  that  tliis  will  do  the  work.  In  the  ordinary  way,  cleaning  files  after 
the  hardening  and  tempering  processes  is  a  dirty,  laborious  operation.  They  have  to  be 
scoured  with  brushes  and  sand  by  hand,  then  put  into  lime-water,  and  dried.  By  one 
workman,  only  about  3  doz.  per  hour  can  be  cleaned.  It  is  an  accident  of  the  sand- 
blast process  that  it  cleans  the  files  as  well  as  sharpens  them.  As  they  pass  from  the 
sand-blast  hand  they  go  to  a  boy,  who  passes  them  under  a  jet  of  hot  water,  which  cleans 
out  sand  sludge,  and,  the  file  being  then  hot,  it  dries  of  itself  Before  the  use  of  the  hot- 
water  jet,  one  man  used  to  be  employed  in  brushing  the  dried  sand  mud  out  of  the  files 
at  the  cost  of  one  man  for  each  machine  and  6s.  per  week  for  brushes.  Now  a  lad  does 
all.  With  one  machine,  14-in.  files  may  be  sharpened  at  the  rate  of— flat  bastard,  5-8 
doz.  per  hour;  second  cut,  10-12  doz.;  smooth,  12-15  doz.;  half  round  bastard,  4-6 
doz. ;  ditto  second  cut,  8-9  doz.,  and  so  on.  The  apparatus  is  now  being  used  a  good 
deal  to  sharpen  worn  files,  which  it  docs  at  a  very  low  cost.    There  is  another  method 


230  Carpentey — Easping  Tools. 

spoken  of  as  being  employed  in  French  dockyards,  consisting  in  pickling  the  files  in  an 
acid  bath  (dilute  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids,  1  part  of  each  in  7  of  water)  for  45  minutes, 
after  a  washing  with  hot  alkaline  water ;  but  it  is  not  explained  how  the  action  of  the 
acid  is  prevented  from  exerting  the  chief  degree  of  erosion  upon  the  exposed  angles  of 
the  file  face,  instead  of  in  the  hollows  where  it  is  wanted  to  act. 

Edge-tools. — This  section  comprises  chisels  and  gouges,  planes,  and  miscellaneous 
smoothing  tools  (e.  g.  spokeshaves),  as  well  as  the  means  adopted  for  keeping  up  a  keen 
cutting  edge  (grindstones,  oilstones). 

Chisels  and  Gouges.  Principles. — The  chisel  in  its  simplest  form  constitutes  a  slice 
of  an  axe,  but  as  the  impact  is  not  from  the  motion  of  the  chisel,  but  from  that  of  a  swung 
mallet  or  hammer,  the  eye  of  the  axe  is  replaced  by  a  contrivance  for  receiving  the  blow. 
"When  the  element  of  thrust  enters,  then  the  chisel  is  passing  into  the  "  plane  iron."  For 
applying  the  chisel,  2  contrivances  are  in  general  use.  One  is  to  put  a  tang  on  the  metal 
of  the  chisel,  and  to  let  this  be  driven  into  a  handle  so  shaped  at  the  extremity  as  to 
receive  the  blow  of  a  mallet.  A  very  few  blows  would  soon  drive  the  handle  forward, 
and  so  the  tang  end  would  then  project  through  the  handle  and  receive  the  blows. 
To  avert  this  a  shoulder  is  forged,  where  the  tang  is  supposed  to  end,  and  the  chisel 
proper  to  begin.  When  the  blows  have  been  repeated,  so  that  the  handle  rests  upon 
the  tang  shoulder,  then  the  handle  is  "  home,"  and  tlie  tool  completed.  In  turners' 
chisels  where  mallets  are  not  used,  the  shouldered  tang  is  not  required.  A  suitable 
handle  being  selected,  a  ferule  is  loosely  put  on  it,  and  a  hole  is  bored  down  the 
handle  a  little  shallower  than  the  length  of  the  tang,  and  widened  at  the  mouth 
so  as  to  show  a  square,  the  sides  of  which  are  just  sliorter  than  those  of  the  tang 
under  the  ferule — now,  enter  the  chisel-tang,  and  let  it  be  pressed  in  by  the  hand 
until  it  is  so  retained  by  friction,  that  by  pointing  the  chisel  edge  downwanls,  the 
metal  does  not  fall  out.  The  operation  of  fixing  the  handle  may  now  be  said  to  com- 
mence. The  line  of  the  handle  and  blade  is  then  inclined  at  about  an  angle  of  45°  ti> 
the  horizon.  A  blow  with  a  mallet  is  struck  at  the  end  of  the  iiaudle  ;  the  inclination 
remaining  the  same,  the  tool  is  turned  roimd  on  its  longitudinal  axis,  say,  J  rotation, 
another  blow  given  ;  the  operation  of  turning  and  striking  being  continued  until  thf 
feruled  end  of  the  handle  and  tang  meet.  As  to  the  effects  of  a  blow  upon  the  end  of 
a  handle,  there  being  no  apparent  resistance,  this  takes  place :  The  velocity  of  impact  is 
communicated  to  the  handle  and  chisel.  Now  the  greatest  effort  is  required  to  cause 
the  first  motion,  so  here  a  high  velocity  in  the  mallet  hns  to  be  divided  between  a 
supported  tool  and  itself.  What  is  sometimes  called  "inertia"  has  to  be  overcome  in 
the  act  of  this  transference  of  velocity  through  the  length  of  the  handle  and  chisel; 
that  portion  which  offers  the  least  resistance  will  bo  the  first  to  move.  No  velocity  can 
be  communicated  to  a  body  at  rest  without  what  is  usually  called  resistance.  The 
friction  between  the  tang  and  the  handle  is  so  adjusted  by  the  preliminary  formation  of 
the  hole,  that  the  resistance  from  friction  is  less  than  the  resistance  from  inertia ;  hence 
the  gradual  approach  of  tlie  ferule  and  the  flange.  Now  as  to  the  turning  in  the  hand 
about  the  axial  line.  The  wooden  handle  is  held  in  the  left  hand,  therefore  the  effect 
.af  gravity  upon  it  is  neutralized.  Not  so  with  the  chisel ;  gravity  produces  its  full  effect 
upon  this.  Consequently  some  j^art  or  other  of  the  hole  becomes  a  fulcrum,  the  cutting 
end -of  the  chisel  is  drawn  downwards  by  gravity,  and  therefore  tlie  tang  end  is  pointed 
upwards.  Continued  impact  in  this  position  would  place  tlie  chisel  oblique  to  the  axis 
of  the  handle ;  the  turning  is  to  avert  this.  Again,  it  was  said  that  the  depth  of  the 
hole  should  be  less  than  the  length  of  the  tang.  The  reason  is  this  :  the  end  of  the 
hole  is  of  greater  diameter  than  the  end  of  the  tang;  if,  therefore,  the  tang  does  not 
enter  and  fix  itself  in  the  wood,  there  may  be  unsteadiness  in  the  chisel.  Assuming  the 
instrument  to  be  under  the  operation  of  repeated  blows,  the  effect  of  these  will  be  first 
expended  upon  the  end  of  the  wooden  handle,  and  then  transmitted  to  the  cutting  edge 
Unless  provision  be  made,  the  destruction  of  the  end  of  the  wooden  handle  will   be 


Carpentry- 


-Edge-Tools. 


231 


assured.  To  diminish  as  much  as  possible  liabihtics  to  such  a  result,  the  end  of  the 
handle  is  formed  as  a  portion  of  a  sphere.  Further,  the  impact  blow  is  modified  in 
the  mallet,  which  is  of  wood,  with  a  curvilinear  face  ;  thus  these  2  -wooden  surfaces 
act  and  re-act  upon  each  other.  The  yielding  elasticity  of  the  wood  also  gives  to  tlio 
blow  and  so  transmits  to  the  work  a  diflerent  effect  to  that  wliicli  would  take  place 
if  the  handle  and  chisel  were  of  iron.  Another  way  of  fixing  the  tool  in  the  handle 
is  to  have  a  long  tubular  top  to  the  tool,  into  which  a  wooden  handle  is  driven.  This 
is  preferable  for  heavy  work,  as  the  repeated  blows  only  tend  to  condense  the  fibre  of 
the  wooden  handle  and  increase  its  firmness  in  the  shank ;  but  as  it  adds  much  to 
the  weight  of  the  complete  tool,  it  is  not  adapted  for  ordinary  cases.  (Iligg.)  Much 
annoyance  is  caused  by  the  tendency  of  the  butt  end  of  the  chisel  handle  to  split 
under  the  effects  of  repeated  blows  from  the  mallet.  A  remedy  suggested  for  this  is 
to  saw  off  the  round  end,  leaving  it  quite  flat,  and  on  this  to  nail  2  round  discs  oi 
sole-leather  to  form  a  pad  for  receiving  the  blows.  When  the  leather  has  expanded 
inconveniently  it  can  be  be  trimmed  round  with  a  knife. 

Forms. — Forms  of  chisels  and  gouges  are  shown  in  the  annexed  illustrations.    The 


344. 


347. 


c 


348. 


E 


difference  between  a  chisel  and  a  gouge  is  that  the  former  has  a  straight  cutting 
edge  while  the  latter  is  more  or  less  curved.  Fig.  343  is  a  common  paring  chisel ; 
Fig.  344,  a  socket  mortice  chisel ;  Fig.  345,  a  common  mortice  chisel ;  Fig.  346,  a  thin 
paring  chisel  with  bevelled  edges ;  Fig.  347,  a  common  gouge  in  its  handle ;  Fig.  348, 


232 


Carpentry — Edge-Tools. 


a  long  thin  paring  gouge,  cannelled  inside.  INIortice  chisels  range  in  width  from  i  in.  to 
1  in.,  the  sizes  increasing  -^^  in.  at  a  time  ;  paring  chisels  advance  i  in.  at  a  time,  from 
i  in.  to  2  in.  wide ;  gouges  have  a  similar  range,  in  addition  to  which  they  are  made 
with  8  different  degrees  of  curve,  as  shown  in  Fig.  349,  and  known  respectively  as  A  or 
very  flat,  B  or  flat,  C,  D  or  middle,  E,  F  or  scribing,  G  or  half  fluting,  H  or  fluting.  In 
the  figure,  all  are  1-in.  size. 

Using. — The  chisel  cannot  be  used  satisfactorily  over  a  surface  wider  than  itself,  and 
though  the  gouge  was  devised  to  excel  it  in  tiiis  respect,  there  is  still  a  tendency  for 
this  tool  to  follow  the  leadings  of  the  fibres  of  the  wood  rather  than  cut  through  them 
at  a  very  slight  obliquity.  The  only  guidance  the  tool  receives  is  from  the  hand  of 
the  workman,  hence  everything  depends  upon  the  degree 
of  his  skill.    The  impossibility  of  ensuring  the  amount  349. 

and  direction  of  the  cut  given  by  the  chisel  was  the    A  ■— ____—— 7^. 

main  incentive  to  introducing  its  modified  forms  the 
spokeshave  and  the  plane,  which  will  be  discussed  pre- 
sently. In  paring,  the  chisel  is  held  in  the  right  hand 
and  applied  with  a  thrusting  motion  without  the  aid  of 
a  mallet,  the  left  hand  being  employed  to  hold  the 
wood,  and  always  kept  well  in  rear  of  the  tool  to  avoid 
accidents  in  case  of  the  tool  slipping.  The  wood  to  be 
operated  upon  should  be  held  securely  and  in  such  a 
manner  that  if  the  tool  goes  beyond  it  or  misses  a  cut 
it  will  neither  damage  its  own  edge  nor  meet  with 
anything  that  will  be  injured  by  it,  such  as  the  surface 
of  the  bench.  In  paring  horizontally  or  lengthwise 
with  the  fibres  of  the  wood,  the  forefinger  should  be 
extended  along  the  tang  of  the  tool ;  but  in  paring 
vertically  across  the  grain,  all  the  fingers  should  firmly 
grasp  the  handle.  When  cutting  mortices  and  tenons, 
the  chisel  is  tightly  held  in  the  left  hand  while  the  right 
wields  the  mallet  for  giving  effect  to  the  cutting  tool. 
To  make  a  close  joint,  it  is  very  necessary  that  the  edges 
Cut  by  the  chisel  (as  well  as  those  cut  by  the  saw)  shall 
I  6  perfectly  square  and  flat.  This  can  only  be  attained 
by  observing  the  correct  way  of  applying  the  chisel-edge 
to  the  work.    If  the  flat  side  of  the  chisel  be   held 

against  the  shoulder  that  is  to  be  cut  away,  the  chisel  will  "  draw  in  ";  if  the  bevelled 
side  is  against  the  shoulder,  the  contrary  effect  will  be  obtained.  This  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  .^50.  If  the  chisel  is  held  as  at  b  or  f^,  just  (and  barely)  allowed  to  cut,  it  will  act 
as  a  paring  tool ;  but  its  tendency  will  be  found  to  follow  the  dotted  line  0  c,  so  that,  if 
not  cheeked,  it  will  "undercut"  the  shoulder.  "V\Tien  held  as  at  a,  its  tendency  is 
in  the  opposite  direction,  when  the  sloping  end  can  be  rectified  without  spoiling  the 
work.  The  same  care  is  needed  in  cutting  a  mortice  (Fig.  351).  Let  the  mortice  be 
carefully  marked  on  both  sides,  but  cut  right  through  from  one  side  only  ;  the  chances 
are  that  it  will  be  found  to  have  been  cut  too  long  on  the  farther  side  of  the  stuff  from 
the  drawing  in  of  the  chisel.  The  section  will  be  as  at  a,  Fig.  3.51.  Of  course,  there- 
fore, the  safe  plan  when  a  mortice  must  be  cut  only  from  one  side  is  to  cut  it  more  like 
h,  and  to  pare  it  back  carefully  at  the  finish.  'Wlienever  possible,  however,  a  mortice 
should  be  cut  from  both  sides — half  through  from  each  ;  but  the  same  tendency  of  course 
prevails,  the  result  being  shown  in  c,  and  here  the  faulty  work  will  not  be  visible  in  tlie 
least  when  the  tenon  is  in  its  place.  The  joint  will  appear  quite  close-fitting  and  neat, 
but  it  is  evident  that  it  will  have  little  strengtli,  as  the  component  parts  are  only  in 
contact  just  at  the  2  surfaces,  the  rest  being  quite  hollow.    The  best  way  to  begin  a 


Carpentry — Edge-Tools. 


233 


mortice  is  shown  at  d.  It  should  be  commenced  by  cutting  out  wedge-sliaped  chips 
from  the  middle,  cutting  each  side  by  turns,  and  it  will  be  found  in  many  cases  easier  to 
take  out  the  main  part  of  the  chips  with  the  bevel  of  the  chisel  downwards.  Each 
chip  is  thus  heaved  by  pressing  on  the  bevel  as  the  fulcrum,  and  tlie  mortice  is 
gradually  lengthened  each  way.  After  the  main  part  of  the  wood  has  been  removed, 
the  back  of  the  chisel  is  used  next  the  shoulders,  as  already  stated,  care  being  taken,  as 
the  work  approaches  completion,  that  the  hole  is  not  undercut,  but  that  the  mortice 


350. 


351. 


352. 


when  finished  shall  have  4  perfectly  flat  walls,  the  sides  as  free  as  possible  from  loose 
fibre. 

Another  cause  of  failure  m  making  a  clean  tight  joint  is  the  bruising  of  the  fibres 
on  the  surface  of  the  board  at  the  end  of  the  mortice  by  using  a  blunt  chisel.  It  is 
mainly  avoided  by  commencing  in  the  middle,  as  just  explained,  and  using  a  keen  chisel 
to  finish  with.  Certainly  the  work  may  be  passed  over  again  after  the  mortice  is  cut, 
but  thi->  is  not  always  allowed  for  in  squaring  up  the  piece  originally.  In  soft  wood, 
especially  when  the  fibres  are  loosely  compacted,  tliey  will  bruise  and  start  up  con- 
siderably if  struck  with  a  blunt  tool,  and  often  come  completely  away,  leaving  a 
depression  that  cannot  be  effaced  without  deeply  planing  the  surface.  Stray  tacks, 
chips,  and  inequalities  in  the  surface  of  the  bench  will  also  produce  bad  results. 

The  gouge  is  used  and  held  in  the  same 
way  as  a  paring  chisel.  Wlien  driven  by 
a  mallet  it  should  always  have  a  perpen- 
dicular position. 

S})olceshaves. — The  drawing-knife.  Fig. 
352,  is  practically  a  2-handed  chisel,  which 
can  only  be  used  by  drawing  it  towards 
the  operator.  Beyond  its  greater  efi'ective 
surface  it  is  no  improvement  upon  the 
chisel.     A  desire  to  govern  the  depth  of 

cut  performed  by  the  chisel  led  to  the  adoption  of  a  tool  called  a  spokcshave,  in  which 
the  long  blade  of  the  drawing  knife  is  retained,  the  depth  of  the  cut  being  determined  by 
the  nearness  of  the  edge  to  a  parallel  wooden  handle.  This  tool  may  be  used  in  both 
directions,  towards  and  from  the  workman.  But  owing  to  the  position  of  the  application 
of  the  power,  viz.  the  hands,  and  the  tendency  of  resistance  by  the  work  to  turn  the 


234  Caepentey — Edge-Tools. 

■whole  tool  in  the  hanJ,  it  is  not  of  general  utility.  "UTien,  however,  Ihe  curvature  of 
surface  varies,  the  parings  to  be  removed  ave  light,  and  the  operator  has  convenient 
access,  the  tool  is  capable  of  doing  good  -work,  and  possesses  some  advantages  over  the 
plane.  (Eigg.)  Besides  the  original  simple  long-bladed  spokeshave,  this  tool  is  now 
made  with  cutters  of  varying  forms,  for  chamfering,  rabbeting,  and  other  purposes,  being 
then  often  termed  a  "router,"  especially  by  the  American  makers  who  have  introduced 
the  novelties. 

Planes. — Principles. — The  plane,  in  its  simplest  form,  consists  of  a  chisel  inserted 
at  an  angle  into  a  box,  generally  of  wood,  and  with  the  cutting  edge  projecting  tlirough 
the  bottom  of  tiie  box.  If  the  actions  of  a  workman  be  uuted  as  he  is  smoothing 
wood  with  a  chisel  alone,  it  will  be  seen  that  he  holds  the  bevel  edge  on  the  wood,  and 
so  elevates  or  lowers  the  handle  as  to  secure  a  proper  and  efficient  cut.  Then  he 
advances  the  tool  in  a  line  at  right  angles  to  its  cross  section.  If  now,  instead  of  thus 
continuing  to  hold  the  tool,  the  chisel  was  so  fixed  in  a  movable  piece  of  wood  as  to  be 
at  the  same  angle  as  the  workman  required,  then  if  the  mouth  were  broad  enough,  and 
the  instrument  were  propelled  along  tlie  wood,  a  shaving  would  be  removed  very  nearly 
the  same  as  that  obtained  from  the  chisel  alone.  In  the  arrangement  thus  sketched,  the 
workman  would  be  relieved  from  the  care  needed  to  keep  the  tool  at  a  constant  angle 
witli  the  surface  of  the  timber.  There  is,  however,  a  fixity  of  tool  here,  and  con- 
sequently an  optional  or  needful  adjustment  called  for  by  any  varying  condition  of  the 
problem  cannot  be  had.  "When  operated  upon  by  h;ind  alone,  if  an  obstacle  to  the 
progress  of  the  tool  is  presented,  as,  for  instance,  a  twist  or  curl  in  the  fibre  or  grain  of 
the  plank — the  presence  of  a  knot — then  the  workman  by  hand  can  adjust  the  handle, 
and  so  vary  the  inclination  of  the  cutting  edge  as  the  circumstances  of  the  case  require. 
Not  so  if  the  tool  is  securely  fixed  in  a  box  as  described.  Whilst  therefore  one  gain  has 
been  had,  one  loss  has  been  encoiantered.  Observe  the  defects  of  the  primitive  plane, 
as  hitherto  described,  and  note  what  hopeful  elements  it  contains. 

The  front  of  tlie  sole  of  the  box  will  clearly  prevent  the  penetration  of  the  encased 
chisel  into  the  wood,  because  it  cannot  now  be  drawn  to  follow  the  fibre  should  it  lead 
inwards.  Supj^ose,  however,  that  in  the  progress  of  the  work  such  a  place  has  been 
reached  as  would  liave  so  drawn  the  chisel  inwards  :  either  the  strength  of  the  indrawin'^ 
fibre  will  be  so  great  that  the  workman  will  be  unable  to  propel  tlie  tool,  or,  if  not  thus 
impeded,  he  must  by  extra  effort  separate  the  fibre  and  so  release  the  tool.  This 
separation,  however,  may  not  be  by  the  process  of  cutting,  but  by  that  of  tearing,  and 
shavings  so  torn  off  will  have  left  their  marks  in  the  roughnesses  which  attend  the  tearing 
asunder  of  fibrous  woods.  Thus  the  tool  will  defeat  the  very  purpose  for  which  it  was 
designed.  To  obviate  tlie  difficiilty  described  has  exercised  much  ingenuity,  and  led  to 
more  than  one  contrivance  in  planes  as  generally  used. 

The  causes  which  so  forcibly  draw,  or  tend  to  draw,  the  tool  downwards  below  tlio 
surf  ice  of  the  timber  are  the  hand  of  the  workman  and  the  tenacity  of  the  fibre.  If  the 
tenacity  is  greater  than  the  power,  the  workman  must  stop.  That  the  tool  cannot 
follow  the  direction  of  the  fibre  is  clear,  because  the  front  part  of  the  wooden  sole  forbids 
the  penetration,  but  that  it  may  be  brought  to  a  standstill,  or  must  tear  off  the  fibre,  is 
also  very  clear.  The  mechanician  has  therefore  to  consider  how  to  defeat  these 
tendencies  which,  as  now  sketched,  result  from  a  collision  between  the  indrawing 
strength  of  the  fibre  and  the  power  of  the  man  to  cross-cut  the  fibre  by  the  tool,  or  else 
to  tear  it  asunder  and  leave  the  surface  rough.  Since  the  tool,  as  now  contrived,  cannot 
efficiently  cross-cut  the  resisting  fibre,  and  since  that  fibre  has  to  be  removed,  the 
object  must  be  either  to  prevent  such  an  accumulation  of  fibres  as  will  stop  the  progress 
of  the  tool,  or  to  destroy  the  fibre  piecemeal  as  it  is  operative  for  hindrance.  Both 
plans  have  been  adopted.  A  consideration  of  the  former  may  prove  introductory  to  the 
latter,  which  appears  in  almost  all  attempts  to  perfect  this  tool  and  its  appended 
contrivances. 


Caepentey — EJge-Tools. 


235 


As  the  tool  progresses,  and  the  fibres  become  more  and  more  impeding,  it  will  be 
clear  that  a  portion  of  this  impediment  results  from  a  condensation  of  the  libre  in  the 
mouth  of  the  wooden  box.  The  more  numerous  the  fibres  admitted  hero,  the-  greater 
will  be  the  condensation.  This  state  of  affairs  can  be  partially  obviated  by  a  narrowing 
of  the  mouth  of  the  plane ;  such  an  act  of  course  requires  that  the  introduced  chisel 
should  enter  less  deeply  into  the  timber  being  operated  upon.  Although  thus  abated, 
the  cause  is  not  removed,  and  even  if  so  far  abated  as  to  prove  no  real  impediment  to  the 
workman,  yet  the  quantity  of  material  removed  on  each  occasion  will  be  so  small  that 
the  tool  becomes  one  for  finishing  work  only,  and  not  for  those  various  operations  to 
which  its  present  powers  enable  artisans  to  apply  it.  To  be  the  useful  tool  it  is,  the 
mouth  must  not  be  so  narrowed,  nor  the  inserted  chisel  so  withdrawn,  that  the  shaving 
is  thus  the  thinnest  possible.  This  led  to  a  contrivance  now  almost  universal,  that  of 
breaking  the  fibre  so  soon  as  it  is  separated  from  the  piece  of  timber.  The  designer 
seems  to  have  considered  that  as  soon  as  a  short  length  of  shaving  had  been  removed, 
it  would  be  well  to  destroy  the  continuity  of  the  fibre,  and  so  prevent  an  accumulative 
resistance  from  this  cause.  Hence,  instead  of  allowing  the  cut-off  fibres  to  slide  up  the 
inserted  chisel,  he  bent  them  forward,  in  fact,  cracked  them,  and  so  broke  the  cumulative 
indrawing  force  of  them.  This  he  accomplished  by  the  use  of  what  is  now  called  the 
"  back  iron,"  and  from  jienceforth  the  boxed-in  chisel  loses  its  identity,  and  must  be 
regarded  as  part  of  an  intlependent  tool. 

The  tool  thus  built  up  is  called  a  plane.  Three  forms  are  in  general  use  in  English 
workshops,  called  the  "jack,"  the  "  trying."  and  the  "  smoothing  "  plane.  These  are  on 
the  bench  of  all  workers  in  smooth  straight  surface  wood.  Although  externally  alike 
except  in  size,  they  are  yet  used  for  different  purposes,  and  each  has  a  specialty  in  its 
construction.     These  specialties  may  now  be  considered. 

Forms. — After  the  wood  has  passed  from  the  sawyer  into  the  hands  of  the  carpenter, 
the  surface  undergoes  those  operations  which  render  it  true  and  smooth  These  3  planes 
do  this  woik.  The  "jack,"  usually  about  15  in.  long,  and  the  ''  trying"  plane,  ranging 
from  18  to  24  in.  long,  but,  in  exceptional  cases,  far  exceeding  these  dimensions,  are  la 
external  appearances  alike ;  indeed,  some  regard  the  different  handles  as  the  only  dis- 


353. 


354. 


tinction  between  them,  and  that  these  handles  show  which  must  be  used  for  rough 
work  and  which  for  smooth  (see  Fig.  355  as  an  example  of  the  handle  of  a  "  juck- 
plane,"  and  Fig.  35G  as  an  example  of  "  trying-plane "  handle).  This  is  an  error. 
There  are  other  differences,  but  the  main  and  leading  one  is  the  different  form  given  to 
the  edge  of  the  cutting  iron. 

If  the  iron  of  the  "jack"  plane  be  looked  at  from  the  front  end  of  the  plane,  the 
form  of  the  edge  will  be  curved,  as  in  Fig.  353  ;  but  the  iron  of  the  "  trying"  plane  is 
straight,  as  in  Fig.  354.  Upon  the  curvature  of  the  edge  depends  the  efficient  action  of 
the  "jack." 

Sufficient  has  been  said  of  the  tendency  of  the  fibre  to  draw  the  tool  downwards ; 
but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  same  adhesion  of  fibre  to  fibre  takes  place  be- 
tween the  surface  fibres  as  amongst  those  below  the  surface.  For  the  purpose  of 
separating  the  surface  connected  fibres,  the  jack  iron  is  convex.  Note  its  action. 
The  convex  sharp  edge  is  pushed  along  a  horizontal  plank,  penetrating  to  a  depth 
determined  by  the  projection  of  each  vertical  section  below  the  sole  of  the  plane.    The 


236 


Carpentry — Edge-Tools. 


euds  of  this  convex  edge  are  actually  within  the  box  of  the  plane,  consequently  (side- 
ways) all  the  fibres  are  separated  by  cutting,  and  are  therefore  smooth  and  not  torn 
The  effect  of  this  upon  the  entire  surface  is  to  change  the  surface  fiom  the   original 
section  to  a  section   irregularly  corrugated.     The  surface  after  using  the  "jack"   is 
ploughed,  as  it  were,  with  a  series  of  valleys  and  separating  hillocks,  the  valleys  being 


arcs  from  the  convexity  of  the  tool  and  the  separating  hillocks  being  the  intersection  of 
these  arcs.  All  traces  of  the  tearing  action  of  the  saw  have  been  removed,  and  from  a 
roughened  but  level  surface  a  change  has  been  made  to  a  smooth  but  in  cross-section  an 
undulating  one. 

The  mechanician's  next  object  is  to  remove  these  lines  of  separation  between  the 
valleys.     For  this  tlie  trying-plane  is  required.     The  trying-plane  is  longer  than  the 


356. 


jack,  because  the  sole  of  the  plane  which  is  level  is,  so  far  as  its  size  goes,  the  counter- 
part of  that  which  the  surface  of  the  wood  is  to  be  ;  further,  the  trying-plane  should  be 
broader  than  the  jack,  because  its  object  is  to  remove  the  hillocks  and  not  to  interfere 
with  the  wood  below  the  bottoms  of  the  valleys.  If  its  action  passes  below  the  bottoms 
of  the  furrows,  tlien  occasion  arises  for  cutting  the  side  connection  of  the  fibres,  and 
however  a  workman  may  sharpen  tlie  edge  of  his  trying-plane  for  this  purpose,  he  in  one 
respect  has  destroyed  one  object  of  the  plane,  because,  so  soon  as  tiie  iron  penetrates 
below  the  surface,  then  does  the  efi'ect  of  the  jack  action  begin  to  reappear,  and  the 
cutting  edge  sliould  pass  from  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  354  to  the  shape  in  Fig.  353. 
The  result  of  the  trying-plane  following  tlio  jack  is  to  remove  all  the  elevations  of  wood 
above  the  valleys  the  jack  left ;  and,  secondly,  to  compensate  by  its  great  length  for  any 
want  of  lineal  truth  consequent  upon  the  depth  of  bite  of  the  jack.  Again,  the  mouth 
of  the  trying-plane  is  much  narrower  than  that  of  the  jack  ;  hence  the  shavings  removed 
are  finer,  therefore  the  slope  of  the  iron,  or  its  inclination  to  the  wood  may  be  less  than 
is  the  iron  of  the  "jack" — hence  the  line  of  cut  is  more  nearly  accordant  with  that 
of  the  fibre,  and  by  so  much  the  surface  is  left  more  smooth  from  the  tryiug-plane  than 
from  the  jack,  as  there  is  more  cutting  and  less  tearing  action  than  in  the  jack.  The 
reasoning  hitherto  pursued  in  reference  to  the  purpose  of  this  sequence  of  a  jack  and 


Carpentry- 


-Edge-Tools. 


257 


trying-plane  might  and  does  legitimately  produce  the  conclusion  tliat,  after  the  trying-- 
plane has  done  its  duty,  the  work  is  as  perfectly  finished  as  it  can  bo.  Custom,  aud 
perhaps  other  considerations,  have  established  that  after  the  long  trying-plane  'must 
follow  the  short  and  almost  single-handed  smoothing-plane  (Fig.  357).  So  far  as  the 
form  of  the  iron  of  the  smoothing-plane  is  concerned,  there  is  no  difference  between  it 
and  the  one  used  in  the  trying-plane ;  each  (as  across  the  plane)  is  straight,  the  comers 
being  very  slightly  curved,  but  only  so  much  as  to  ensure  that  they  do  not  project 


357. 


358, 


below  the  line  of  the  cutting  edge.  It  would  seem  that,  whilst  the  trying-plane 
levelled  down  all  the  elevations  left  by  the  jack,  and  brought  the  surface  of  the 
wood  as  a  counterpart  to  that  of  the  plnne,  there  might  be  in  the  fibre,  or  grain  of 
the  wood,  twists,  curls,  and  other  irregularities  which,  whilst  levelled,  were  yet  left 
rough  in  consequence  of  the  direction  in  which  the  cutting  edge  came  upon  them.  In- 
deed, this  cutting  edge,  in  a  long  plane,  which  must  advance  in  the  direction  of  its 
length,  must  at  times  come  across  a  large  number  of  surfaces  where  the  fibre  is  in 
opposite  directions.  The  consequence  is  that  there  will  be  various  degrees  of  smoothness ; 
for  good  work  these  must  be  brought  to  uniformity.  This  is  effected  by  passing  a  short- 
soled  plane  over  the  respective  parts  of  the  surface  in  such  directions  as  observation  may 
indicate.  Hence  the  smoothing-plane  is  of  use  chiefly  to  compensate  for  such  changes 
in  the  direction  of  the  fibres  of  the  wood  as  the  greater  length  of  the  trying-plane 
could  not  conveniently  deal  with. 

The  plane  shown  in  Fig.  355  is  claimed  to  possess  some  advantages  over  the  ordinary 
jack-plane,  in  that  it  gives  a  control  over  the  thickness  of  the  shaving  and  depth  of  the 
cut  by  the  pressure  of  the  hand,  and  prevents  the  drag  of  the  bit  on  the  board  when 
the  plane  is  drawn  back.  The  stock  of  the  plane  is  made  in  two  parts,  the  upper 
portion  A,  which  holds  the  bit,  being  pivoted  to  the  lower  part  B  at  the  rear  end  by  a 
screw  C  passing  through  metallic  guide  plates  D  on  each  side  the  plane.  The  front 
end  of  the  upper  portion  is  raised  from  the  lower  portion  by  means  of  a  spring  E, 
which,  when  the  pressure  of  the  hand  on  the  front  of  the  plane  is  withdrawn,  lifts  the 
upper  portion  together  with  the  bit  or  plane  iron.  The  amount  of  this  movement  is 
governed  by  the  thumb-screw  F. 

The  "  rabbet "  or  "  rebate  "  plane,  Fig.  358,  differs  from  the  preceding  examples  in  that 
the  cutter  reaches  to  the  edge  of  the  wooden  block,  so  as  to  enable  the  smoothing  opera- 
tion to  be  carried  right  into  the  corner  of  work.  It  is  employed  in  making  window 
frames  and  similar  articles  in  which  a  recess  (termed  a  "rebate"  or  "rabbet  ")  has  to 
be  cut  for  the  insertion  of  some  other  material,  as.  for  instance,  a  pane  of  glass.  The 
cutter  has  not  of  necessity  a  square  edge,  but  may  be  shaped  like  the  examples  shown 
in  Figs.  359,  360,  which  are  termed  "  skew,"  "  round,"  and  "  hollow "  rabbet-irons 
respectively. 

Another  form  of  simple  plane  is  the  "plough,"  intended  for  cutting  a  deep  groove 
along  the  edge  of  a  board  for  the  purpose  of  inserting  in  it  a  corresponding  "tongue" 
along  the  edge  of  another  board  to  be  joined  to  it.  The  tongue  may  be  formed  by  using 
the  rabbet-plane  along  each  side  of  the  board  edge ;  but  it  is  more  convenient  to  employ 


238 


Cakpentry — Edge-Tools. 


"  match  "  planes,  -wliich  are  made  in  pairs,  one  cutting  the  plough  and  the  other  the 
tongue.     Their  cutters  are  shown  in  Fig.  361. 

The  stop-chamfer  plane,  sold  by  Booth,  Dublin,  for  4s.,  is  a  very  useful  tool  for  cutting 
any  chamfer  from  i  in.  to  IJ  in.  with  a  constant  angle  and  size.     It   is  shown  in 


359. 


3 


^ 


360. 


361. 


d 


Q 


a 


^ 


362. 


Fig.  362.   The  box  of  the  plane  is  made  in  much  the  same  way  as  that  of  ordinary  planes, 

and  the  iron  is  inserted  and  held  in  place  in  the  same  manner.     The  point  of  difference 

is  that  a  A-shaped  channel  is  cut  along  the  sole  of  the  plane,  tlie  sides  of  the  channel 

being  at  right  angles  to  one  another,  and  at  an  angle  of  45°  with  the  sole  of  the  plane ; 

meeting  in  a  point  in  a  line  drawn  perpendicular  to  the  sole, 

and  exactly  up  the  centre  of  fhe  end  of  the  plane.     Thus  the 

sides  ac  he  of  the  groove  are  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  and 

at  an  angle  of  45°  to  de,  the  sole  of  the  plane,  and  they  meet 

in  c,  a  point  infg,  which  is  perpendicular  to  de,  and  drawn 

exactly  up  the  centre  of  the  end   of  the   plane,   as  shown. 

The  depth  of  the  iron,  which  is  indicated  by  the  shaded  part 

of  the  figure,  is  regulated  to  suit  the  width  of  the  chamfer 

that  it  is  proposed  to  make. 

The   preceding  include   all   the   kinds  of  plane  in  most 
general  use ;    but  it  is  obvious  that  the  same  principle  may 
be  applied   to  almost  any  form  of  cutter.      Hence  a   great 
variety  of  tools,  known  as  "  moulding  "  and  "  filletstering  "  or 
"filister"  planes,  have  been  introduced,  whose  cutters  consist 
of  combinations  of  chisel  and  gouge  edges.     These  are  em- 
ployed for  cutting  mouldings  and  beads  of  numerous  designs, 
which  are  familiar  to  every  one  who  has  observed  the  edge  of 
skirting  boards  in  rooms,  the  panels  of  doors,  or  the  sash- 
frames  of  windows.     The  great  bulk  of  this  class  of  work,  however,  is  now  performed 
by  rotating  cutters  worked  by  steam  power,  and  such  beads  and  mouldings,  of  any 
desired  pattern,  can  be  procured  better  at  the  manufactory  than  they  can  be  made  by 
hand. 


a. 


Caepentry — Edge-Tools.  239 

Adjusting.— Reference  has  already  been  made  (p.  235')  to  the  second  iron  introduce  d 
into  the  plane  for  tlie  purpose  of  curling  up  antl  breaking  off  the  shaving  produced  Ijy 
the  cutter.  Tiie  arrangement  of  the  2  irons  is  shown  in  Fig.  3G3,  a  being  the  cutter,  an<l 
h  the  back  or  break-iron,  the  two  being  luiifod  by  a  screw-nut  and  bolt  c.  The  united 
irons  are  fastened  in  a  hole  in  the  stock  of  the  plane  by  means  of  a  wooden  wedge,  ami 
so  adjusted  that  they  traverse  the  stock  and  project  very  slightly  through  a  narrow  slit 
in  the  sole  provided  for  that  purpose.  The  angle  ordinarily  formed  between  the  sole 
and  the  irons  is  one  of  45°,  but  this  is  reduced  to  35°  by  the  head  of  the  cutter.  In 
adjusting  the  plane  to  its  work,  2  considerations  have  to  be  borne  in  mind:  (1)  the 
degree  to  which  the  cutter  projects  beyond  the  sole,  and  (2)  the  distance  between  the 
edges  of  the  cutter  a  and  breaker  h.  In  regulating  the  position,  of  the  double  iron, 
in  relation  to  the  sole,  it  will  seldom  be  necessary  to 
aj^ply  a  blow  of  the  hammer  to  either  the  top  or  sides 
of  the  wedge  or  irons ;  by  taking  the  plane  in  the 
left  hand  so  that  the  palm  of  the  hand  covers  the 
hole  where  the  shavings  come  out,  a  gentle  tap  with 

a  hammer  or  mallet  can  be  administered  to  either  end  of  the  stock  of  the  plane : 
this  will  effect  the  purpose.  A  blow  given  in  this  way  even  suffices  to  loosen  the  double 
iron  enough  to  permit  its  complete  withdrawal,  when  it  is  necessary  to  sharpen  its  cutting 
edge.  An  occasional  bide  tap  may  be  needed  to  make  the  iron  set  square  with  the 
sole.  The  relations  of  the  edges  of  the  cutter  and  breaker  can  be  altered  by  unscrewing 
the  nut  c  that  unites  the  2  plates,  a  long  slot  being  provided  in  b  with  that  object.  The 
distance  between  the  edges  of  the  2  iions  varies  from  about  a  in.  for  the  coarsest 
roughing-down  work  to-~fj  in.  for  smoothing,  the  breaker  being  placed  of  course  that 
much  above  the  cutter.  The  higher  the  breaker,  the  easier  the  plane  works;  the  lower 
it  is,  the  cleaner  the  cut.  It  is  necessary  to  caution  the  operator  against  wedging  uphi.s 
planes  too  tightly,  as  such  a  procedure  will  cause  the  cutting  iron  to  assume  a  curved 
form  and  prevent  smooth  work  being  done.  Care  must  be  also  taken  that  the  pro- 
jection of  the  cuffing  e'dge  beyond  the  sole  of  the  plane  be  perfectly  square  with 
the  sole,  and  level  in  itself;  in  fact  it  is  better  that  the  corners  be  rounded  off,  to 
lirevent  the  possibility  of  their  catching.  Many  of  the  planes  of  modern  pattern 
are  made  either  self-adjusting  or  so  that  their  adjustment  is  very  easily  and  accurately 
performed. 

Using. — Wood  to  be  planed  should  be  laid  quite  flat  on  the  bench,  and  tight  against 
a  "stop"  to  prevent  its  moving.  The  planing  must  always  follow  the  direction  of  the 
grain  of  the  wood,  and  never  meet  it  or  cross  it.  If  a  piece  of  wood  should  exhibit  the 
grain  running  in  different  directions  in  different  portions  of  its  surface,  the  piece  must  be 
turned  about  accordingly  so  that  the  plane  may  always  go  with  the  grain.  The  sole  of 
the  plane  is  necessarily  subjected  to  a  considerable  degree  of  wear,  which  ultimately 
renders  it  useless  for  all  but  the  roughest  work.  This  effect  can  be  much  reduced  in  the 
case  of  a  wholly  wooden  stock,  by  occasionally  oiling  the  surface.  A  more  enduring  but 
more  costly  method  is  to  shoe  the  sole  with  metal,  or  to  have  a  metallic  stock,  as  most  of 
the  new  American  planes  have.  As  the  sole  (wooden)  wears,  it  must  be  periodically 
planed  up  true  again. 

The  method  of  applying  the  jack-plane  is  as  follows.  The  right  hand  grasps  the 
handle  or  "toat,"  the  forefinger  being  extended  along  the  wedge  ;  the  left  hand  partially 
encircles  the  front  part  of  the  plane  with  the  thumb  turned  inwards.  The  tiying- 
plane  is  also  held  similarly  for  "  facing  up,"  but  in  applying  the  force  of  the  arms 
there  is  f'.iis  difference,  that  while  with  the  jack-plane  the  pressure  of  the  hands  should 
be  uniform  throughout  the  stroke,  with  the  trying-plane  the  chief  pressure  should  come 
from  the  left  hand  for  the  first  half  of  the  stroke  and  from  the  right  for  the  last  half. 
For  "shooting"  work,  the  trying-plane  is  held  differently,  the  fingers  beneath  the 
sole  serving  as  a  sort  of  gauge  for  keeping  the  plane  on  the  narrow  edge  of  the  board 


240  Caepentry — Eclffe-Tools. 


to^ 


being  -worked.  The  smoothing-planc  is  held  by  the  right  hand  clutching  it  behind  the 
knife  (there  is  no  handle)  and  the  left  grasping  its  front  end  with  the  left  thumb  on  top 
and  pressing  it  down.  The  rabbeting  plane  is  also  called  a  tilister  or  filletster.  It  is 
provided  with  a  "  screw  stop  "  and  a  "  fence  "  for  the  purpose  of  limiting  the  range  of  its 
cut  in  both  width  and  depth.  The  small  grooving  iron  in  front  of  the  plane  proper 
should  extend  a  little  beyond  it,  with  the  object  of  detaching  the  wood  sideways  before 
the  plane  has  to  remove  a  shaving  downwards  ;  thus  the  angle  is  cut  out  perfectly  clean. 
The  plough,  in  many  respects  closely  resembles  the  tilister.  Indeed  the  latter  may  easily 
be  extemporised  out  of  a  plough  by  adopting  the  following  suggestion  put  forward  by 
Ellis  Davidson.  Supposing  a  (Fig.  304)  to  represent  the  plane  looking  at  the  fore  end, 
and  b  a  board  in  the  edge  of  which  it  is  required  to  cut  a  rebate  |  in.  wide  and  J  in. 
deep ;  a  strip  of  these  dimensions  has  literally  to  be  planed  away,  and  the  plane  must 
therefore  not  travel  horizontally  farther  on  the  surface  of  the  board 
than  J  in.,  nor  vertically  sink  deeper  than  J  in.  The  plane  with  whieli 
the  work  is  to  be  done  is  Ih  in.  wide.  Plane  up  a  strip  of  wood  c  to 
the  width  of  1  in.  (the  thickness  will  not  be  any  consideration),  and 
screw  it  at  right  angles  to  another  piece  d,  thus  forming  tlie  letter  L. 
This  forms  a  case  which  will,  when  planed  and  fastened  to  the  side 
of  the  plane  by  a  couple  of  screws,  shut  off  1  in.  of  the  width  of  the 
sole,  allowing  it  to  encroach  upon  the  surface  of  the  board  to  the 
extent  of  5  in.  only  ;  a  mere  strip  e  screwed  on  the  other  side  at  5  in. 
from  the  sole,  will  prevent  the  plane  sinking  deeper  than  is  required. 
On  no  account  should  the  guide  be  screwed  to  the  sole  of  the  plane, 
which  should  always  be  kept  perfectly  smooth,  the  surface  iminjured 
by  screw  holes.  Nor  is  it  necessary  to  damage  the  sides  of  the  plane 
by  more  than  2  small  screw  holes,  for  the  same  side-piece  d  may  be  permanently 
used,  the  width  of  the  strip  c  being  altered  according  to  circumstances ;  and  the 
width  of  e  can  also  be  regulated,  either  by  planing  a  portion  off  below  the  screws  if 
the  rebate  is  to  be  deeper,  or  moving  the  screws  lower  down  in  the  strip  if  it  is  to 
be  shallower,  taking  care  that  the  holes  correspond  with  those  in  the  side  of  the 
plane,  and  that  the  strips  do  not  cover  the  apertures  througli  wliich  the  shavings  should 
escape. 

Sharpening. — The  sharpening  of  the  cutting  edges  of  planes  and  chisels  is  performed 
primarily  on  a  grindstone  or  its  equivalent  an  emery  grinder,  and  secondarily  on  an  oil- 
stone. 

Grindstones. — The  implement  known  as  a  grindstone  consists  of  awheel  of  sandstone 
mounted  on  a  revolving  axle  in  a  trough  capable  of  containing  water,  its  ordinary  form 
being  sufficiently  familiar  to  dispense  with  illustration.  There  is  probably  no  instrument 
in  the  machine  shop  or  factory  which  pays  better  for  the  care  bestowed  upon  it  than  the 
grindstone ;  and  considering  that  nearly  every  tool,  and  all  edge  tools,  jcquire  it,  before 
they  can  be  used  to  advantage,  or  in  fact  at  all,  it  is  somewhat  surprising  that  more 
attention  has  not  been  bestowed  on  the  proper  selection  of  the  grit  for  the  purposes  for 
which  it  is  intended.  As  grindstones  are  almost  constantly  in  use,  their  first  cost  is  of 
little  consequence  if  the  quality  is  calculated  to  do  the  work  in  the  shortest  time  and 
in  the  most  perfect  manner,  as  more  time  can  be  lost  on  a  poor  grindstone,  badly  hung, 
and  out  of  order,  than  will  pay  for  a  good  one  every  3  months.  This  state  ot  things 
should  not  continue,  as  with  the  great  improvements  made  in  the  manner  of  hanging  them, 
and  the  endless  variety  of  grits  to  select  from,  every  mechanic  should  have  a  grindstone 
which  will  not  only  do  its  work  perfectly,  but  in  the  shortest  time.  This  can  be  accom- 
plished by  sending  a  small  sample  of  the  grit  wanted  to  the  dealer  to  select  by. 
Grindstones  are  frequently  injured  through  the  carelessness  of  those  having  them  in 
charge.  Tlie  grindstone,  from  being  exposed  to  the  sun's  rays,  becomes  so  hard  as  to  be 
worthless,  and  the  frame  goes  to  pieces  from  the  same  cause ;  it  will  have  a  soft  place  ia 


Carpentry — Edge  Tools. 


241 


it,  caused  by  a  part  of  it  being  allowed  to  stand  in  water  overnight,  and  the  difficulty 
arising  from  this  cause  increases  with  every  revolution  of  the  stone  ;  but  as  this  liomely 
implement  is  in  charge  of  all  the  men  in  the  shop  in  general,  and  no  one  in  particular, 
and  as  the  workmen  are  all  too  busy  to  raze  it  down,  double  tlie  time  is  consumed  in 
imperfectly  grinding  a  tool  than  would  be  required  to  do  it  perfectly  if  the  stone  were 
kept  in  order  by  some  one,  whose  business  it  would  be  to  attend  to  keeping  all  the 
grindstones  of  the  establishment  in  order.  The  wages  of  a  man  for  this  duty  would  be 
saved  in  the  time  and  perfection  with  which  the  numerous  tools  could  be  kept  in  order 
for  work. 

Most  commonly  grindstones  are  made  to  turn  by  hand,  and  necessitate  the  services 
of  an  assistant.  It  is  much  better  to  have  one  that  may  be  driven  by  the  foot  of 
the  operator,  with  a  handle  to  attach  for  a  second  workman  to  turn  it  when  necessary. 
When  the  needs  of  the  workshop  will  admit  of  it,  the  best  plan  is  to  have  a  large  grind- 
stone (say  2  ft.  diam.  or  more)  for  heavy  work,  and  a  smaller  one  (say  9  in.  diam.) 
capable  of  being  fixed  to  the  end  of  the  carpenters'  bench  and  driven  by  foot 
power  for  lighter  work.  The  stone  should  never  be  used  dry,  and  with  this 
object  a  trough  is  provided  for  containing  water ;  but  the  stone  must  not  under  any 
circumstances  be  allowed  to  remain  immersed  in  the  water  when  not  in  use,  conse- 
quently the  water  must  bo  drawn  otf  through  a  bung-hole,  or  a  hinge  attached  to  the 
trough  for  lowering  it  away  from  the  stone,  or  a  prop  introduced  for  supporting  the  stone 
out  of  reach  of  the  water.  A  sponge  held  against  the  revolving  stone  by  a  small  rack  is 
useful  for  preventing  the  water  travelling  round  with  the  stone  and  wetting  the  handle 
of  the  tool  and  the  hands  and  clothes  of  the  operator.  An  absolutely  essential  quality 
in  a  grindstone  is  a  true  level  face.  This  may  be  partially  secured  by  distributing  the 
work  over  the  whole  breadth  of  its  surface,  so  as  to  wear  it  away  equally  all  over;  but 
every  care  in  this  respect  will  not  sufHce  to  keep  it  even  enough  for  some  tools,  and  then 
it  must  be  refaced  by  means  of  a  steel  tool  wider  than  itself.    Fig.  365  illustrates  an 


365. 


366. 


American  device  (sold  by  Churchills,  Finsbury)  for  keeping  the  face  of  the  grind- 
stone constantly  true  while  at  work,  without  interfering  with  the  use  of  the  stone  or  raising 
any  dust.  The  main  stand  or  bottom  piece  a  is  securely  clamped  upon  the  trough  close 
to  the  face  of  the  stone ;  then  by  turning  the  handwheel  h,  the  threaded  roll  c  is  brought 
into  contact  with  the  face  of  the  stone,  and  allowed  to  remain  so  long  as  it  is  necessary 
to  produce  the  desired  result.  The  water  is  left  in  the  trough  as  usual.  When  the 
thread  of  the  rod  c  is  worn  it  can  be  recut.  The  price  of  one  of  these  imi)lement5  suited 
to  a  12-in.  stone  is  il  10s.    The  tool  to  be  ground  should  be  held  against  the  stone  in 

R 


242  Cakpentry — Edge  Tools. 

such  a  ■way  that  the  bevel  or  slope  of  the  cutting  edge  lies  flat  on  the  stone,  while  the 
handle  maintains  a  horizontal  pos-ition.     The  stone  should  revolve  towards  the  operator, 
i.  e.  against  the  edge.     Usually  the  trough  of  the  grindstone  has  higli  ends  or  similar 
means  of  supporting  the  tool  during  the  grinding.      Such  means  may  take  the  form  of  a 
bevelled  block  to  support  the  blade,  or  a  notclied  rest  to  hold  the  handle,  in  either  case 
securing  that  the  grinding  is  done  at  the  correct  angle.     Fig.'  3GG  shows  a  contrivance 
for  resting  the  tool,  and  ensuring  its  being  ground  at  the  desired  angle.     Tlie  plane  iron 
a  is  held  by  a  clamp  screw  6  in  the  frame  c,  while  the  wheel  d  revolves  on  the  stone  e,  and 
steadies  the  whole.     This  rest  is  sold  by  Churcliills,  Finsbury,  for  2s.     The  amount 
of  angle  or  bevel  given  to  the  edge  varies  with  difierent  tools  and  with  the  fancies  of 
different  workmen.     In  the  ca.se  of  a  plane  iron  it  must  always  be  more  acute  than  the 
angle  formed  by  the  sole  of  the  plane  and  its  mouth.     The  bevel  produced  on  the  grind- 
stone should  not  be  quite  flat  nor  rounding  (bul>;ing)  but  rather  hollowed  out,  a  result 
naturally  following  from  the  circular  form  of  the  grinding  surface  of  the  stone,  and 
varying  of  course  with  the  size  of  the  stone.     Many  workmen  object  to  the  use  of  any 
form  of  rest  for  the  tool  during  grinding,  as  tending  to  produce  a  hollow  edge — the  very 
thing  desired  by  another  class.     Gouges  are  best  held  across  the  stone,  as  otherwise  they 
are  apt  to  score  the  surface  of  the  stone.     In  grinding  the  jack-plane  iron,  the  cutting 
edge  should  be  somewhat  round,  so  that  the  shaving  taken  off  is  thicker  in  the  centre 
than  at  the  edges.     The  trying  iron  is  also  slightly  round,  but  so  slight  that  it  is  hardly 
noticeable.     The  smoothing  iron  should  be  a  straight  line  on  the  cutting  edge,  with  the 
corners  very  slightly  rounded,  but  on  no  account  should  the  edge  be  curved,  though 
ever  so  little.    These  irons  are  all  ground  on  the  back  only — that  is,  the  bevel  side ;  tho 
bevel  or  ground  part  is  about  |  in.  across.     If  too  long,  the  iron  when  working  is  apt  to- 
jump. 

Oilstones. — These  are  of  several  kmds,  the  best  known  being  the  Charnley  Forest,. 
Turkey,  Arkansas,  and  Washita  brands.    They  are  sold  in  pieces  of  convenient  size  at 
about  Is.  Gd.  to  2s.  a  lb.,  and  smaller  slips  for  gouges  at  4s.  a  lb.     They  can  be  procured) 
ready  cased,  but  if  bought  without  a  case,  they  should  not  long  remain  so,  as  they  are 
then  easily  broken  and  exposed  to  dust  and  otlier  evils.     The  casing  may  be  accomplished 
in  the  following  manner.    Supposing  the  stone  to  be  9  in.  long,  2  in.  broad,  and  1  in.  thick,, 
get  2  pieces  of  clean,  straight,  hard  wood,  1  in.  longer  and  wider  tlian  the  stone,  and. 
■I  in.  thick.    Plane  one  side  of  each  piece  flat,  so  that  they  will  lie  closely  together.    Oa 
one  of  the  pieces,  place  the  stone,  keeping  uppermost  the  side  of  it  which  you  mean  to 
use.     Draw  a  line  all  round  the  wood  close  to  the  stone,  when  you  will  have  a  margin 
outside  the  line  of  J  in.    With  the  brace  and  centre  bit  (*  in.  or  |  in.)  bore  all  over  the 
portion  within  the  line  h  in.  deep,  then  with  a  .sharp  chisel  Q  in.  or  1  in.)  cut  down  to 
the  draw-iwint  line  all  round,  clearing  out  all  within  to  J  in.  deep,  and  making  the 
bottom  of  this  hollow  box  level  throughout.     If  it  is  pared  square  down  at  the  edges,  . 
the  stone  will  slip  into  it ;  take  care  to  put  it  in  the  same  way  as  when  you  previously 
drew  it.    When  the  stone  is  bottomed,  ^  in.  will  project  above  the  wood,  and  this  part 
is  to  receive  the  top  or  cover.     The  stone  is  placed  upon  the  second  piece  of  wood,  whicli 
is  to  make  the  cover,  and  drawn  in  the  same  way  ;  and  this  piece  has  to  be  bored  and 
cleared  out  in  the  same  way  to  fully  |  in.  deep.     It  must  have  a  smoother  finish  inside 
than  the  under  piece ;  and  must  be  pared  a  little  without  the  draw-point  line,  so  that  the 
cover  will  slip  on  to  the  stone  easily,  but  without  shaking.     The  stone  being  within,  the 
case  is  planed  on  the  edges  and  ends,  by  catching  it  in  the  bench  vice.    The  4  corners 
may  be  rounded  as  well  as  the  edge  of  the  cover,  and  a  -J-in.  bead  may  be  run  round 
the  cover  where  it  joins  the  under  part.     (Cabe.)    The  oilstone  will  always  wear  most 
in  the  middle,  becoming  hollow  in  both  length  and  breadth.     This  may  not  matter 
much  for  sharpening  jack-plane  irons,  as  the  roundness  thereby  communicated  to  the 
corners  of  the  cutting  edge  is  rather  an  advantage.     But  when  the  hollow  is  of  such  a 
degree  that  it  is  inconvenient,  the  suiface  must  bo  levelled.     This  maybe  effected  by 


Caepentry — Ed'^e  Tools.  243 


o 


rubbing  it  on  a  flat  snndstone  or  grindstone,  or  by  an  emery  slab,  prepared  by  scattering 
emery  powder  on  slips  of  wood  previously  well  glued  to  hold  it,  and  leaving  for  21- 
hours  to  dry.  The  very  best  oil  for  use  on  the  stone  is  either  sperm  or  neat's  foot,  but 
this  is  often  replaced  by  olive  (salad)  oil  or  by  petroleum.  In  applying  the  tool,  its 
bevel  edge  is  rubbed  to  and  fro  on  the  stone,  great  care  being  necessary  to  ensure  that 
the  tool  is  held  at  exactly  the  same  angle  throughout  the  whole  length  of  its  travel 
backwards  and  forwards.  Tliat  is  to  say,  the  natural  tendency  of  the  tool  to  lie  flatter 
as  it  advances  farther  away  from  the  operator's  body  must  be  compensated  for  l)y  raising 
the  hand  slightly  as  it  goes  forward  and  lowering  it  as  it  returns.  Square  the  elbows, 
let  hand  and  arms  have  freedom,  grasp  the  tool  above  with  the  right  hand  so  as  to 
bring  tlie  fingers  underneath  it,  and  let  the  fingers  of  the  left  lie  together,  and 
straight  upon  the  upper  side,  their  ends  tolerably  near  the  edge  of  the  tool,  the  thumb 
being  underneath.  The  tool  will  be  thus  held  firmly,  and  also  under  control.  Holtz- 
appfel  gives  a  way  the  reverse  of  this.  He  says  the  first  finger  only  of  the  right  hand 
should  be  held  above,  and  the  thumb  and  rest  of  the  fingers  below,  the  left  hand  grasp- 
ing the  right,  with  the  finger  above  the  tool  and  the  thumb  below.  It  is  probably  in  a 
great  measure  a  question  of  habit.  Apply  the  ground  side  of  the  iron  to  the  stone,  and 
rub  backwards  and  forwards  nearly  the  whole  length  of  the  stone.  Hold  the  iron 
slightly  more  upright  than  at  the  grindstone,  so  that  the  extreme  cutting  edge 
only  may  come  in  contact  with  the  oilstone.  After  5  or  G  rubs  on  the  bevel,  turn  the 
iron  over  and  give  it  1  or  2  liglit  rubs  when  lying  quite  flat  on  the  stone.  This  double 
operation  is  repeated  till  a  keenly  sharp  edge  is  obtained.  If  the  irons  are  newly  ground, 
very  little  setting  is  needed,  but  as  they  are  dulled  or  blunted  when  working,  a  fresh 
edge  has  to  be  brought  up  on  the  oilstone;  this  sharpening  may  go  on  for  20  or  oO 
times  before  the  irons  require  re-grinding.  A  blunt  iron,  looked  at  on  the  bevel  side, 
presents  a  whitish  rounded  or  worn  appearance,  and  the  sharpening  has  to  be  continued 
imtil  this  white  worn  edge  disappears,  which  is  also  ascertained  by  touching  the  edge 
lightly  with  the  thumb.  When  an  iron  is  sharpened  or  set,  a  very  fine  "  wire  edge  " 
remains  along  tlie  edge ;  this  is  removed  by  a  dexterous  slapping  backwards  and  for- 
wards on  the  palm  of  tlie  hand,  and  is  the  same  in  effect  as  finishing  the  setting  of  a 
razor  by  stropping  on  a  piece  of  leather.  Gouges  and  bead-planes  are  generally  set 
with  a  stone  slip,  several  being  necessary  for  the  various  bead  and  other  moulding 
planes. 

The  slips  are  usually  about  6  in.  long,  2  in.  broad,  and  J-  in.  to  J  in,  thick,  with  the 
edges  rounded  to  fit  the  irons  to  be  set.  The  cutting  part  of  a  bead-plane  iron  is  a  little 
smaller  than  the  corresponding  curve  in  the  stock  of  the  plane,  the  difference  being  the 
thickness  of  the  shaving  taken  ofi".  When  the  ii-on  has  been  set  a  number  of  times 
with  the  slip,  the  cin-ve  has  a  tendency  to  get  wider,  and  consequently  is  soon  as  wide 
as  the  curve  in  the  stock.  The  iron  will  not  then  take  off  a  shaving  of  equal  thickness 
throuo-hout  the  whole  curve,  but  thickest  in  the  middle,  so  the  iron  must  he  reground 
and  set  anew  by  the  plane-maker,  who  has  very  thin  round-edged  grindstones  for  the 
purpose.  The  same  thing  occurs  with  most  other  moulding  planes.  In  setting  with  the 
slip,  the  hollow  part  is  continually  getting  wider,  and  the  round  part  which  is  set  on 
the  ordinary  oilstone  is  getting  smaller.  From  these  causes,  the  moulding  gets  out  of 
proportion,  and  the  iron  does  not  fit  the  stock  with  a  cutting  edge  even  throughout  its 
whole  breadth,  and  will  not  turn  a  good  shaving  as  before.  The  tool-maker  must  re-grind 
the  iron  when  in  this  condition.     (Cabe.) 

Miscellaneous  Forms.  Circular  plane. — All  the  forms  of  plane  hitherto  considered 
have  been  provided  with  a  guide  principle  which  shall  repeat  a  straight  level  surface. 
The  "-uide  may,  however,  be  the  counterpart  of  any  required  surface.  The  American 
adjustable  circular  plane  shown  in  Fig.  3G7  has  an  elastic  steel  sole,  which,  by  means  of 
adjusting  screws,  enables  the  workman  readily  to  convert  a  straight-faced  sole  into  one 
either  concave  or  convex.    It  also  possesses  an  advantage  in  the  mode  of  fixing  the  iron, 

B  2 


244 


CAErENTRY — Edge  Tools. 


viz.  by  a  cam  action.    Often  in  ordinary  planes  the  wood  splits  when  the  holding  wedge 
binds  on  the  box. 

Rounder. — Wlieeler's  rounder  is  shown  in  Fig.  368.  It  is  a  very  useful  tool  for  pro- 
ducing a  smooth  and  even  surface  on  a  cylindrical-shaped  article,  such  as  a  broom  handle ; 
a  is  the  cutting  edge,  and  h  the  handles  by  which  it  is  made  to  revolve  round  the  wood. 


370. 


Box  scraper.— Fig.  369  illustrates  an  adjustable  box  scraper,  made  of  malleable  iron, 
with  2-in.  steel  cutters,  and  costing  2s.  Qd. 

Veneer  scraper. — An  adjustable  veneer  scraper  is  represented  in  Fig.  370.  Its  price 
with  a  3-in.  cutter  is  15s.,  extra  cutters  costing  Is.  ?,d.  each.  The  two  latter  tools  may 
be  obtained  of  Churchills,  Finsbury,  or  Melhuish,  Fetter  Lane. 

Mitre-plane.— The  Rogers  mitre-plane,  Fig.  371,  is  made  entirely  of  iron,  and  is 
arranged  for  planing  any  desired  angle  on  straight  or 
curved  work.  The  main  bed-piece  is  semicircular  in 
form,  with  a  way  or  frame  at  its  rear  on  which  the 
plane  runs.  The  upper  or  movable  bed-plate  is  in 
quadrant  form,  having,  at  right  angles,  sides  which 
act  as  guides  for  the  material  to  be  planed,  and 
revolving  on  a  pivot  a  at  the  end,  enabling  the 
user  to  form  the  desired  angle  for  straight  work,  and 
place  it  in  its  proper  position  against  the  face  of  the 
plane.  When  the  quadrant  or  movable  bed-plate  is 
in  the  centre  of  the  main  bed-piece,  its  side  eleva- 
tions form  an  exact  mitre,  so  that  no  change  is 
required  in  planing  the  ends  of  parts  for  frames  of 
4  sides.  In  the  sides  of  the  quadrant  are  2  adjust- 
able guides  or  rests  kept  in  position  by  set-screws  d.  The  special  object  of  these  rests 
is  to  enable  one  to  finish  the  ends  or  angles  on  curved  work  with  exactness.  In 
preparing  pieces  for  circular  or  oval  work,  frames,  pulleys,  emery  wheels,  circular 
patterns,  &c.,  it  is  necessary  to  plane  the  ends  of  the  various  segments  at  varying 
angles.  In  planing  these,  the  point  of  the  quadrant  near  the  plane  and  the  adjustable 
guides  form  the  rests  required  for  accurate  work.  The  quadrant  is  kept  in  position 
at  any  angle  desired  by  pressing  the  catch  c  down  into  the  notches  prepared  for  it, 
or  by  the  thumb-screw  6,  and  can  be  used  in  connection  with  the  arms  or  guides  as 
desired.  It  is  sold  by  Churchills,  Finsbury,  at  prices  varying  from  90s.  for  the  2-in. 
size,  to  135s.  for  the  4-in. 

Combination  Filisters. — Miller's  combination,  Fig.  372,  embraces  the  common 
carpenters  plough,  an  adjustable  filletster,  and  a  perfect  matching-plane.  The  entire 
assortment  can  be  kept  in  smaller  space,  or  made  more  portable,  than  an  ordinary  car- 


Carpentry- 


-Edge  Tools. 


245 


pcnters'  plough.  With  each  plough,  8  bits  (•-,  -{^j^,  i,  -j'^,  f , ^t.,  -\,  and  -|  in.)  are  funiishcrl ; 
also  a  tonguing  tool  (^-in.),  and  by  the  use  of  the  latter,  together  witli  a  J-in.  plough 
bit  for  grooving,  a  perfect  matching-plane  is  made.  A  metallic  bed-piece,  -with  li-in. 
cutter  in  it,  can  be  attached  to  the  stock  of  the  tool  by  means  of  2  screws  passing 
through  the  slots  in  the  base-piece  of  the  stock.     Over  this  bed-piece  the  gauge,  or 


fence,  will  move  backward  or  forward,  and  when  secured  to  the  bars  by  the  thumb- 
screw, will  constitute  an  adjustable  fiUetster  of  any  width  required.  The  upright  gauge 
on  the  back  of  the  stock  is  adjusted  by  a  thumbscrew  likewise,  and  regulates  the 
depth  for  the  use  of  the  filletster,  as  for  all  the  other  tools  embraced  in  the  combi- 
nation.    Churchills  sell  it  at  36s. 

Trant's  adjustable  dado,  &c.,  sold  by  the  same  firm  at  32s.,  is  shown  in  Fig.  373. 


It  consists  of  2  sections— a  main  stock  with  2  bars  or  arms;  and  a  sliding  section, 
having  its  bottom,  or  face,  level  with  that  of  the  main  stock.  It  can  be  used  as  a 
dado  of  any  required  width,  by  inserting  the  bit  into  the  main  stock,  and  bringing 
the  sliding  section  up  to  the  edge  of  the  bit.  The  2  spurs,  one  on  each  section  of  the  plane, 
will  thus  be  brought  exactly  in  front  of  the  edges  of  the  bit.  The  gauge  on  the 
sliding  section  will  regulate  the  depth  to  which  the  tool  will  cut.  By  attaching  the  guard- 
plate  to  the  sliding  section,  the  tool  may  be  readily  converted  into  a  plough,  a  filletster, 
or  a  matching-plane— as  explained  in  the  printed  instructions  which  go  in  every  box. 


246  Carpentry — Edge  Tools. 

The  tool  is  accompanied  by  8  plougli  bits  (^^,  i,  ^,  |,  i,  f,  |,  and  li  in.)>  a  filletster 
cutter,  and  a  tonguing  tool.     All  these  bits  are  secured  in  the  main  stock  on  a  skew. 

Lunt,  Hackney  Road,  sells  a  circular  rabbeting  and  tilister  router  for  3s.  Gd. ;  it 
cuts  any  rebate  up  to  I  in.  wide,  but  the  filister  is  not  adjustable. 

Boring  tools. — These  comprise  awls,  gimlets,  augers,  bits  and  braces,  and  drills. 

Aicls. — The  simplest  form  of  boring  tool  is  the  awl  or  bradawl  as  it  is  more  generally 
called,  Fig.  374.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  small  steel  rod,  with  one  end  fastened  in  a 
wooden  handle,  and  the  other  doubly  bevelled  to  a  sharp  edge,  which  serves  the  purpose 
of  compressing  and  displacing  the  fibres  of  the  wood  so  as  to  form  a  hole  without 
producing  any  chips  or  dust  from  the  wood  operated  on.  Its  greatest  drawback  is  the 
readiness  with  which  the  awl  proper  may  be  pulled  out  of  its  liandle  in  withdrawing 
the  tool  from  the  hole  it  has  made,  especially  in  the  case  of  hard  woods.  Superior  awls 
are,  however,  made  to  overcome  this  fault,  the  handle  being  hollow  and  containing  a 
selection  of  awls  of  different  sizes,  each  fastening  into  the  handle  by  means  of  a  screw- 
nut.     The  use  of  the  awl  is  to  prepare  holes  for  the  admission  of  nails  and  screws. 

Gimlets. — The  gimlet  is  an  offspring  of  the  awl,  and  of  more  recent  origin.  The 
gimlet  of  the  Greeks  had  the  cross-head  or  handle  of  the  style  now  prevalent.  It  also 
had  possibly  a  hollow  pod,  as  the  earliest  specimens  found  are  of  that  type,  but  no 
screw-point,  and  it  demanded  a  large  expenditure  of  muscle,  especially  in  boring  hard 

374. 


<cs:2 


377.  379. 

IS 


woods,  where  it  was  not  very  effective.  Later,  a  gimlet  of  square  section,  having  sharp 
corners  and  tapering  to  a  sharp  point,  was  introduced,  and  gave  the  hint  for  a  form  of 
auger  now  in  use.  In  course  of  time,  the  screw  point  was  added,  and  the  hollow-pod 
gimlet,  with  a  point  of  this  kind,  was  the  only  sort  in  use  for  many  centuries.  In 
England,  this  was  called  a  "  wimble."  This  form  is  still  in  use  to  some  extent,  and 
is  effective  where  very  shallow  holes  only  are  to  be  bored,  but  as  it  has  to  be  removed 
•whenever  the  pod  becomes  full  of  chips  from  boring,  it  causes  a  waste  of  time  when 
deeper  holes  are  desired.  The  twisted  or  spiral  form  of  gimlet,  which  is  self-discharging, 
is  an  American  invention,  and  only  of  very  recent  date.  It  has,  however,  superseded 
all  other  forms,  and  is  now  in  common  use.  The  field  of  the  gimlet  is  becoming  greatly 
narrowed,  giving  ground  to  the  more  rajiid  and  convenient  brace  and  bit.  (Industrial 
World.)    Some  gimlets  are  made  with  twisted  shanks,  which  allow  the  dust  and  little 


Cahpentry — BoriufT  Tools. 


247 


chips  to  escape  more  easily,  and  some  have  only  a  gouge-shaped  channel  with  a  pointed 
screw  below.  These  tools  cut  away  the  material  as  they  go,  the  screw  point  only 
serving  to  give  a  hold  at  first,  and  gradually  to  draw  the  tool  deeper  into  the  work. 
The  shell  or  gouge-shaped  are  generally  preferred  by  carpenters,  as  being  stronger  and 
more  suited  for  rough  work  in  various  woods ;  but  they  are  more  likely  to  split  the 
work,  especially  if  the  latter  be  at  all  thin  or  slight.  In  such  case,  it  is  best  fo  use 
very  little  pressure,  and  to  give  a  quick  movement  to  the  handle.  Fig.  375  shows  the 
commonest  form  of  gimlet,  termed  a  "spike."  Fig.  37G  is  a  "treble  twist";  Fig.  377, 
an  auger  gimlet ;  Fig.  378,  a  patent  twist ;  and  Fig.  379,  a  brewers' 
twist.  The  prices  of  awls  and  gimlets  range  from  Id.  to  Gd.  each, 
according  to  size.     An  assortment  is  needed. 

-4M(7ers.— These  are  only  magnified  gimlets  for  use  with  both  hands. 
They  are  represented  in  Fig.  380,  a  being  the  "twisted,"  and  b  tlie 
"shell "form.  A  wooden  bar  is  thrust  through  the  eye  c,  and  the 
hands  exchange  ends  of  this  bar  at  each  half  revolution  given  to  tlie 
tool.  Their  sizes  advance  J-  in.  at  a  time  from  |  in.  to  2  in.  in  diameter, 
and  prices  range  from  8d.  to  6s.  6d. 

Bits  and  Braces.— The  faults  inherent  in  all  forms  of  awl,  gimlet, 
and  auger  are  that  the  rotation  is  necessarily  interrupted  to  enable 
the  position  of  the  hand  or  hands  to  be  changed,  and  that  the  pressure 
exercised  on  the  tool  is  in  most  cases  limited.  These  drawbacks 
are  overcome  by  the  brace  and  its  accompanying  bits.  The  ordinary 
form  of  brace  is  shown  in  Fig.  381.  It  consists  simply  of  a  crank, 
one  end  a  being  provided  with  a  round  head  for  receiving  pressure 
from  the  breast  of  the  workman,  the  other  end  h  recessed  for  the  in- 
troduction of  the  bit,  and  the  centre  c  rendered  smooth  for  the  appli- 
cation of  the  hand  that  turns  the  whole.  It  will  be  obvious  that 
much  greater  working  efiiciency  can  be  got  out  of  the  boring  tool  by 
the  continuous  rapid  rotation  and  heavy  pressure  secured  by  this 
implement  tiian  by  the  simpler  forms  previously  described.  The  tools 
adapted  for  use  witli  the  brace  (Figs.  382-394)  are  made  fast  in  the  end  h  by  means  of 
a  thumb-screw  catching  in  the  notch  seen  near  the  end  of  their  stems.  This  con- 
stitutes the  weak  point  in  the  ordinary  form  of  this  compound  tool.    In  the  first 


381. 


place,  the  use  to  which  the  implement  is  subjected  has  a  direct  tendency  to  wear  the 
thumb-screw  in  such  a  degree  as  to  soon  render  it  loose  and  incapable  of  holding  the 
boring  tool  firmly ;  and  in  the  second  place,  the  square  hole  in  the  end  b  is  of  fixed 
size,  and  will  only  admit  tools  which  fit  it  accurately.  These  defects  are  remedied  in 
Barber's  patent  brace,  which  is  provided  with  an  expanding  chuck  that  adapts  itself 


248 


Cakpentey — Boring  Tools. 


382. 


383. 


334. 


385. 


386. 


395. 


to  all  shapes  and  sizes  of  stems,  and  holds  tliem  tight  and  true.  It  is  made  in  several 
sizes  and  styles,  the  most  useful  being  the  9-in.,  costing  3s.  6d. ;  the  common  socket 
iron  brace  of  the  same  size  may  be  had  for  about  Is.  6d.  Of  the  tools  employed  in 
the  brace,  Fig.  382  is  a  centre-bit, 
useful  for  boring  large  and  deep  holes; 
Figs.  383,  384,  385,  countersinks  for 
enlarging  the  entrances  of  holes  when 
it  is  desirable  to  let  tlie  screw  or  otlier 
occupant  of  the  hole  lie  completely 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  wood — 
they  are  termed  respectively  "  snail- 
horn,"  "  rosc-hcad,"  and  "  flat-head,'' 
from  their  shapes  ;  Fig.  386,  a  screw- 
driver ;  Fig.  395,  a  bobbin  bit;  Fig. 
387,  a  taper  bit,  for  boring  funnel- 
shaped  holes  ;  Fig.  388,  a  sasli  bit ; 
Fig.  389,  a  shell  bit;  Fig.  390,  a 
nose  bit ;  Fig.  391,  a  spoon  bit ; 
Fig.  392,  a  square  rinder;  Fig.  393, 

a  half-round  rinder;  Fig.  394,  a  gimlet  bit;  Fig.  396,  a  dowling  bit.  Many  other 
forms  might  be  mentioned,  including  those  employed  in  metal  working,  for  which  the 
implement  is  equally  well  adapted. 

Drills. — This  is  another  method  of  securing  more  rapid  and  continuous  rotation  of 
the  tool.    A  quick-speed  hand-drill  sold  by  Churchills,  Finsbury,  for  7s.  6d.  is  shown 


a 


387. 


388.      3S9. 


394. 


in  Fig.  397.  It  has  a  continuous  revolving  movement  in  one  direction  at  a  speed  of 
500-1000  turns  per  minute.  It  is  operated  by  holding  the  handle  in  the  left  hand,  and 
quickly  drawing  out  the  cord  with  the  right  hand ;  on  relieving  the  tension,  the  cord 
is  re-wound  on  the  spindle  by  a  spring  concealed  in  the  spool.  The  momentum  given 
to  the  fly-wheel  is  sufiicient  to  maintain  the  speed  while  the  cord  is  re-wound  and  the 


Carpentry — Boring  Tools. 


249 


operation  repeated.  It  may  bo  worked  in  any  position.  It  carries  an  adjustable  self- 
centreing  chuck  for  holding  the  drill-points ;  6  of  these,  from  J,  to  i  in.,  are  sent  with 
each  drill.     It  will  be  found  a  rapid  working  tool  for  liglit  work'in  wood  or  metal 

Fig.  398  shows  the  Miller's  Falls  breast-drill  mounted  in  a  steel  frame.    Most  work 
can  better  be  done  with  the  drill  mounted  in  the  frame.    When  used  against  the  breast 


398. 


it  often  requires  a  heavy  pressure,  which  is  very  fatiguing  to  the  workman.  In  this 
arrangement,  there  is  a  leverage  of  5  to  1,  which  makes  the  feeding  an  easy  matter. 
When  work  is  required,  which  cannot  be  done  in  the  frame,  the  drill  can  be  taken  out 
and  used  in  the  ordinary  way.  The  upright  rods  of  the  frame  are  |-in.  round  steel, 
16  in.  high,  and  8  in.  apart.  As  seen  in  the  cut,  the  drill  is  held  true  by  the  frame, 
and  the  work  held  firmly  in  place  by  the  clamp.  The  lever  feed  is  operated  by  hand, 
or  a  weight  may  be  used.  The  drillstock  is  of  -J-in.  round  steel,  heavily  nickel-plated. 
The  gears  are  cut,  and  are  changeable  from  even  to  a  speed  of  3  to  1,  as  may  be  desired. 
The  handles  are  rosewood.  The  jaws  of  the  chuck  are  forged  steel,  and  will  hold  any  size 
or  shape  shank — round,  square,  or  flat.  An  extra  set  of  steel  jaws  is  supplied  for  small 
round  drills  only.  The  drillstock  can  be  put  in  or  out  of  the  frame  by  the  half-turn  of 
a  thumb-nut.     The  machine  weighs  only  15  lb.,  and  costs  30s.     It  is  sold  by  Churchills. 

Miscellaneous. — Several  improved  tools  of  recent  introduction  scarcely  fall  under  any 
of  the  foregoing  classes.     They  are  as  follows  :— 

Angular  Bit  Stock. — This  very  useful  adjunct  to  the  brace  and  bits  is  shown  in  Fig. 
399.  Its  object  is  to  alter  the  direction  of  the  pressure  in  boring  (so  as  to  permit  boring 
in  a  corner),  for  which  purpose  it  is  placed  between  the  brace  and  bit,  forming  their  con- 
necting link.  The  angle  at  which  the  hole  is  to  be  bored  is  decided  beforehand,  and  the 
stock  is  properly  set,  the  ball  joint  enabling  the  tool  to  turn  without  hindrance.  It  is 
sold  by  Churchills  for  8s.  6d. 

Wheeler's  Countersink. — The  bit  of  this  countersink,  Fig.  400,  is  in  the  shape  of  a 


250 


Caepentet — Boring  Tools. 


399. 


hollow  eccentric  cone,  thus  scouring  a  cutting  edge  of  uniform  draft  from  the  point  to 

the  base  of  the  tool,  and  obviating  tlie  tendency  of  such  a  tool  to  lead  off  into  the  wood 

at  its  cutting  edge,  and  to  leave  an  angular  line  where  it  ceases  to  cut.    It  works  equally 

well  for  every  variety  of  screw, 

the  pitch  of  the  cone  being  the 

same  as  the  taper  given  to  the 

heads    of    all    sizes    of    screws, 

thereby  rendering  only  a  single 

tool  necessary  for  every   variety 

of  work.    It  cuts  rapidly,  and  is 

easily   sharpened  by   drawing  a 

thin  file  lengthways  inside  of  the 

cutter.     By  fastening  tlie  gauge 

at  a  given  point,  any  number  of 

screws  may  be  driven  so  as  to 

leave  the  heads  flush  with  the 

surface,   or  at  a  uniform   depth 

below    it.      The    gauge   can   be 

easily  moved  or  detached  entirely, 

by  means  of  the  set-screw. 

Expansion  Bit. — Clark's  ex- 
pansion bit,  Fig.  401,  is  designed 
to  cut  holes  of  varying  size  by 
means  of  a  shifting  cutter.  It  is 
made  in  2  sizes,  one  ranging  from 
i  in.  to  li  iu.,  and  costing  7s.  6c/., 
and  the  other  embracing  all  diameters  between  f  in.  and  3  in,,  and  costing  lis.  One  of 
these  tools  not  only  replaces  a  complete  set  of  the  ordinary  kind,  but  enables  holes  to  be 

402. 


bored  of  all  intermediate  sizes.    These,  however,  are  seldom  required  in  the  general  way. 

Boring  Machine. — Fig.  402  represents  a  plain  and  an  angular  boring  machine,  adapted 

for  heavy  work,  costing  respectively  22s.  and  30s.  without  augers ;  a  set  of  augers  to 


Carpentry — Striking  Tools. 


251 


match,  h  in.,  -|  in.,  f  in.,  I  in.,  1  in.,  IJ  in.,  1^  in.,  If  in.,  and  2  in.,  costs  428.  Gd.  The 
diagrams  will  explain  themselves. 

Striking  Tools.— The  only  members  of  this  gronp  are  the  familiar  hammer  and  mallet. 

Hammers. — Hammers,  with  and  without  handles,  are  in  use  ;  hammers  of  various 
weights  from  h  oz.  to  10  lb.,  and  from  15  lb.  to  5G  lb.,  are  now  employed  as  hand- 
hammers.  The  angles  of  attachment  of  handles  to  h(!ads  are  various ;  tlie  position  of  the 
centre  of  gravity  of  the  head  in  reference  to  the  line  of  penetration  of  the  handle  is 
various ;  the  faces  have  various  convexities  ;  the  panes  have  all  ranges  and  forms,  from 
the  hemispherical  end  of  the  engineer's  hammer,  and  the  sharpened  end  of  the  pick  and 
tomahawk,  to  tlie  curved  sharpened  end  of  the  adze,  or  the  straight  convex  edge  of  the 
hatchet  and  axe;  the  panes  make  all  angles  witli  the  plane  in  which  the  hammer  moves. 
Various  as  are  the  uses  to  which  hammers  may  be  directed,  yet  like  many  other  handi- 
craft tools  certain  contrivances  are  requisite  in  order  either  to  direct  or  give  full  effect 
to  the  tool  itself.  Art  has  given  to  the  hammer  head  only  the  handle  as  its  contribution. 
Nature  supplies  other  and  more  essential  contrivances.  These  contrivances  are  mainly 
the  muscles  of  the  arm,  although  under  certain  circumstances  other  muscles  of  the  body, 
especially  those  about  the  loins,  are  called  into  action.  The  weight  of  the  hammer  head, 
and  the  balance  of  the  head  in  the  liandle,  are  the  most  important  considerations  govern- 
ing the  suitability  of  the  hammer  to  the  nature  or  tne  work  as  well  as  to  the  capacity  of 
the  workman.  The  ordinary  ("  Exeter  ")  carpenter's  hammer  is  shown  in  Fig.  403,  consist- 
ing of  a  wooden  handle  fastened  in  an  eye  in  the  steel  head  by  means  of  a  wedge.  Fig.  404 


403. 


404 


is  the  next  common  form,  termed  a  "  claw  "  hammer,  and  secured  head  to  haft  by  means 
of  side  flanges.  This  is  an  inferior  plan,  as  the  elasticity  of  the  blow  is  not  only  inter- 
fered with,  but  the  head  is  liable  to  be  loosened  by  using  the  claw  for  drawing  nails.    It 


405. 


is  well  to  have  2  or  3  sizes  for  various  work,  costing  Is.  to  3,?.  each.  No  hammer  should 
ever  be  used  to  strike  a  wooden  surface,  especially  an  article  lighter  than  the  hammer 
itself,  as  it  will  certainly  do  mischief. 


252  Caepentry— Striking:  Tools. 


o 


Mallets. — In  these  tools  the  steel  head  is  replaced  by  a  ■wooden  one.  Fig.  405  shows 
the  usual  square  form ;  there  is  also  a  round  form.  The  former  ranges  from  6  in.  long 
and  2i  in.  by  3^  in.  wide,  costing  9fL,to  7  in.  by  3  in.  by  4  in.,  costing  1.3jd. ;  the  latter, 
from  5  in.  long  and  3  in.  diam.,  costing 7c?.,  to  6  in.  by  4  in.,  costing  ll^d.  These  have 
hickory  heads;  similar  tools  made  of  lignum  vita3  cost  nearly  double.  The  chief  use  of 
the  mallet  is  in  conjunction  with  the  chisel. 

Chopping  Tools. — Tliese  comprise  axes,  hatchets,  and  adzes.  They  consist  of  a 
combination  of  a  striking  tool  with  a  cutting  tool,  the  cutting  edge  being  of  stronger 
form  than  those  described  in  a  previous  section  (p.  230),  in  order  to  support  the 
strain  resulting  from  their  being  applied  with  greater  force.  The  construction  of 
these  tools  necessitates  the  addition  of  a  handle  or  "  helve,"  whose  shape,  length, 
and  method  of  attachment  to  the  blade  have  no  small  influence  on  the  efifectiveness  of 
the  tool. 

Axes  and  Hatchets. — Principles.  Axes  are  tools  to  be  used  with  both  hands  ;  they 
have  long  handles,  and  may  be  swung  as  sledge  hammers.  Hatchets  are  to  be  used 
with  one  hand,  have  short  handles,  are  much  lighter  and  thinner  than  axes,  and  are 
employed  more  in  the  trimming  than  in  the  hewing  of  timber.  Both  narrow  and  broad 
axes  are  employed  in  forestry,  the  woodman's  choice  being  affected  by  the  size  of  the 
timber  and  the  character  of  the  fibre.  A  hatchet  is  liandled  with  tlie  centre  of  gravity 
nearer  the  cutting  edge  than  tlie  line  of  the  handle  ;  an  axe,  with  the  centre  of  gravity 
in  the  line  of  handle  produced.  When  we  pass  from  the  tool  and  its  contrived  handle  to 
the  mode  of  using,  and  the  purpose  for  which  it  has  been  constructed,  we  find,  as  a  rule, 
a  cutting  edge  formed  by  2  inclined  surfaces  meeting  at  an  angle,  the  bisecting  line  of 
which  passes  through  the  middle  of  the  metal.  It  is  very  apparent  that  the  more  acute 
this  angle  is,  the  greater,  under  the  same  impact,  will  be  tlie  penetrative  power  of  the 
axe  into  the  material  against  which  it  is  driven.  This  supposition  needs  to  be  qualified, 
for  suppose  the  material  offers  a  great  resistance  to  the  entrance  of  this  edge,  then  the 
effect  of  the  blow,  upon  tlie  principle  that  action  and  reaction  are  equal,  will  react  upon 
the  edge,  and  the  weakest,  either  edge  of  axe  or  object  struck,  must  yield.  Here  experi- 
ence would  be  obliged  to  qualify  the  simple  tool  in  which  the  edge  was  keen  and  acute, 
and  would  naturally  sacrifice  the  keenness  and  acuteness  to  strength.  When  early  uses 
of  the  axe  are  considered,  it  will  be  noticed  that  even  in  fasliioning  with  an  axe  or  adze 
the  same  piece  of  wood,  different  conditions  of  edge  are  requisite.  If  the  blow  be  given 
in  the  direction  of  the  fibre,  resistance  to  entrance  of  the  edge  is  much  less  than  in  the 
blow  across  that  fibre.  So  great,  indeed,  may  this  difference  become,  that  whilst  the  axe 
seems  in  all  respects  a  suitable  tool,  yet  as  the  attention  of  the  workman  passes  to  direc- 
tions inclined  to  the  fibre  at  an  angle  of  more  than  45°,  he  will  be  induced  to  lay  it  aside 
in  favour  of  the  saw.  These  remarks  apply  only  to  tools  used  in  dividing  materials,  and 
not  to  tools  used  in  preparing  surfaces  of  materials.  This  preliminary  consideration 
prepares  us  for  the  different  circumstances  under  which  tliese  2  classes  of  tools  may  be 
respectively  used.  And  as  the  contrast  of  the  effect  of  the  same  tool  under  different 
circumstances  in  the  same  substance  is  considerable,  great  also  is  likely  to  be  the  con- 
trast between  the  edges  of  the  tools  and  the  manner  of  using  them,  e.  g.  the  axe,  which 
is  the  proper  tool  in  tlie  direction  of  the  fibre,  is  operated  upon  by  impact,  whilst  a  saw, 
which  is  the  proper  tool  across  the  fibre,  is  operated  upon  by  tension  or  thrust,  but 
never  by  impact. 

Using. — The  mode  in  which  the  axe  is  used  will  explain  why  it  is  unsuited  for  work 
across  the  fibre.  The  axe  is  simply  a  wedge,  and  therefore  arranged  to  cleave,  rather 
than  to  cut,  the  wood.  Now  a  calculation  of  the  pressure  necessary  to  thrust  forward  a 
wedgo,  and  the  impact  necessary  to  cause  the  same  wedge  to  enter  the  same  depth,  would 
explain  why  (regarded  as  a  wedge  only)  the  handle  proves  an  important  adjunct  to  the 
arm  of  the  workman. 

The  motions  of  the  hands  on  the  handle  of  an  axe  are  similar  to  those  of  a  work- 


Caepentry— Chopping  Tools.  253 

man  on  that  of  the  sledge  hammer.  The  handle  of  a  properly  handled  axe  is  curved, 
that  of  a  sledge  hammer  is  straight.  For  present  consideration  this  curvature  may 
be  overlooked,  althougli  it  plays  an  important  part  in  the  using  of  an  axo  witli  sucfess 
nnd  case.  If  the  almost  unconscious  motions  of  a  workman  skilled  in  the  use  of  an 
axe  be  observed,  it  will  bo  noticed  that  whilst  the  hand  farthest  from  the  axe  head 
grasps  the  handle  at  the  same  or  nearly  the  same  part,  the  other  hand,  or  the  one  nearest 
to  the  head,  frequently  moves.  Let  us  follow  these  motions  and  consider  the  effect 
of  them.  The  axo  has  just  been  brought  down  with  a  blow  and  entered  between  the 
fibres  of  the  wood.  In  this  position  it  may  be  regarded  as  wedged  in  the  wood, 
held  in  fact  by  the  pressure  of  tlie  fibres  against  the  sides  of  the  axe ;  from  this 
fixity  it  must  be  released,  and  this  is  usually  done  by  action  on  or  near  the  head.  For 
this  purpose  the  workman  slides  his  hand  along  the  handle,  and  availing  himself  (if 
need  be)  of  the  oval  form  of  the  handle  after  it  has  passed  through  the  eye  of  the 
metal,  he  releases  the  head.  The  instrument  has  now  to  be  raised  to  an  elevation  ;  for 
this  purpose  his  hand  remains  near  to  the  head,  so  causing  the  length  of  the  path  of 
his  hand  and  that  of  the  axe  head  to  be  nearly  the  same.  The  effect  of  this  is  to  require 
but  a  minimum  of  power  to  be  exerted  by  the  muscles  in  raising  the  axe  ;  whereas  if 
the  hand  had  remained  near  the  eud  of  the  handle  most  distant  from  the  head,  then  the 
raising  of  the  axe  head  would  have  been  done  at  what  is  called  a  mechanical  disad- 
vantage. Indeed,  if  a  workman  will  notice  the  position  of  the  hand  (whicli  does  not 
slide  along  the  handle)  before  and  after  the  blow  has  been  given,  he  will  find  that  its 
travel  has  been  very  small  indeed.  Reverse  the  problem.  Take  the  axe  head  as  raised 
to  such  an  elevation  as  to  cause  the  handle  to  be  vertical  (we  are  dealing  with 
ordinary  axes,  the  handles  being  in  the  plane  of  the  axe  blade).  Now  the  left  hand  is  at 
the  extremity  of  the  handle,  the  right  hand  is  very  near  to  the  axe  head — the  blow  is 
about  to  be  given.  Tlie  requirement  in  this  case  is  that  there  should  be  concentrated  at 
the  axe  head  all  the  force  or  power  possible  ;  hence  to  ease  the  descent  would  be  as  inju- 
dicious as  to  intensify  the  weight  of  the  lift.  Consequently  whilst  with  the  hand  nearest 
to  the  head  (as  it  is  when  the  axe  reaches  its  highest  elevation)  the  workman  momen- 
tarily forces  forward  the  axe,  availing  himself  of  the  leverage  now  formed  by  regarding 
the  left  hand  as  the  fulcrum  of  motion,  he  gives  an  impulse,  and  this  impelling  force  is 
continued  until  an  involuntary  consciousness  assures  him  that  the  descending  speed  of 
the  axe  is  in  excess  of  any  velocity  that  muscular  efforts  can  maintain.  To  permit 
gravity  to  have  free  play,  the  workman  withdraws  the  hand  nearest  to  the  head,  and 
sliding  it  along  the  handle,  brings  it  close  to  the  left  hand,  which  is  at  the  extremity  of 
the  handle;  thus  the  head  comes  down  upon  the  work  with  all  the  energy  which  a 
combination  of  muscular  action  and  gravity  can  effect.  The  process  is  repeated  by  the 
right  hand  sliding  along  the  handle,  and  releasing  as  well  as  raising  the  head. 

Form  of  handle. — The  form  of  the  axe  handle  deserves  notice,  differing  as  it  does 
from  that  of  the  sledge  hammer.  In  tlie  latter,  it  is  round  or  nearly  so  ;  in  the  axe, 
it  is  oval,  the  narrow  end  of  the  oval  being  on  the  side  towards  the  edge  of  the  axe,  and, 
more  than  this,  the  longer  axis  of  the  oval  increases  as  the  handle  approaches  the  head, 
till  at  its  entrance  into  the  head  it  may  be  double  what  it  is  at  the  other  extremity.  It 
often  has  also  a  projection  at  the  extremity  of  the  handle.  The  increasing  thickness  near 
the  head  not  only  gives  strength  where  needed,  as  the  axe  is  being  driven  in,  but  it  also 
supplies  that  for  which  our  ancestors  employed  thongs,  viz.  assistance  to  the  strain 
necessary  to  release  the  blade  from  the  cut.  There  is,  too,  this  further  dif!ei-ence— in  a 
sledge  hammer  more  or  less  recoil  has  to  be  provided  for,  and  the  handle  does  this ;  in 
the  axe  no  recoil  ought  to  take  place.  The  entrance  of  the  axe  edge  is,  or  ought  to  be, 
sufBcient  to  retain  it,  and  the  whole  of  the  energy  resulting  from  muscular  action  and 
gravity  should  be  utilized.  The  curvature,  too,  of  the  handle  is  in  marked  contrast  with 
the  straight  line  of  the  sledge  hammer  handle.  The  object  of  this  curvature  is  worthy  of 
note.     In  the  American  forester's  axe,  the  handle  is  very  long  and  curved.     If  laying  the 


254 


Carpentry — Chopping  Tools. 


axe  handle  across  the  finger  where  the  head  and  handle  balance,  the  blade  of  the  axe  is 
placed  horizontal,  the  edge  does  not  turn  downwards  :  in  fact,  t)ie  centre  of  gravity  of 
the  axe  head  is  in  the  liorizontal  straight  lino  prolongation  ot  the  handle  through  the 
place  where  the  finger  is.    Now  in  sle»^ge  hammer  work  the  face  is  to  be  brought  dowu 


410. 


409. 


403, 


407. 


406. 


411. 


412. 


flat,  i.e.  as  a  rule,  in  a  horizontal  plane.  With  the  foresters'  axe,  it  has  to  be  brought 
down  at  varying  obliquities.  If  the  hewer's  hand  had  to  be  counteracting  the  influence 
of  gravity,  there  would  be  added  to  liiin  very  needless  labour,  hence  the  care  of  a  sliilled 
forester  in  the  balance  of  the  axe-head  and  the  curvature  of  the  handle. 


413. 


414. 


415. 


416. 


Form  of  cutting  edge. — The  form  of  the  cutting  edge  as  seen  in  the  side  of 
the  axe  is  often  convex.  Tlie  line  across  the  face  in  Fig.  417  indicates  the  extent  of 
the  steel,  and  the  corresponding  line  in  Fig.  407  the  bevel  of  the  cleaving  edge.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  the  cutting  edge  in  each  case  is  curved.  The  object  of  this  is  to 
prevent  not  only  the  jar  and  damage  which  might  be  done  by  the  too  suddeu  stoppage 


Carpentry — Chopping  Tools. 


255 


of  the  rapid  motion  of  the  hocavy  head  in  separating  a  group  of  fibres,  but  also  to 
facilitate  that  separation  by  attacking  tlieso  fibres  in  succession.  For,  assuming  the  axe 
falls  square  on  its  work  in  the  direction  of  the  iibres,  a  convex  edge  will  first  separate  2 
fibres,  and  in  so  doing  will  have  released  a  portion  of  the  bond  which  held  adjoining 
fibres.    An  edge  thus  convex,  progressing  at  each  side  of  the  convexity  which  first 


418. 


410 


^ 


=^ 


420. 


strikes  the  wood,  facilitates  the  entrance  of  successive  portions  from  the  middle  outwards. 
If  the  edge  had  been  straight  and  fallen  parallel  to  itself  upon  the  end  of  the  wood 
none  of  this  preliminary  preparation  would  have  taken  place ;  on  the  contrary,  in  all 
probability  there  would  have  been  in  some  parts  a  progressive  con- 
densation of  fibres,  and  to  that  extent  an  increase  in  the  difiSculty  of 
the  work. 

The  equally  inclined  sides  of  the  wedge-form  of  edge  hitherto  alone 
described  as  belonging  to  axes,  and  the  equal  pressure  this  form  neces- 
sarily exerts  upon  each  side  if  a  blow  is  given  in  the  plane  of  the  axe, 
suggest  what  will  be  the  action  of  an  axe  if  the  angle  of  the  wedge  is 
not  bisected  by  the  middle  line  of  the  metal.  Assume  that  one  face 
only  is  inclined,  and  that  the  plane  of  the  other  is  continuous  to  the 
edge,  then  let  tlie  blow  be  struck  as  before.  It  will  be  obvious  that 
the  plane  in  the  line  of  the  fibres  cannot  cause  finy  separation  of 
these  fibres,  but  the  slope  entering  the  wood  will  separate  the  fibres 
on  its  own  side.  Supposing  a  hatchet  sharpened  as  previously  described,  and  oi^e 
as  now  described,  are  to  be  applied  to  the  same  work,  viz.  the  cutting  from  a  solid 
block  the  outside  irregularities — say  to  chop  the  projecting  edges  from  a  square  log  and 
to  prepare  it  for  the  lathe.    It  may  be  briefly  stated  that  the  hatchet  described  in  the 


second  case  would  do  the  work  with  greater  ease  to  the  workman,  and  with  a  higher 
finish  than  the  ordinary  equally  inclined  sides  of  the  edge  of  the  common  hatcliet.  Coach- 
makers  have  much  of  this  class  of  hatchet-paring  work  to  do,  and  the  tool  they  use  is  shaped 
as  in  Fig.  416.    The  edge  is  bevelled  on  one  side  only,  and  under  where  the  handle 


256  Carpentey — Chopping  Tools. 

enters  the  eye,  may  be  noticed  a  piece  rising  towards  the  handle ;  on  this  the  finger 
of  the  workman  rests  in  order  to  steady  the  blade  in  its  entrance  into  the  timber  in 
the  plane  of  the  straight  part  of  tlie  blade,  and  to  counteract  the  tendency  of  the 
wedge  side  pressing  the  hatcliet  out  of  its  true  jilanc. 

The  principal  forms  of  axe  and  hatchet,  illustrated  below,  arc    as    follows: — Fig. 
406,  colonial  felling  axe ;  Fig.  407,  Australian  felling  axe  ;  Fig.  408,  wheelers'  axe  ; 
Fig.  409,  north  country  ship  a.xe;  Fig.  410,  Dutch  side  axe;  Fig.  411,  Brazil  axe; 
Fig.  412,  broad  axe ;  Fig.   413,  Kent  axe ;  Fig.  414, 
Scotch  axe ;  Fig.  415,  blocking  axe ;  Fig.  41G,  coach-  ^^^* 

makers'  axe;  Fig.  417,  coopers*  axe;  Fig.  418,  long 
felling  axe ;  Fig.  419,  common  ship  axe ;  Fig,  420, 
Kentucky  wedge  axe  ;  Fig.  421,  Canada  hatchet ;  Fig. 
422,  American  shingling  hatchet,  with  claw  ;  Fig.  423, 
shingling  hatchet,  with  hammer  head. 

Adzes. — Those  whose  business  requires  the  forming 
of  lengths  of  wood  into  curved  shapes,  and  who  rely 

upon  the  adze  for  the  preliminary  operation,  use  an  Indian  form  of  adze.  In  India 
it  is  held  so  near  the  metal  that  the  workman's  hand  touches  the  metal.  He 
accomplishes  blows  chiefly  by  acting  from  the  elbow.  This  very  general  mode  of 
holding  gives  a  pretty  uniform  length  to  the  radius  of  the  swing,  hence  the  form 
of  the  adze  in  the  plane  of  the  swing  is  nearly  that  of  the  circle  described.  The 
angle  of  the  handle  and  the  adze  is  very  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  handle  of  the 
file-makers'  hammer  and  the  head.  The  handling  of  the  adze,  as  used  by  Englisli 
wheelwrights  or  shipwrights,  briefly  described,  is  the  following  :  Tlie  workman  stands 
with  one  foot  upon  the  wood,  this  foot  being  in  the  line  of  the  fibre.  He  thus 
assists  in  steadying  (say)  the  felloe  of  a  wheel.  From  this  felloe  much  of  the  wood  on 
which  the  sole  of  his  shoe  rests  has  to  be  removed.  The  long  handle  of  the  adze  is 
curved  ;  the  object  of  this  is  to  permit  an  efficient  blow  to  be  given,  and  the  instrument 
brought  to  a  stop  before  the  liandle  strikes  any  part  of  the  workman's  body — in  fact, 
caused  to  stop  by  the  exhaustion  of  its  impact  energy  in  and  amongst  the  fibres  of  wood 
to  be  separated.  Tlie  edge  is  often  so  keen  as  to  cut  through  a  horse  hair  held  at  one 
end  and  i^ressed  against  it.  This  instrument  is  raised  by  both  hands  until  nearly  in  a 
horizontal  position,  and  then  not  simply  allowed  to  fall,  but  steadily  driven  downwards 
until  the  curved  metal,  with  its  broad  and  sharp  edge,  enters  near  to,  if  not  below  the 
sole  of  the  workman's  shoe,  separating  a  large  flake  of  wood  from  the  mass ;  the  handle 
is  rapidly  raised,  and  the  blows  repeated.  This  is  done  with  frequency,  the  workman 
gradually  receding  his  foot  until  the  end  flakes  of  wood  are  separated.  It  is  fearful  to 
contemi)late  an  error  of  judgment  or  an  unsteady  blow.  So  skilled  do  men  become 
in  thus  using  the  adze,  that  some  will  undertake,  with  any  pre-determiued  stroke 
in  a  series,  to  split  their  shoe  sole  in  two. 

Curvature.— Clearly  the  adze  must  be  sharpened  from  the  inside ;  and  when  the 
action  of  it  is  considered,  it  is  also  clear  that  the  curvature  of  the  adze  iron  must 
be  circular,  or  nearly  so.  The  true  curvature  of  the  metal  may  be  approximately 
deduced  from  considering  the  radius  of  the  circle  described  by  the  workman's  arms 
and  the  handle  of  the  adze.  The  edge  of  the  adze  is  convex  (Fig.  425),  the  projec- 
tion in  the  middle  being  so  formed  for  the  same  reasons  as  influenced  the  curvature 
of  the  edge  of  the  axe  already  alluded  to.  The  curvature  in  the  blade  also  serves 
(though  partially)  as  a  fulcrum,  for,  by  slightly  thrusting  the  handle  from  him,  the 
workman  may  release  such  flakes  of  timber  as  are  over  the  adze,  and  yet  so  slightly 
adherent  as  not  to  require  another  blow.  Thus  the  adze  when  applied  lever-fashion 
discharges  its  duty  as  the  curvature  in  the  claw  of  a  hammer  does.  Fig.  428  is  a 
gouge  formed  adze ;  a  modification  of  this  is  used  in  making  wooden  spouts  and  similar 
hollow  work. 


Cakpenthy — Chopping-  Tools;  Bencli. 


257 


The  principal  forms  of  atlzc  arc  illustrated  below.  Fig.  424  is  an  ordinary  car- 
penters' adze;  Fig.  425,  ship  carpenters'  adze;  Fig.  42G,  coopers'  adze;  Fig.  427, 
improved  wheelers'  adze;  Fig.  428,  spout  adze;  Fig.  429,  coopers'  adze  with  sexagou 
eye ;  Fig.  430,  coopers'  nail  adze. 


424. 


423. 


426. 


427. 


428. 


Accessories. — The  principal  accessories  to  a  carpenters'  workshop  are  a  bench,  nails 
and  screws,  and  a  few  trifles  which  could  not  be  conveniently  placed  in  the  preceding 
categories. 

Bench. — The  essential  qualities  of  a  carpenters'  bench  are  that  it  shall  be  very  strong 
and  firm  to  resist  the  sawing,  planing,  and  other  operations  performed  on  it ;  also  that 
the  surface  sliall  be  level  and  even.     The  wood  must  be  good  and  sound,  but  not  of  au 


431. 


expensive  kind  (beech  is  a  favourite),  nor  need  it  be  planed.  Excellent  benches  may 
be  purchased  of  tool  dealers;  on  the  other  hand  a  home-made  article  may  be  quite  as 
good  and  will  cost  much  less.     An  example  will  be  given  on  a  future  page. 

Fig.  431  shows  a  solid  bench  of  the  so-called  German  pattern,  sold  by  Melhuish 


258  Caepentry — Beuch. 

Fetter  Lane,  in  4  different  sizes  :  carpenters',  price  80s.,  length  68  in.,  breadth  24  in., 
height,  33  in. ;  trade,  price  45s.,  length  48  in.,  breadth  16J  in.,  height  31  in. ;  amateurs', 
price  42s.,  length  40  in.,  breadth  16^  in.,  height  31  in.;  boys',  price  37s.  6d.,  length 
40  in.,  breadth  16J  in.,  height  29  in.  The  length  is  measured  from  a  to  b,  and  the 
■width  from  b  to  c,  thus  excluding  the  projections.  A  description  of  the  "carpenters'  " 
size  will  do  for  all.  The  top  d  is  movable,  and  can  be  taken  off  the  stand  e,  which  also 
takes  to  pieces,  so  that  it  can  be  packed.  Two  pegs  in  the  upper  rails  of  the  stand  fit  into 
holes  made  for  their  reception  in  the  under  part  of  the  bench  top,  and  by  this  simple 
arrangement,  combined  with  the  weight  of  the  top  itself,  the  parts  are  sufficiently  con- 
nected and  rendered  firm.  The  mortices  which  receive  the  tenons  of  the  lower  rails,  in 
front  and  at  the  back  and  sides,  go  through  the  legs,  and  the  top  part  of  the  front  and 
back  rail  at  either  end  passes  over  the  side  rails,  so  that  the  mortice  is  deeper  on  the 
inside  than  on  the  outside ;  a  tapering  weJge  is  driven  into  the  mortice  at  each  end  of 
both  front  and  back  rail,  which  has  the  effect  of  forcing  these  rails  down  on  the  ends  of 
the  side  rails,  and  locking  the  whole  together.  "When  the  bench  is  put  up  for  work  the 
ends  of  the  wedges  may  be  sawn  off.  The  massive  legs  to  the  right  are  tenoned  into  a 
thick  piece  of  timber,  which  is  further  utilized  as  a  support  for  the  end  in  which  the 
bench-.'^crew  works.  The  top  of  the  bench  presents  many  points  in  which  it  differs  from 
the  ordinary  form  in  common  use.  The  central  part  is  a  solid  piece  of  beech,  4  in.  thick, 
GOJ  in.  long,  and  16J  in.  wide.  To  this  portion  all  the  surrounding  parts  are  added. 
It  is  lengthened  by  2  pieces  a  b  clamped  on  one  at  each  end,  also  4  in.  thick,  and  3f  in. 
wide,  thus  bringing  up  the  length  of  the  bench  to  68  in.  The  3  parts  are  bolted 
together  by  an  iron  bar,  at  the  left  end  of  which  is  a  nut  whereby  they  are  screwed  up  as 
closely  as  possible.  The  piece  a  is  ISf  in.  and  b  33  in.  long.  They  project  beyond  the 
central  piece  at  the  back  to  the  distance  of  7|  in.,  and  by  inserting  a  board  gr  li  in. 
thick,  and  another  at  the  bottom,  a  trough  6  in.  wide  and  extending  the  whole  length  of 
the  bench  forms  a  useful  receptacle  for  tools  not  in  actual  use.  The  shoulder  h  is 
formed  of  a  solid  piece,  4  in.  thick,  8  in.  wide  at  its  widest  part,  and  2  J  in.  wide  at  the 
narrowest  part  in  which  the  bench-screw  works,  leaving  an  opening  of  5J  in.  between 
the  edge  of  the  front  of  the  bench  and  the  inner  surface  of  the  narrow  part  of  the 
shoulder.  To  plane  the  edge  of  a  board,  the  screw  is  turned  out  sufficient  to  admit 
the  board  and  a  check  piece  supplied  with  the  bench,  which  is  intended  to  receive  the 
pressure  of  the  end  of  the  screw,  and  prevent  injury  to  the  wood  to  be  planed.  To 
the  bottom  of  the  bench  is  appended  a  drawer  i  IS  in.  sq.,  which  works  by  means  of 
cleats  iu  grooved  l_-shaped  timbers,  screwed  to  the  under  surface  of  the  bench ;  this 
drawer  pulled  out  a  little  acts  aa  a  support  for  timber  being  planed.  Along  the  front 
edge  of  the  bench  runs  a  row  of  10  holes  J:,  1§  in.  long  by  ^  in,  wide,  serving  as  re- 
ceptacles for  bench-stops/.  These  are  used  in  conjunction  with  another  in  the  movable 
vice  jaw  Z,  and  when  planing  a  board,  all  that  is  necessary  to  fix  it  is  to  insert  a  bench- 
stop  to  the  left,  at  a  suitable  distance  from  the  bench-stop  iu  the  movable  piece  I,  lay  the 
board  between  the  2  stops,  and  grip  it  by  turning  the  screw  m.  The  bench-stops  can  be 
adjusted  to  any  height  likely  to  be  required.  The  movable  bench-vice  I  has  a  pro- 
jecting fillet  on  itj  inner  face,  which  works  in  a  groove  of  corresponding  size  cut  in  the 
central  part  of  the  bench.  This  vice,  which  is  22  in.  long  in  its  longest,  and  6  J  in.  wide 
in  its  narrowest  part,  presents  intervals  of  different  widths  between  the  ends  of  its  2 
parts  and  the  end  of  the  bench  at  n  o.  These  openings  afford  the  means  of  gripping 
pieces  of  wood  in  the  most  convenient  manner  for  cutting  tenons,  dovetails,  &c. 

Another  excellent  bench  is  that  furnished  by  Syer,  Finsbury  Street,  and  termed  a 
portable  cabinet  bench.  It  is  shown  in  Fig.  432,  and  is  formed  of  an  iron  stand  a, 
made  in  separate  pieces  bolted  together,  with  a  wooden  top  b  of  sound  white  deal, 
traversed  by  3  iron  bolts  c  to  prevent  warping,  and  measuring  6  ft.  by  1  ft.  10  in.  All 
the  parts  are  joined  by  screw-bolts,  and  therefore  quite  rigid  but  easily  taken  apart.  The 
ordinary  bench-screw  is  replaced  by  an  instantaneous  gri^D  vice  d,  and  the  usual  bench- 


Caepentry — Bench. 


259 


stops  are  superseded  by  a  screw  rising  stop  e.  The  whole  costs  728.,  or  a  smaller  size  (4  J  ft. 
by  1 J  ft.)  may  be  had  for  63s,  The  upright  piece  of  wood  /  is  perforated  witli  lioles  to 
take  a  peg  wherever  it  may  be  necessary  to  support  a  piece  of  board,  one  end  of  which  is 
held  in  the  grip  vice  d.  The  space  between  this  and  the  standard  to  the  left  can  be 
partly  filled  with  a  nest  of  5  drawers — one  largo  at  the  bottom,  and  2  tiers  each  contain- 
ing 2  smaller  drawers  above.     These  chests  are  22  iu.  long,  IS  in.  high,  and  10  in.  deep, 


and  are  supplied  with  the  bench  at  a  cost  of  35s.  extra.  If  not  required,  the  ledges 
y  within  the  standards  can  be  utilized  as  supports  for  boards  on  which  large  tools  can  be 
laid  when  not  in  use.  Another  useful  adjunct  to  the  bench  is  the  bench-knife  h,  supplied 
at  3s.  6d.,  and  consisting  of  a  small  bed-plate,  having  2  pins  on  the  under  side  to  drop  into 
holes  made  in  the  top  of  the  bench  to  receive  them,  and  an  arm  or  knife  for  holding  the 
work  firmly  between  itself  and  the  bench-stop,  the  arm  being  pushed  and  held  against 
the  work  by  the  action  of  a  small  lever  handle  and  cam  attached  to  the  upper  surface 
of  the  bed-plate.  This  jjlate  is  only  9  in.  by  3^  in.,  and  the  weight  of  the  entire  appliance 
is  only  2  lb.  The  knife  works  smoothly  and  easily  on  the  surface  of  the  bench-top,  and 
never  injures  it  by  cutting  into  it  as  is  frequently  the  case  with  the  ordinary  bench-knife. 
The  row  of  holes  ^  near  the  inner  edge  of  the  bench- top  shows  how  provision  is  made  for 
using  the  bench-knife  with  various  lengths  of  wood.  The  perforated  piece/  slides  back- 
wards and  forwards  between  the  bench-top  and  the  lower  rail  of  the  frame  at  pleasure. 
The  bench-stop  e  is  a  rectangular  block  of  wood,  cut  and  fitted  to  the  top  of  the  bench 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  side  nearest  any  piece  of  wood  that  is  brought  against  it 
slopes  a  little  so  as  to  bring  a  slightly  projecting  edge  against  the  wood  at  the  top. 
The  screw  has  a  plate  at  the  upper  end,  which  is  let  into  and  held  with  screws  to  the 
lower  end  of  the  bench-stop.  It  works  in  an  internal  screw,  cut  in  a  projection  at  the 
back  of  a  small  iron  bow,  each  end  of  which  is  screwed  to  a  block  of  wood  attached  to 
the  imder  side  of  the  bench-stop.  The  price  of  the  iron  fitting  for  bench-stop  is  Is.  2d. 
A  bench-top  made  of  beech  instead  of  white  deal  adds  12s.-15s.  to  the  cost  of  the 
bench. 

In  choosing  a  position  for  the  bench,  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  light,  the  floor, 
the  wall,  and  the  space.  The  light  should  fall  immediately  upon  it,  hence  it  is  best 
placed  against  the  wall  and  under  the  window.  The  floor  must  be  level  and  firm,  and 
is  best  made  of  boards.  The  wall  next  the  bench  should  also  be  covered  with  match 
boarding.  If  sufficient  firmness  cannot  otherwise  be  secui-ed,  the  bench  should  be 
fastened  to  the  floor  and  wall  by  strong  angle  irons. 

Bench-stops. — These  necessary  adjuncts  to  the  bench  consist  of  an  arrangement 
capable  of  projecting  above  the  surface  of  the  bench  to  hold  pieces  of  wood  against 
during  the  operation  of  planing.     One  of  the  simplest  contrivances  is  to  have  2  or  more 

8  2 


260 


Car  PENTE  Y — Bench. 


stout  screws  standing  up  in  the  table  of  the  bench  itself,  and  easily  raised  or  lowered  to 
suit  the  thickness  of  the  wood  being  operated  upon  ;  but  this  of  course  tends  to  spoil  the 
surface  of  the  bench.  A  better  plan  is  shown  in  Fig.  433  ;  it  is  easily  manipulated,  being 
adjusted  from  the  top  of  the  bench,  and  a  very  slight  tap  loosens  or  tightens  it  at  any 
All  blows  are  struck  on  the  top,  and  no  damage  results  to  the  bench  from 


height  desired 


433. 


434. 


its  use.  It  consists  simply  of  2  wedges  a  b  tightening  against  each  other  in  a  mortice 
cut  for  their  reception  in  the  bench-top  c,  while  d  is  the  piece  of  wood  to  be  planed.  An 
improvement  designed  to  prevent  the  wedges  falling  out  when  loosened  is  shown  in 
Fig.  434.  It  consists  of  a  slip  of  wood  6  let  into  one  wedge  and  a  slot  a  cut  in  the  other, 
both  slot  and  slip  running  the  whole  width  of  the  stop.  Fig.  435  is  an  improved  iron 
stop,  which  is  let  into  the  top  of  the 

bench  so  as  to  lie  flush ;   the  stop  435. 

proper  a  can  be  raised  or  lowered 
to  the  work  by  turning  the  screw  h. 
Holdfasts. — These  are  intended 
for  holding  wood  down  firmly  on  the 
top  of  the  bench.  For  securing  wood 
edgewise  on  the  table  an  excellent 
contrivance  is  shown  in  Fig.  436. 
The  strips  a  b  are  of  any  hard 
wood,  lJ-2  in.  thick,  6-9  in.  long, 

and  chamfered  underneath.  These  are  screwed  firmly  to  the  plank  c  by  3  ordinary 
wood  screws,  with  their  ends  converging  somewhat ;  2  hard  wood  wedges  d,  chamfered, 
slide  in  the  groove  formed  by  the  2  fixed  pieces.  Their  sides  opposite  the  chamfered  part 
are  planed  up  true  and  square  to  the  flat  sides ;  between  these  the  strip  to  be  planed  is 
placed  on  edge,  and  the  wedges  are  tapped  until  they  grip  the  work  between  them.  The 

436. 


pressure  of  this  plane  at  each  stroke  has  the  effect  of  still  further  tightening  the  grip 
of  the  wedges.  The  work  is  held  at  any  part  of  its  length,  so  that  the  plane  can  pass 
over  its  whole  surface.  By  a  slight  pull  in  the  contrary  direction,  the  work  is  loosened, 
and  can  be  shifted  and  refixed. 

For  holding  work  in  a   flat  position,  use  is  generally  made  of  the  implement  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  437,  and  termed  a  "  valet."  It  is  formed  of  a  bar  of  1  in.  diameter  iron,  drawn 


Carpentry — Bench. 


261 


down  square,  and  bent  into  form.  The  lower  end  a  is  inserted  in  a'  circular  hole 
through  any  convenient  part  of  the  bench  b.  When  it  is  required  to  hold  work  down 
firmly  with  it,  the  work  is  placed  imder  the  end  c.  A  sharp  blow  is  then  struck  with 
a  mallet  at  d,  which  causes  a  to  jamb  slightly  crosswise  in  the  hole,  and  so  the  work 
is  held  firmly  until  by  a  slight  blow  at  the  back  of  d  the  valet  is  loosened.  Its  help  ia 
invaluable,  as  it  gives  free  use  of  both  hands  for  mortising,  carving,  or  the  like ;  and  it  is 
equally  an  assistant  in  sawing.  To  prevent  the  end  c  leaving  ugly  marks  or  dents  la 
soft  wood,  a  small  piece  of  softer  wood  is  placed  between  it  and  the  work.  It  is  also 
well  to  thicken  the  top  of  the  bench  at  this  spot  by  screwing  a  piece  of  board  on  beneath 
But  still  it  is  apt  to  damage  the  bench,  from  the  nature  of  the  grip  of  the  stem  in  the 
hole.  A  better  form  is  shown  in  Fig.  438,  wherein  the  necessary  pressure  on  the  work 
under  a  is  obtained  by  means  of  the  screw  h,  which  meets  the  elbow  of  the  rod  c  and 
transfers  the  pressure  to  a  through  the  medium  of  the  pivot  d. 

Sawing-rest. — Fig.  439  represents  a  handy  article  for  holding  a  piece  of  wood  on  the 
bench  while  using  the  tenon-saw.     It  consists  of  a  strip  of  hard  wood  about  9  in.  long, 


438. 


439. 


440. 


4  in.  wide,  and  1  in.  thick,  cut  with  blocks  at  the  ends  as  shown.     In  use,  one  end  hangs 
over  the  edge  of  the  bench,  and  against  the  other  end  the  work  in  hand  is  thrust. 

Bench-vices. — Various  forms  of  independent  vice  have  already  been  described 
(p.  193).  Those  now  to  be  mentioned  differ  in  that  they  are  either  attached  to,  or  form 
part  of,  the  bench,  and  are  for  the  most  part  of  wood.  The  object  of  the  bench-vice  is  to 
hold  boards  while  planing  their  edges,  and  pieces  of  timber  while  cutting  tenons,  &c. 
The  simplest  substitute  for  a  vice  to  hold  boards  for  planing  is  a  l|-Ln.  sq.  strip  of 
wood  screwed  to  the  front  of  the  bench  about  4  in.  below  the  top,  and  having  2  or  3 
thumbscrews  or  buttons  diatributed  along  its  length,  with  wedges  to  fit  between  the 
thumbscrews  and  the  wood  to  hold  it  quite  tight.  The  ordinary  wooden  screw  bench- 
vice.  Fig.  440,  is  a  cumbersome  arrangement,  not  particularly  efitctive,  and  wastes 
much  time  in  adjusting.  It  consists  of  a  solid  wooden  cheek  a  and  a  wooden  screw  b, 
the  latter  working  in  a  female  screw  cut  in  a  block  attached  to  one  leg  c  of  the  bench 
in  a  secure  manner.  The  head  of  the  screw  b  is  perforated  for  the  admission  of  a  wooden 
handle  d  by  which  it  is  rotated.  The  manner  of  using  the  vice  is  sufficiently  obvious 
to  need  no  description.  One  great  fault  in  the  ordinary  wooden  bench-vice  is  that  there 
is  no  means  of  maintaining  parallelism  between  the  cheek  of  the  vice  and  the  leg  of  the 
bench  against  which  it  grips,  so  that  the  screw  is  sure  to  be  strained  sooner  or  later  by 
the  uneven  hold  it  gets  of  the  material  placed  in  the  vice.  Several  plans  have  been 
devised  to  overcome  this  drawback.  That  shown  in  Fig.  441  consists  in  having  a 
supplementary  screw  a  beneath  the  first ;  this  screw  a  being  fi.xed  to  the  cheek  b,  and 
working  freely  tlirough  a  hole  in  the  leg  of  the  bench  c,  on  both  sides  of  which  are 
screw-nuts  d  e  that  regulate  the  amount  of  insertion  or  withdrawal  of  the  cheek  b. 


262 


Caepentry — Bencli. 


The  evils  of  this  plan  are  the  trouble  and  time  consumed  in  the  manipulation,  and  the 
weakening  of  the  bench-leg  c,  not  only  by  the  hole  which  penetrates,  but  also  by  a 
recesa  cut  in  it  to  receive  the  screw-nut  e,  in  order  to  permit  the  jaws  of  the  vice  to  be 
completely  closed  when  necessary.  A  simpler  arrangement,  whicli  somewhat  modifies 
the  undesirable  features  just  noted,  is  shown  in  Fig.  442,  and  consists  in  replacing  the 


441. 


c 


}Mii 


0 


JJIZ^ 


442, 


^iMtoM]); 


ti 


D 


second  screw  by  a  sliding  bar  a  workiug  in  a  box  b  fitted  to  the  frame  of  the  bench,  and 
perforated  at  intervals  with  lioles  for  the  reception  of  an  iron  pin  to  keep  it  in  position. 
Perhaps  the  least  objectionable  plan  is  the  so-called  "  St.  Peter's  cross,"  shown  iu  Fig.  443, 
consisting  of  two  bars  of  flat  iron  placed  crosswise,  joined  by  a  pin  in  the  centre,  and 
also  pinned  at  the  top,  one  to  the  cheek  and  the  other  to  the  bench-leg ;  their  lower  ends 
are  free  to  work  up  and  down  in  the  recesses  cut  for  them,  and  thus  maintain  the  cheek 
in  a  perpendicular  position,  whatever  may  be  its  distance  from  the  bench-leg. 

A  great  improvement  upon  all  these  forms  of  vice  is  the  instantaneous  grip-vice, 
represented  in   Fig.   444.     The  manner  of  manipulating  it  is  as  follows :  Raise  the 


443. 


444. 


d 


^ 


-n  //T/7/./y 


'/v 


handle  a  to  a  perpendicular  position  with  the  left  hand,  and  draw  out  or  close,  as 
may  be  necessary,  the  front  jaw  b  the  required  distance.  Place  the  piece  of  wood  to 
be  operated  upon  between  the  jaws  b  c,  and  press  the  front  jaw  b  nearly  close  to  the 
wood ;  then  press  down  the  lever,  when  the  wood  will  be  held  firm  in  the  vice.  To 
remove  the  piece  of  wood,  raise  the  lever.  The  grip  is  caused  in  the  following  manner : 
On  the  under  side  of  the  plate  d,  and  in  the  straight  line  that  lies  between  the  letters  e/, 
is  a  plate  indented  with  a  row  of  V-^haped  depressions  inclined  at  a  slight  angle  to  its 
sides,  in  other  words,  a  longitudinal  strip  cut  out  of  a  female  screw.  At  the  end  h  of 
the  bar  g  h,  which  is  held  in  position,  and  travels  in  and  out  between  2  curved  flanges 


Cakpentky — Bench. 


263 


projecting  from  the  tinder  side  of  the  plate,  is  a  short  cylinder  which  is  grooved  along 
part  of  its  surface  with  screw-threads,  the  n  luaiiidcr  being  left  plain,  and  carrying  a 
stop  or  stud,  -which  prevents  the  progress  of  the  screw  beyond  a  certain  point,  so  as  not 
to  cause  injury  to  any  substance  placed  within  the  bite  of  the  jaws.  When  the  piece  of 
wood  has  been  placed  within  the  jaws,  and  the  front  jaw  pushed  nearly  close  to  it,  the 
downward  turn  of  the  lever  or  handle  brings  the  threads  of  the  male  screw  within  the 
threads  of  the  female  screw,  and  draws  tlie  front  jaw  against  the  wood  tightly,  and  with 


44r). 


Qy 


w\ 


'/7^ 


o       ci 


a  firm  grip,  so  that  it  is  impossible  to  remove  the  material  without  injuring  it,  until  the 
ever  is  raised  and  the  pressure  relaxed.  The  drawing  action  of  the  screw  causes  the 
pressure  of  the  jaws  to  be  brought  gradually,  though  swiftly,  to  the  point  that  13 
required  to  hold  the  material  immovable  within  their  grasp.  The  principal  advantages 
of  this  bench-vice  are  :  (1)  it  grips  and  relaxes  its  hold  instantly  in  any  distance  up  to 
13J  in. ;  (2)  the  action  and  working  are  so  complete  that  a  piece  of  ordinary  writmg- 


264 


Caepentry— Bench,  Nails,  Screws. 


paper  can  be  secured  ami  held  as  firmly  as  a  piece  of  timber ;  (3)  it  effects  a  saving  of 
about  75  per  cent,  of  the  time  employed  in  working  the  ordinary  bench-vice ;  (4)  if  wood 
facings  are  fitted  to  the  faces  of  the  iron  jaws,  all  possibility  of  the  indentation  of  the 
article  placed  in  it  is  removed ;  (5)  it  can  be  fitted  to  any  description  of  bench,  new  or 
old.  The  price  of  the  vice  is  18s.,  or  if  supplied  with  wood  facings  fitted  to  the  jaws,  20s. 
As  the  jaws  are  of  iron,  the  vice  will  serve  the  purpose  of  an  iron  bench-vice  for  holding 
pieces  of  metal,  as  well  as  that  of  an  ordinary  bench-vice  for  holding  wood ;  and  by 
placing  within  the  jaws  2  pieces  of  wood  of  sufficient  length  to  hold  a  saw,  it  may  be 
further  utilized  as  a  saw-vice. 

Kails. — These  are  of  various  shapes  and  sizes,  and  are  made  of  wrought,  cast,  and 
malleable  iron.  Fig.  445  illustrates  many  kinds  in  general  use :  a,  joiners'  cut  "  brad," 
varying  in  size  from  J  in.  to  2  in.  long;  h,  flooring  brad,  of  larger  sizes,  running  101b., 
14  lb.,  IG  lb.,  and  20  lb.  to  the  1000,  and  costing  3s.-5s.  per  1000 ;  c  d,  fine 
cabinet  brad,  |-2  in.;  e,  sash  glaziers'  brad;  "brads"  must  be  driven  so  that 
tlie  head  does  not  cross  the  grain  of  the  wood,  or  they  will  be  likely  to  split  it. 
/  g,  strong  and  fine  "  clasp,"  the  former  running  7-3G  lb.  to  the  1000,  and  the 
latter,  2-G  lb.,  useful  in  soft  woods ;  r,  another  form  ;  h  i,  fine  and  strong  "  rose,"  with 
flat  points,  the  former  ranging  from  1  to  3|  in.  long,  and  2|  to  13  lb.  per 
3000,  the  latter  5-26  lb,,  also  called  "patent  wrought";  j,  "rose"  or  "gate,"  with 
sharp  points,  2-3  lb.  per  1000,  much  u.sed  in  coarse  work;  A-,  fiat  point  rose,  driven 
across  the  grain  they  do  not  split  the  wood.  7,  Flemish  "  tacks  "  ;  m,  round  "  hob  " ;  n, 
clasp  "hob."  o,  fine  "clout,"  If-Tlb.  per  1000;  p,  strong  "clout";  g,  countersunk 
"  clout " ;  r  s,  clog  or  brush  nail ;  t,  scupper ;  m,  die  deck  and  clasp  deck  "  spikes  "  ;  r, 
clinker  "  tack  "  ;  %o,  tenter  hook  ;  x,  diamond  deck-spike ;  y,  composition  spike.  Holes 
should  always  be  prepared  for  nails  by  means  of  a  bradawl  one  size  smaller  than  the 
nail  to  be  used.  Driven  across  the  grain  they  hold  twice  as  firmly  as  with  it.  Wetting  the 
nail  before  driving  causes  it  to  rust  slightly  and  therefore  to  hold  all  the  more  securely. 

Nail-punch. — This  is  simply  a  piece  of  tapering  steel,  used  with  a  hammer  for 
driving  the  heads  of  nails  below  the  surface  of  the  wood  they  are  in.     Some  3  or  4 


448. 


446. 


447. 


d,^^r\ 


sizes  are  needed  to  suit  the  various  nails.  The  punch  is  held  in  the  left  hand,  with 
the  thumb  and  forefinger  grasping  the  top,  and  the  little  finger  encircling  it  below, 
while  the  middle  and  third  fingers  are  placed  inside  it.  Holes  in  the  wood  left  by  the 
punch  must  be  filled  with  putty  before  painting  is  done.  The  punch  is  shown  in 
Fig.  446. 

Nail-pullers.— Fig.  447  shows  a  handy  little  tack-wrench  for  drawing  small  nails 
out  of  wood.  A  more  complicated  implement  is  the  "  Victor  "  nail-puller,  which  is  said 
to  remove  nails  without  injuring  either  them  or  the  wood,  and  which  costs  10s. 

Screws. — These  are  made  in  many  sizes  and  degrees  of  stoutness,  and  of  both  brass 


Carpentry— Screws ;  Care  of  Tools.  265 

and  iron.  In  Fig.  448,  a  is  tlic  ordinary  "gimlet  pointed"  wood  screw;  b  is  the 
Nettlefold,  witli  a  stronger  kind  of  thread  ;  c,  a  stove  screw ;  d,  head  of  brass  lock  screw ; 
e,  head  of  japanned  lock  screw.  /  is  a  screw  box  for  cutting  wooden  screws,  costin""  5s.-I5.v. 
Screws  are  made  of  tlie  following  lengths :  ^,  |,  |,  |,  I,  1]-,  IJ,  If,  2,  21,  2J,  3°3i,  4,  5, 
and  6  in. ;  and  in  each  length  there  are  12-30  different  thicknesses,  called  "  numbers." 

Screw-driver. — Screws  are  driven  into  wood  (in  holes  previously  made  by  a  bradawi 
or  gimlet  one  size  smaller)  by  means  of  a  screw-driver  or  turnscrew,  shown  in  Fig.  449. 
This  tool  consists  of  a  steel  blade  tapering  to  a  blunt  edge  at  the  working  end,  and 
fixed  by  a  tang  in  a  wooden  handle 
at  the  otlier.     The  sliape  and  size  449. 

of  both  blade  and  handle  depend ^ T---^,--'-'^]^^^— ^\ 

on  the  sizes  of  the  screws  and I  I \_        )  1 

the  positions  in  which  they  are  ^^^*«.,_,^ 

placed,  cabinet  screw-drivers  for 

iustunce  being  long  and  light  to  reach  into  deep  work.  Screws  hold  three  times  as 
firmly  as  nails  witiiout  risk  of  splitting  the  wood,  and  may  be  withdrawn  without 
suffering  or  causing  any  injury.  They  are  sunk  below  the  surface  when  necessary  by 
means  of  a  tool  called  a  countersink,  described  on  p.  248.  The  screw-driver  blade 
fitted  to  the  brace  and  bits  (p.  247)  is  the  quickest  way  of  using  the  tool. 

Hints  on  the  Care  of  Tools. — The  following  hints  on  the  best  means  of  keeping 
tools  in  good  condition  cannot  fail  to  be  useful : — 

Wooden  Parts. — The  wooden  parts  of  tools,  such  as  the  stocks  of  planes  and  handles 
of  chisels,  are  often  made  to  have  a  nice  appearance  by  French  polishing ;  but  this  adds 
nothing  to  their  durability.  A  much  better  plan  is  to  let  them  soak  in  linseed  oil  for  a 
week,  and  rub  them  with  a  cloth  for  a  few  minutes  every  day  for  a  week  or  two.  This 
produces  a  beautiful  surface,  and  at  the  same  time  exerts  a  solidifying  and  preservative 
action  on  the  wood. 

Iron  Parts.  Rust  preventives. — The  following  recipes  are  recommended  for  pre- 
venting rust  on  iron  and  steel  surfaces  : — 

(1)  Caoutchouc-oil  is  said  to  have  proved  efficient  in  preventiiig  rust,  and  to  have 
been  adopted  by  the  German  army.  It  only  requires  to  be  spread  with  a  piece  of 
flannel  in  a  very  thin  layer  over  the  metallic  surface,  and  allowed  to  dry  up.  Such  a 
coating  will  afford  security  against  all  atmospheric  influences,  and  will  not  show  any 
cracks  under  the  microscope  after  a  year's  standing.  To  remove  it,  the  article  has  simply 
to  be  treated  with  caoutchouc-oil  again,  and  washed  after  12  to  24  hours. 

(2)  A  solution  of  indiarubber  in  benzine  has  been  used  for  years  as  a  coating  for 
steel,  iron,  and  lead,  and  has  been  found  a  simple  means  of  keeping  them  from  oxidiz- 
ing. It  can  be  easily  applied  with  a  brush,  and  is  as  easily  rubbed  off".  It  should  be 
made  about  the  consistency  of  cream. 

(3)  All  steel  articles  can  be  perfectly  preserved  from  rust  by  putting  a  lump  of 
freshly-burnt  lime  in  the  drawer  or  case  in  which  they  are  kept.  If  the  things  are  to 
be  moved  (as  a  gun  in  its  case,  for  instance),  put  the  lime  in  a  muslin  bag.  This  is 
especially  valuable  for  specimens  of  iron  when  fractured,  for  in  a  moderately  dry  place 
the  lime  will  not  want  renewing  for  many  years,  as  it  is  capable  of  absorbing  a  large 
quantity  of  moisture.  Articles  in  use  should  be  placed  in  a  box  nearly  filled  with 
thoroughly  pulverized  slaked  lime.     Before  using  them,  rub  well  with  a  woollen  clotb. 

(4)  The  following  mixture  forms  an  excellent  brown  coating  for  protecting  iron  and 
steel  from  rust :  Dissolve  2  parts  crystallized  iron  cliloride,  2  antimony  chloride,  and 
1  tannin,  in  4  water,  and  apply  with  a  sponge  or  rag,  and  let  dry.  Then  another  coat 
of  the  paint  is  applied,  and  again  another,  if  necessary,  until  the  colour  becomes  as 
dark  as  desired.  When  dry,  it  is  washed  with  water,  allowed  to  dry  again,  and  the 
surface  polished  with  boiled  linseed-oil.  The  antimony  chloride  must  be  as  nearly 
neutral  as  possible. 


266  Carpentry — Care  of  Tools. 

(5)  To  keep  tools  from  rusting,  take  ^  oz.  camphor,  dissolve  in  1  lb.  melted  lard; 
take  off  the  scum  and  mix  in  as  much  fine  blacklead  (graphite)  as  will  give  it  an  iron 
colour.  Clean  the  tools,  and  smear  with  this  mixture.  After  24  hours,  rub  clean  with  a 
soft  linen  cloth.     The  tools  will  keep  clean  for  months,  under  ordinary  circumstances. 

(6)  Put  about  1  qt.  fresh  slaked  lime,  I  lb.  washing  soda,  5  lb.  soft  soap  in  a 
bucket ;  add  sufficient  water  to  cover  the  articles ;  put  in  the  tools  as  soon  as  possible 
after  use,  and  wipe  them  up  next  morning,  or  let  them  remain  until  wanted. 

(7)  Soft  soap,  with  about  half  its  weight  of  pearlash  ;  1  oz.  of  the  mixture  in  about 
1  gal.  boiling  water.  This  is  in  every-day  use  iu  most  engineers'  shops  in  the  drip-cans 
used  for  turning  long  articles  bright  in  wrought-iron  and  steel.  The  work,  though 
constantly  moist,  does  not  rust,  and  bright  nuts  are  immersed  in  it  for  days  till  wanted 
and  retain  their  polish. 

(8)  Melt  slowly  together  6  or  8  oz.  lard  to  1  oz.  rosin,  stirring  till  cool ;  when  it  is 
semi-fluid,  it  is  ready  for  use.  If  too  thick,  it  may  be  further  let  down  by  coal-oil  or 
benzine.  Rubbed  on  bright  surfaces  ever  so  thinly,  it  preserves  the  polish  effectually, 
and  may  be  readilj''  rubbed  off. 

(9)  To  protect  metals  from  oxidation — polished  iron  or  steel,  for  instance— the 
requisite  is  to  exclude  air  and  moisture  from  the  actual  metallic  surface ;  wherefore, 
polished  tools  are  usually  kept  in  wrappings  of  oiled  cloth  and  brown  paper  ;  and,  thus 
protected,  they  will  preserve  a  spotless  face  for  an  unlimited  time.  When  these 
metals  come  to  be  of  necessity  exposed,  in  being  converted  to  use,  it  is  necessary  to 
protect  them  by  means  of  some  permanent  dressing ;  and  boiled  linseed-oil,  which 
forms  a  lasting  film  of  covering  as  it  dries  on,  is  one  of  the  best  preservatives,  if  not 
the  best.  But  in  order  to  give  it  body,  it  should  be  thickened  by  the  addition  of 
some  pigment,  and  the  verj^  best — because  the  most  congenial — of  pigments  is  the 
ground  oxide  of  the  same  metal — or,  in  plain  words,  rusted  iron  reduced  to  an 
impalpable  powder,  for  the  dressing  of  iron  or  steel — which  thus  forms  the  pigment  of 
red  oxide  paint. 

(10)  Slake  a  piece  of  quick-lime  with  just  water  enough  to  cause  it  to  crumble,  in  a 
covered  pot,  and  while  hot  add  tallow  to  it  and  work  into  a  paste,  and  use  this  to  cover 
over  bright  work  ;  it  can  be  easily  wiped  off. 

(11)  Olmstead's  varnish  is  made  by  melting  2  oz.  rosin  in  1  lb.  fresh  sweet  lard, 
melting  the  rosin  first  and  then  adding  the  lard  and  mixing  thoroughly.  This  is 
applied  to  the  metal,  which  should  be  warm  if  possible,  and  perfectly  cleaned ;  it 
is  afterwards  rubbed  off.  This  has  been  well  proved  and  tested  for  many  years,  and 
is  particularly  well  suited  for  planished  and  Russian  iron  surfaces,  which  a  slight  rust 
is  apt  to  injure  very  seriously. 

Rust  Removers. — (1)  Cover  the  metal  with  sweet  oil  well  rubbed  in,  and  allow  to  stand 
for  48  hours ;  smear  with  oil  applied  freely  with  a  feather  or  piece  of  cotton  wool,  after 
rubbing  the  steel.  Then  rub  with  unslaked  lime  reduced  to  as  fine  a  powder  as 
possible.  (2)  Immerse  the  article  to  be  cleaned  for  a  few  minutes  until  all  dirt  and 
rust  is  taken  off  in  a  strong  solution  of  potassium  cyanide,  say  about  J  oz.  in  a  wine- 
glassful  of  water ;  take  out  and  clean  it  with  a  tooth-brush  with  some  paste  composed 
of  potassium  cyanide,  Castile  soap,  whiting,  and  water,  mixed  into  a  paste  of  about  the 
consistence  of  thick  cream. 

Construction. — This  section  of  the  art  of  carpentry  may  be  conveniently  dealt 
with  in  2  divisions,  the  first  containing  a  description  of  the  multifarious  forms  of 
joint  which  underlie  all  kinds  of  construction  in  wood,  and  the  second  being  devoted 
to  some  examples  illustrating  the  manner  of  making  various  articles  of  every-day  use. 

Joints. — The  following  remarks  are  principally  drawn  from  an  excellent  paper  on 
*'  Joints  in  "Woodwork,"  read  before  the  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers'  Society  by 
Henry  Adams,  and  embracing  nearly  all  that  need  be  said  when  the  preceding  sections 
on  woods  and  tools  have  l)een  duly  studied. 


CARrENTRY — Construction. 


267 


Definition  of  Carpenfry  and  Joinery.— The  use  of  wood  may  be  discussed  under  the  2 
heads  of  carpentry  and  joinery :  the  former  consists  principally  in  using  large  timbers, 
rough,  adzed,  or  sawn ;  the  latter  employs  smaller  pieces,  always  sawn,  and  with  the 
exposed  surfaces  planed.  Carpenters'  work  is  chiefly  outdoor,  and  embraces  such  objects 
as  building  timber  bridges  and  gantries,  framing  roofs  and  floors,  constructing  centreing, 
and  other  heavy  or  rough  work.  Joiners'  work  is  mostly  indoor,  and  includes  laying 
flooring,  making  and  fixing  doors,  window  sashes,  frames,  linings,  partitions,  and  internal 
fittings  generally. 

Principles  of  Joints. — In  all  cases  the  proper  connection  of  the  parts  is  an  essential 
element,  and  in  designing  or  executing  joints  and  fastenings  in  woodwork,  the  following 
principles,  laid  down  by  Professor  Rankine,  should  be  adhered  to,  viz. : — 

(1)  To  cut  the  joints  and  arrange  the  fastenings  so  as  to  weaken  the  pieces  of  timber 
that  they  connect  as  little  as  possible. 

(2)  To  place  each  abutting  surface  iu  a  joint  as  nearly  as  possible  perpendicular  to 
the  pressure  which  it  has  to  transmit. 

(3)  To  proportion  the  area  of  each  surface  to  the  pressure  which  it  has  to  bear,  so 
that  the  timber  may  be  safe  against  injury  under  the  heaviest  load  which  occurs  in 
practice,  and  to  form  and  fit  every  pair  of  such  surfaces  accurately  in  order  to  distribute 
the  stress  uniformly. 

(4)  To  proportion  the  fastenings  so  that  they  may  be  of  equal  strength  with  the  pieces 
which  they  connect. 

(5)  To  place  the  fastenings  in  each  piece  of  timber  so  that  there  shall  be  sufficient 
resistance  to  the  giving  way  of  the  joint  by  the  fastenings  shearing  or  crushing  their 
way  through  the  timber. 

(6)  To  these  may  be  added  a  6th  principle  not  less  important  than  the  foregoing ; 
viz.  to  select  the  simplest  forms  of  joints,  and  to  obtain  the  smallest  possible  number  of 
abutments.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the  more  complicated  the  joint,  or  the  greater 
the  number  of  bearing  surfaces,  the  less  probability  there  will  be  of  getting  a  sound  and 
cheaply-made  connection. 

Equal  Bearing. — To  ensure  a  fair  and  equal  bearing  in  a  joint  which  is  not  quite 
true,  it  is  usual,  after  the  pieces  are  put  together,  to  run  a  saw-cut  between  each  bearing 
surface  or  abutment ;  the  kerf  or  width  of  cut 
being  equal  in  each  case,  the  bearing  is  then 
rendered  true.  This  is  often  done,  for  instance, 
with  the  shoulders  of  a  tenon  or  the  butting 
ends  of  a  scarf,  when  careless  workmanship 
has  rendered  it  necessary. 

Close  Jointing. — When  the  visible  junction 
of  2  pieces  is  required  to  be  as  close  as  possi- 
ble and  no  great  strain  has  to  be  met  at  the 
joint,  it  is  usual  to  slightly  undercut  the 
parts,  and  give  clearance  on  the  inside,  as  in 
Fig.  450,  which  shows  an  enlarged  view  of  a 
tongued  and  rebated  heading  joint  in  flooring. 
In  pattern-making,  the  fillets  which  are 
placed  at  the  internal  angle  of  2  meeting 
surfaces  are  made  obtuse  angled  on  the  back, 
in  order  that  when  bradded  into  place  the 
sharp  edges  may  lie  close,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  451.  The  prints  used  by  pattern-makers  for  indicating  the  position  of  round- 
cored  holes  are  also  imdercut  by  being  turned  slightly  hollow  on  the  bottom,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  452.  This  principle  is  adopted  in  nearly  all  cases  where  a  close  joint  is  a  desidera- 
tum.    Clearance  must  also  be  left  in  joints  of  framing  when  a  settlement  is  likely  to  take 


450. 


451. 


452. 


W//M 


268 


Carpentry — Construction. 


place,  in  order  that,  after  the  settlement,  the  abutting  surfaces  may  take  a  fair  bearing 
to  resist  the  strain. 

Strains. — The  various  strains  that  can  come  upon  any  member  of  a  structure 
are — (1)  Tension  :  stretching  or  pulling ;  (2)  Compression  :  crushing  or  pushing  ; 
(i5)  Transverse  strain :  cross  strain  or  bending ;  (4)  Torsion :  twisting  or  wrenching ; 
(5)  Shearing :  cutting.  But  in  woodwork,  wlien  the  last-named  force  acts  along  the 
grain,  it  is  generally  called  "  detrusion,"  the  term  shearing  being  limited  to  the  action 
across  the  grain.  The  first  3  varieties  are  the  strains  which  usually  come  upon  ties, 
struts,  and  beams  respectively.  The  transverse  strain,  it  must  be  observed,  is  resolvable 
into  tension  and  compression,  the  former  occurring  on  the  convex  side  of  a  loaded  beam, 
and  the  latter  on  the  concave  side,  the  2  being  separated  by  the  neutral  axis  or  line  of 
no  strain.  The  shearing  strain  occurs  princiimlly  in  beams,  and  is  greatest  at  the  point 
of  support,  the  tendency  being  to  cut  the  timber  through  at  right  angles  to  tlie  grain  ; 
but  in  nearly  all  cases,  if  the  timber  is  strong  enougli  to  resist  the  transverse  strain,  it  is 
amply  strong  for  any  possible  shearing  strain  which  can  occur.  Keys  and  other 
fastenings  are  especially  subject  to  shearing  strain,  and  it  will  be  shown  in  that  portion 
of  the  subject  that  there  are  certain  precautions  to  be  adopted  to  obtain  the  best  results. 

Classification  of  Joints. — (1)  Joints  for  lengthening  ties,  struts,  and  beams  ;  lapping, 
fishing,  scarfing,  tabling,  building-up  ;  (2)  Bearing-joints  for  beams  :  halving,  notching, 
cogging,  dovetailing,  tusk-tenoning,  housing,  chase-mortising ;  (3)  Joints  for  posts  and 
beams:  tenon,  joggle,  bridle,  housing;  (4)  Joints  for  struts  with  ties  and  posts:  oblique 
tenon,  bridle,  toe-joint ;  (5)  Miscellaneous  :  butting,  mitreing,  rebating. 

Classification  of  Fastenings. — (1)  wedges ;  (2)  keys ;  (3)  pins  :  wood  pins,  nails, 
spikes,  treenails,  screws,  bolts ;  (4)  straps ;  (5)  sockets ;  (6)  glue. 

Lengthening  Joints. — One  of  the  first  requirements  in  the  use  of  timber  for  constructive 
purposes  is  the  connection  of  2  or  more  beams  to  obtain  a  greater  length.  Fig.  453 
shows  the  method  of  lengthening  a  beam  by  lapping  another  to  it,  the  2  being  held 


J^ 


453. 


A 


-xl^ 


-H- 


J\ 


-^Si> 


M^ 


l^l 


I^T 


together  by  straps  and  prevented  from  sliding  by  the  insertion  of  keys.  Fig.  454  shows 
a  similar  joint,  through-bolts  being  used  instead  of  straps,  and  wrought-iron  plates 
instead  of  oak  keys.  This  makes  a  neater  joint  than  the  former,  but  they  are  both 
unsightly,  and  whenever  adopted  the  beams  should  be  arranged  in  3  or  5  pieces,  in 
order  that  the  supports  at  each  end  may  be  level,  and  the  beams  horizontal.  This 
joint  is  more  suitable  for  a  cross  strain  tlian  for  tension  and  compression.     Fig.  455 


Carpentky — Construction. 


269 


shows  the  common  form  of  a  fished  beam  adapted  for  compression.  If  required  to  resist 
tensile  strain,  keys  should  be  inserted  in  the  top  and  bottom  joints  between  the  bolts. 
Fig.  456  shows  a  fished  joint  adapted  for  a  cross  strain,  the  whole  sectional  area  of  tho 
ori"-inal  beam  taking  the  compressive  portion  of  the  cross  strain,  and  the  fishiug-pieco 


455. 


-xSk. 


..m^ 


..m^ 


_s»- 


..a. 


-^ -^ -e^ 

4oG. 
■EL  J^V-  .Q^ 


-©" 


"^0=^ 


■'S^ 


■^s^ 


F 


taking  the  tensile  portion.  Fig.  457  shows  a  fished  beam  for  the  same  purpose,  in 
which  a  wrought-iron  plate  turned  up  at  the  ends  takes  the  tensile  strain.  Tabling 
consists  of  bedding  portions  of  one  beam  into  the  other  longitudinally.  Occasionally 
the  fishing-pieces  are  tabled  at  the  ends  into  the  beams  to  resist  the  tendency  to  slip 


457. 


453 


Mvvv 


i. 


^ 


M 


lAVVlAl^ 


,4^ 


rT^ 


.^^^ 


"CT 


459. 


^/^i/W 


^ 


-Q GT 


^WHv 


4C0. 


i 


} 


/viAMV 


vVvl'Uv 


1 


v^V 


Tinder  strain,  but  this  office  is  better  performed  by  keys,  and  in  practice  tabling  is  not 
much  used.  The  distinction  between  fished  beams  and  .«carfed  beams  is  that  in  the 
former  the  original  length  is  not  reduced,  the  pieces  being  butted  against  each  other, 


270 


CAErENTRY — ConstructioE. 


■while  iQ  the  latter  the  beams  themselves  are  cut  in  a  special  manner  and  lapped  partly 
over  each  other;  in  both  cases,  additional  pieces  of  wood  or  iron  are  attached  to 
strengthen  the  joint.  Fig.  458  shows  a  form  of  scarf  adapted  to  short  posts.  Here  the 
scarf  is  cut  square  and  parallel  to  the  sides,  so  that  the  full  sectional  area  is  utilized  for 
resisting  the  compressive  strain.  When  the  post  is  longer  and  liable  to  a  bending  strain, 
the  scarf  should  be  inclined,  as  in  Fig.  459,  to  allow  of  greater  thickness  being  retained 
at  the  shoulder  of  each  piece,  the  shoulder  being  kept  square.  In  this  joint  a  consider- 
able strain  may  be  thrown  on  the  bolts  from  the  sliding  tendency  of  the  scarf,  if  the 
shoulders  should  happen  to  be  badly  fitted,  as  any  slipping  would  virtually  increase  the 
thickness  of  the  timber  where  the  bolts  pass  through.  The  width  of  each  shoulder 
should  be  not  less  than  J  the  total  thickness.  Joints  in  posts  are  mostly  required  when 
it  is  desired  to  lengthen  piles  already  driven,  to  support  a  superstructure  in  the  manner 
of  columns.  Another  form  of  scarf  for  a  post  put  together  without  bolts  is  shown  in 
Fig.  4G0,  the  parts  being  tabled  and  tongued,  and  held  together  by  wedges.  This  is 
not  a  satisfactory  joint,  and  is,  moreover,  expensive,  because  of  its  requiring  extra  care 
in  fitting ;  but  it  may  be  a  suitable  joint  in  some  special  cases,  in  which  all  the  sides 
are  required  to  be  flush.    Fig.  461  shows  the  common  form  of  scarf  in  a  tie-beam.     The 


461. 


462. 


ends  of  the  scarf  are  birds'-mouthed,  and  the  joint  is  tightened  up  by  wedges  driven  from 
opposite  sides.  It  is  further  secured  by  the  wrought-iron  plates  on  the  top  and  bottom, 
which  are  attached  to  the  timber  by  bolts  and  nuts.  In  all  these  joints  the  friction  be- 
tween the  surfaces,  due  to  the  bolts  being  tightly  screwed  up,  plays  an  important  part  in 
the  strength  of  the  joint ;  and  as  all  timber  is  liable  to  shrink,  it  is  necessary  to  examine 
the  bolts  occasionally,  and  to  keep  them  well  tightened  up.     Figs.  4G2  and  463  show 


^^ ^^ 


463. 


.£i_ 


iUii 


L, 


'XL 


■S" — S' 


-ts> — 

464.   1 


■^hf      4=y 


good  forms  of  scarfs,  which  are  stronger  but  not  so  common  as  the  preceding.  Some- 
times the  scarf  is  made  vertically  instead  of  horizontally ;  when  this  is  done,  a  slight 
modification  is  made  in  the  position  of  the  projecting  tongue,  as  will  be  seen  from 
Fig.  464,  which  shows  the  joint  in  elevation  and  plan.     The  only  other  scarfs  to  which 


Carpentry — Construction. 


271 


attention  need  be  called  are  those  shown  in  Figs.  4G5  and  46G,  in  ■which  the  compression 
side  is  made  with  a  square  abutment.  These  are  very  strong  forms,  and  at  the  f^ame  time 
easily  made.  Many  other  forms  have  been  designed,  and  old  books  on  carpentry  teem 
with  scarfs  of  every  conceivable  pattern  ;  but  in  this,  as  in  many  other  oases,  the  sim- 
plest thing  is  the  best,  as  the  whole  value  depends  upon  the  accuracy  of  the  workman- 
ship, and  this  is  rendered  excessively  diiScult  with  a  multiplicity  of  parts  or  abutments. 


.A, 


465. 


466. 


407. 


nf 


Slrengthenmg. — In  building-up  beams  to  obtain  increased  strength,  the  most  usual 
method  is  to  lay  2  beams  together  sideways  for  short  spans,  as  in  the  lintels  over  doors 
and  windows ;  or  to  cut  one  down  the  middle,  and  reverse  the  Jialves,  inserting  a 
wrought-iron  plate  between,  as  shown  in  the  flitch  girder,  Fig.  4G7.  The  reversal  of  the 
halves  gives  no  additional  strength,  as  many  workmen  suppose,  but  it  enables  one  to  see 
if  the  timber  is  sound  throughout  at  the  heart,  and  also  allows  the  pieces  to  season 
better.  A  beam  uncut  may  be  decayed  in  the  centre,  and  hence  the  advantage  of  cutting 
and  reversing,  even  if  no  flitch-plate  is  to  be  inserted,  defective  pieces  being  then  discarded. 
When  very  long  and  strong  beams  are  required,  a  simple  method  is  to  bolt  several 
together  so  as  to  break  joint  with  each  other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  468,  taking  care  that  on 


A 

A 

A 

__    ,^ 

468. 

yx 

.^ 

c'X 

,-A, 

I      ■■               :^               ;:               ::                 :                                 '        !         ^               ■■                 ■      <, 

i        :■                                ::                                'I        [:               ■[                :■                '■                '■       I 

>      ' 

1 
'm' 

^.., 

S" =^" — 

^     , 

—^ — 

!■ 

i-^^ 

469. 


_A_ 


z^ 


_.^ 


-1 


1 


J 


the  tension  side  the  middle  of  one  piece  comes  in  the  centre  of  the  span  with  the  2 
nearest  joints  equidistant.  It  is  not  necessary  in  a  built  beam  to  carry  the  full  depth 
as  far  as  the  supports ;  the  strain  is,  of  course,  greatest  in  the  centre,  and  provided 
there  is  sufiScient  depth  given  at  that  point,  the  beam  may  be  reduced  towards  the 
ends,  allowance  being  made  for  the  loss  of  strength  at  the  joints  on  tension  side.  A 
single  piece  of  timber  secured  to  the  under  side  of  a  beam  at  the  centre,  as  in  Fig.  4G9,  is 
a  simple  and  eff'ective  mode  of  increasing  its  strength.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
straps  are  bedded  into  the  sides  of  the  beams ;  they  thus  form  keys  to  prevent  the 
pieces  from  slipping  on  each  other.  This  weakens  the  timber  much  less  than  cutting 
out  the  top  or  bottom,  as  the  strength  of  a  beam  varies  only  in  direct  proportion  to  the 


272 


CAErEXTRY — Construction. 


breadth  but  as  the  square  of  the  deptli.  The  addition  of  a  second  piece  of  timber  in  the 
middle  is  a  method  frequently  adopted  for  strengthening  shear  legs  and  derrick  poles 
temporarily  for  lifting  heavy  weights. 

Bearing  Jointg. — In  a  consideration  of  bearing  joints  for  beams,  the  term  "  beam  "  is 
taken  to  include  all  pieces  which  carry  or  receive  a  load  across  the  grain.  The  simplest 
of  these  is  the  halving  joint,  shown  at  Fig.  470,  where  2  pieces  of  cross  bracing  are 


470. 


\yV 


^^F" 


Vf' 


.// 


472. 


473. 


halved  together.  This  joint  is  also  shown  at  Fig.  471,  where  the  ends  of  2  wall  plates 
meet  each  other.  When  a  joint  occurs  in  the  length  of  a  beam,  as  at  Fig.  472,  it  is 
generally  called  a  scarf.  In  each  of  these  examples  it  will  be  seen  that  half  the  thick- 
ness of  each  piece  is  cut  away  so  as  to  make  the  joint  iiush  top  and  bottom.  Sometimes 
the  outer  end  of  the  upper  piece  is  made  thicker,  forming  a  bevelled  joint  and  acting  as 
a  dovetail  when  loaded  on  top.  This  is  shown  at  Figs.  473  and  474.  When  a  beam 
crosses  another  at  right  angles,  and  is  cut  on  the  lower  side  to  fit  upon  it,  the  joint  is 
known  as  single-notching,  shown  in  Fig.  475.  When  both  are  cut,  as  in  Fig.  476,  it  is 
known  as  double-notching.    These  forms  occur  in  bridging  and  ceiling  joists.    When  a 


475. 


476. 


cog  or  solid  projecting  portion  is  cut  ia  the  lower  piece  at  tlie  middle  of  the  joint  it  is 
known  as  cogging  or  caulking,  and  is  shown  in  Fig.  477.  Figs.  478  and  479  show  two 
forms  of  the  joint  occurring  between  a  tie-beam  and  wall  plate  in  roofing.  Dovetailing 
is  not  much  used  in  carpentry  or  house  joinery,  owing  to  the  shrinkage  of  the  wood 
loosening  the  joint :  2  wall  plates  are  shown  dovetailed  together  at  Figs.  480  and  481 ; 
in  the  latter,  a  wedge  is  sometimes  inserted  on  the  straight  side  to  enable  the  joint  to  be 
tightened  up  as  the  wood  shrinks.    Tredgold  proposed  the  form  shown  in  Fig.  482,  which 


Carpentry — Construction. 


273 


is  known  as  the  "  Tiedgold  notch  ; "  but  this  is  never  seen  in  practice.  Tusk-tenoning  is 
the  method  adopted  for  obtaining  a  bearing  for  a  beam  meeting  another  at  right  angles 
at  the  same  levch  Fig.  483  shows  a  trimmer  supported  on  a  trimming  joist  in  this 
manner;  this  occurs  round  fireplaces,  hoistways,  and  other  openings  through  floors. 
Fig.  484  shows  the  same  joint  between  a  wood  girder  and  binding  joist ;  it  is  also  used 
in  double-framed  flooring.  The  advantage  of  this  form  is  that  a  good  bearing  is 
obtained  without  weakeniug  the  beam  to  any  very  great  extent,  as  the  principal  portion 


4S2. 


483. 


ti 


48i, 


of  the  material  removed  is  taken  from  the  neutral  axis,  leaving  the  remainder  disposed 
somewhat  after  the  form  of  a  flanged  girder.  When  a  cross-piece  of  timber  has  to  be 
framed  in  between  2  beams  already  fixed,  a  tenon  and  chase-mortice  (Fig.  485)  is  one  of 
the  methods  adopted.  If  the  space  is  very  confined,  the  same  kind  of  mortice  is  made 
in  both  beams,  but  in  opposite  directions ;  the  cross-piece  is  then  held  obliquely  and  slid 
into  place.  Occasionally  it  is  necessary  to  make  the  chase-mortice  vertical ;  but  this  is 
not  to  be  recommended,  as  the  beam  is  much  weakened  by  so  doing — it  is  shown  in 

T 


274 


Caepentry — Construction, 


Fig.  4S6.  In  some  cases  of  ceiling  joists  a  square  fillet  is  nailed  on  the  tenon  and  chase- 
mortice,  to  take  the  weight  of  the  joists  without  cutting  into  the  beam.  While  speaking 
of  floors,  the  process  of  firring-up  may  be  mentioned  ;  this  consists  of  laying  thin  pieces, 
or  strips,  of  wood  on  the  top  of  joists,  or  any  surfaces,  to  bring  them  up  to  a  level. 
Firring-pieces  are  also  sometimes  nailed  underneath  the  large  beams  in  framed  floors,  so 
that  the  under  side  may  be  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  ceiling  joists,  to  give  a  bearing 
for  the  laths,  and  at  the  same  time  allow  sufiicient  space  for  the  plaster  to  form  a  key. 


485. 


487. 


1= 


— •::  "-a 


V'/v/vY 


■-^^^ 


486. 


488. 


Brandering  is  formed  by  strips  about  1  in.  square,  nailed  to  tlie  under  side  of  the  ceiling 
joists  at  right  angles  to  them ;  these  strips  help  to  stiffen  the  ceiling,  and,  being 
narrower  than  the  ceiling  joists,  do  not  interrupt  the  key  of  the  plastering  so  much. 
Housing  consists  of  letting  a  piece  of  wood  bodily  into  another  for  a  short  distance,  or, 
as  it  were,  a  tenon  the  full  size  of  the  stuff;  this  is  used  in  staircases,  housed  into  the 
strings,  and  held  by  wedges.  Housing  is  likewise  adopted  for  fixing  rails  to  posts,  as  in 
Fig.  487,  where  an  arris  rail  is  shown  housed  into  an  oak  post  for  fencing. 

Post  and  Beam  Joints. — The  most  common  joint  between  posts  and  beams  is  the 
tenon  and  mortice  joint,  either  wedged  or  fixed  by  a  pin  ;  the  former  arrangement  is 
shown  in  Fig.  488,  and  the  latter  in  Fig.  489.  The  friction  of  the  wedges,  when  tightly 
driven,  aided  by  the  adhesion  of  the  glue  or  white-lead  with  which  they  are  coated, 
forms,  in  effect,  a  solid  dovetail,  and  the  fibres,  being  compressed,  do  not  yield  further  by 
the  shrinking  of  the  wood.  A  framed  door  is  an  example  of  the  application  of  this 
joint.  When  it  is  desired  to  tenon  a  beam  into  a  post,  without  allowing  the  tenon  to 
show  through,  or  where  a  mortice  has  to  be  made  in  an  existing  post  fixed  against  a  wall, 
the  dovetail  tenon,  shown  in  Fig.  490,  is  sometimes  adopted,  a  wedge  being  driven  in  on 
the  straight  side  to  draw  the  tenon  home  and  keep  it  in  place.  In  joining  small  pieces, 
the  foxtail  tenon,  shown  in  Fig.  491,  has  the  same  advantage  as  the  dovetail  tenon  of  not 
showing  through,  but  it  is  more  difficult  to  fix.  The  outer  wedges  are  made  the  longest, 
and  in  driving  the  tenon  home,  these  come  into  action  first,  splitting  away  the  sides, 
and  filling  up  the  dovetailed  mortice,  at  the  same  time  compressing  the  fibres  of  the 


Carpentry — Construction. 


275 


tenon.  This  joint  rcqnirci?  no  glue,  as  it  cannot  draw  out ;  should  it  work  loose  at  any 
time,  the  only  way  to  tighten  it  up  would  be  to  insert  a  very  thin  wedge  in  one  end  of 
the  mortice.  Short  tenons,  assisted  by  strap  bolts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  492,  are  commonly 
adopted  in  connecting  large  timbers.     The  post  is  cut  to  form  a  shoulder  so  that  the  beam 


489. 


490. 


s^^^^vj 


491. 


(/' >',,, 


takes  a  bearing  for  its  full  width,  the  tenon  preventing  any  side  movement.  "When  a 
post  rests  on  a  beam  or  sill  i^iece,  its  movement  is  prevented  by  a  "joggle,"  or  stub-tenon, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  493 ;  but  too  much  reliance  should  not  be  placed  on  this  tenon,  owing 
to  the  impossibility  of  seeing,  after  the  pieces  are  fixed,  whether  it  has  been  properly 


492. 


^yV//vi 


W/^v//vi 


-^ 


493. 


494. 


■•^^ 


495. 


495. 


fitted,  and  it  is  particularly  liable  to  decay  from  moisture  settling  in  the  joint.     For 
temporary  purposes,  posts  are  commonly  secured  to  heads  and  sills  by  dog-irons  or  "  dogs, 
Fig.  494 ;  the  pieces  in  this  case  simply  butt  against  each  otlier,  the  object  being  to 
avoid  cutting  the  timber,  and  so  depreciating  its  value,  and  also  for  economy  of  labour 


T  2 


276 


Caepentry —  Construction. 


other  forms  of  tenons  are  shown  in  Figs.  495  and  496.  The  double  tenon  is  used  in 
framing  wide  pieces,  and  the  haimched  tenon  when  the  edge  of  the  piece  on  which  the 
tenon  is  formed  is  required  to  be  flush  with  the  end  of  the  piece  containing  the  mortice. 
In  Figs.  497  and  498  are  shown  2  forms  of  bridle  joint  between  a  post  and  bcaca. 


497. 


M 


/W 


493. 


W^ 


3: 


■W'^v^ 


TreJgold  recommended  a  bridle  joint  with  a  circular  abutment,  but  this  is  not  a  correct 
form,  as  the  post  is  then  equivalent  to  a  column  with  rounded  ends,  which  it  is  well 
known  is  unable  in  that  form  to  bear  so  great  a  load  before  it  commences  to  yield. 

Strut  Joints. — A  strut  meeting  a  tie,  as  in  the  case  of  the  foot  of  a  principal  rafter 
in  a  roof  truss,  is  generally  tenoned  into  the  tie  by  an  oblique  tenon,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  499  ;  and  the  joint  is  further  strengthened  by  a  toe  on  the  rafter  bearing  against  a 
Bhoulder  in  the  tie  Tredgold  strongly  advised  this  joint  being  made  with  a  bridle 
instead  of  a  tenon,  as  shown  in  Fig.  500,  on  account  of  the  abutting  surfaces  being  fully 
open  to  view.  A  strut  meeting  a  post  as  in  Fig.  501,  or  a  strut  meeting  the  principal 
rafter  of  a  roof  truss  (Fig.  502),  is  usually  connected  by  a  simple  toe-joint.    The  shoulder 


499. 


601. 


should  be  cut  square  with  the  piece  containing  it,  or  it  should  bisect  the  angle  formed 
between  the  two  pieces.  It  is  sometimes  made  square  with  the  strut,  but  this  is 
incorrect,  as  there  would  in  some  cases  be  a  possibility  of  the  piece  slipping  out.  In 
lodged  and  braced  doors  or  gates  this  joint  is  used,  the  pieces  being  so  arranged  as  to 
form  triangles,  and  so  prevent  the  liability  to  sag  or  drop,  which  is  difficult  to  guard 
against  in  square-framed  work  without,  struts  or  braces.  When  a  structure  is  triangu- 
lated, its  shape  remains  constant  so  long  as  the  fastenings  are  not  torn  away,  because, 
with  a  given  length  of  sides,  a  triangle  can  assume  only  one  position ;  but  this  is  not 
the  case  with  four-sided  framing,  as  the  sides,  while  remaining  constant  in  length,  may 
vary  in  position.  A  mansard  loof  contains  various  examples  of  a  toe-joint ;  it  .shows 
also  the  principle  of  framing  king-post  and  queen-post  roof  trusses,  each  portion  being 
triangulated  to  ensure  the  utmost  stability. 

Miscellaneous  Joints, — Among  the  miscellaneous  joints  in  carpentry  not  previously 


Carpentry — Construction. 


277 


mentioned,  the  most  common  are  the  butt-joint,  Fig.  503,  where  the  pieces  meet  eacli 
other  with  square  ends  or  bides  ;  the  mitre-joint.  Fig.  504,  wliero  the  pieces  abut  againat 
each  other  with  bevelled  ends,  bisecting  the  angle  between  them,  as  in  the  case  of  struts 
mitred  to  a  corbel  piece  supporting  the  beam  of  a  gantry  ;  and  the  rabbeted  or  ''  rebated  " 
joint.  Fig.  505,  which  is  a  kind  of  narrow  halving,  either  transverse  or  longitudinal.  To 
these  must  be  added  in  joinery  the  grooved  and  tongued  joint,  Fig.  506 ;  the  matched 
and  beaded  joint.  Fig.  507;  the  dowelled  joint,  Fig.  508;  the  dovetailed  joint. 
Fig.  509  ;  and   other    modifications    of  these   to  suit   special   purposes.      To  one    of 


603. 


504. 


£ 


£ 


TT 


^ 


505. 


506. 


\. 


I  V 


c  -• 


5or. 


these  it  may  be  desirable  to  call  particular  attention,  viz.  the  flooring  laid  folding. 
This  is  a  method  of  obtaining  close  joints  without  the  use  of  a  cramp.  It  consists  of 
nailing  down  2  boards,  and  leaving  a  space  between  them  rather  less  than  the  width  of, 
say  5  boards ;  these  5  boards  are  then  put  in  place,  and  the  two  projecting  edges  are 
forced  down  by  laying  ajjlank  across  them,  and  standing  on  it.  This  may  generally  be 
detected  in  old  floors  by  observing  that  several  heading  joints  come  in  one  line,  instead 
of  breaking  joint  with  each  other.  It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  tongue,  or  slip  feather, 
shown  in  Fig.  50G,  which  in  good  work  is  formed  generally  of  liard  wood,  is  made  up  of 
short  pieces  cut  diagonally  across  the  grain  of  the  plank,  in  order  that  any  movement  of 
the  joints  may  not  split  the  tongue,  which  would  inevitably  occur  if  it  were  cut 
longitudinally  from  the  plank. 

Fastenings. — With  regard  to  fastenings,  the  figures  already  given  show  several 
applications.  Wedges  should  be  split  or  torn  from  the  log,  so  that  the  grain  may  be 
continuous  ;  or  if  sawn  out,  a  straight-grained  piece  should  be  selected.  Sufficient  taper 
should  be  put  on  to  give  enough  compression  to  the  joint,  but  too  much  taper  would 
allow  the  possibility  of  the  wedge  working  loose.  For  outside  work,  wedges  should  be 
painted  over  with  white-lead  before  being  driven,  this  not  being  affected  by  moisture,  as 
glue  would  be.  In  scarf  joints  the  chief  use  of  wedges  is  to  draw  the  parts  together 
before  the  bolt  holes  are  bored.  Keys  are  nearly  parallel  strips  of  hard  wood  or  metal; 
they  are  usually  made  with  a  slight  draft,  to  enable  them  to  fit  tightly.  If  the  key  is 
cut  lengthways  of  the  grain,  a  piece  with  curled  or  twisted  grain  should  be  selected,  but 
if  this  cannot  be  done,  the  key  should  be  cut  crossways  of  the  log  from  which  it  is  taken, 
and  inserted  in  the  juint  with  the  grain  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  strain,  so 
that  the  shearing  stress  to  which  the  key  is  subject  may  act  upon  it  across  the  fibres.  In 
timber  bridges  and  other  large  structures,  cast-iron  keys  are  frequently  used,  as  there  is 
with  them  an  absence  of  all  difliculty  from  shrinkage.  Wooden  pins  should  be  selected 
in  the  same  way  as  wedges,  from  straight-grained,  hard  wood.  Square  pins  are  more 
efficient  tiian  round,  but  are  not  often  used,  on  account  of  the'difficulty  of  forming  square 
holes  for  their  reception.  Tenons  are  frequently  secured  in  mortices,  as  in  Fig.  489,  by 
pins,  the  pins  being  driven  in  such  a  manner  as  to  draw  the  tenon  tightly  into  .'the 


278 


Caepentry — Construction. 


mortice  up  to  its  shoulders,  and  afterwards  to  hold  it  there.  This  is  done  by  boring  the 
hole  first  through  the  cheeks  of  the  mortice,  then  inserting  the  tenon,  marking  off  the 
position  of  tlie  hole,  removing  the  tenon,  and  boring  the  pin-hole  in  it  rather  nearer  the 
shouldt-rs  than  the  mark,  so  that  when  the  pin  is  driven  it  will  draw  the  tenon  as  above 
described.  The  dowelled  floor  shosvn  in  Fig.  508  gives  another  example  of  the  use 
of  pins. 

Nails,  and  their  uses,  are  too  well  known  to  need  description ;  it  may,  however,  be 
well  to  call  attention  to  the  two  kinds  of  cut  and  wrought  nails,  the  former  being  sheared 
or  stamped  out  of  plates,  and  the  latter  forged  out  of  rods.  The  cut  nails  are  cheaper, 
but  are  rather  brittle  ;  they  are  useful  in  many  kinds  of  work,  as  they  may  be  driven 
without  previously  boring  holes  to  receive  them,  being  rather  blunt-pointed  and  having 
2  parallel  sides,  which  are  placed  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  of  the  wood.  The 
wrought  nails  do  not  easily  break,  and  are  used  where  it  is  desired  to  clench  them  on  the 
back  to  draw  and  hold  the  wood  together.  Spikes  are  nearly  of  the  same  form  as  nails, 
but  much  larger,  and  are  mostly  used  for  heavy  timber  work.  Treenails  are  hard 
wooden  pins  used  in  the  same  way  as  naUs.  In  particular  work,  with  some  woods,  such 
as  oak,  they  are  used  to  prevent  the  staining  of  the  wood,  which  would  occur  if  nails 
were  used  and  any  moisture  afterwards  reached  them.  Compressed  treenails  are  largely 
used  for  fixing  railway  chairs  to  sleepers,  as  they  swell  on  exposure  to  moisture,  and  then 
hold  more  fii-mly.  Screws  are  used  in  situations  where  the  parts  may  afterwards  require 
to  be  disconnected.  They  are  more  useful  than  nails,  as  they  not  only  connect  the  parts, 
but  draw  them  closer  together,  and  are  more  secure.  For  joiners'  work  the  screws  usually 
have  countersunk  heads ;  where  it  is  desired  to  conceal  them,  they  are  let  well  into  the 
wood,  and  the  holes  plugged  with  dowels  of  the  same  kind  of  wood,  with  the  grain  in 
the  same  direction.  For  carpenters'  work  the  screws  are  larger  and  have  often  square 
heads  ;  these  are  known  as  coach  screws.  The  bolts,  nuts,  and  washers  used  in 
carpentry  may  be  of  the  proportions  given  in  the  following  table  ; — 

Thickness  of  nut =1  diam.  of  bolt. 

„  head        =    2 

Diameter  of  head  or  nut  over  sides   ..      ..  =  13  ^^ 

Side  of  square  washer  for  fir       =  3^  „ 

v  .,  oak =2i 

Thickness  of  washer =    x 


510. 


The  square  nuts  used  by  carpenters  are  generally  much  too  thin  ;  unless  they  are  equal 

in  thickness  to  the  diameter  of  the  bolt,  the  full  advantage 

of  that  diameter  cannot  bo  obtained,  the  strength  of  any 

connection  being  measured  by  its  weakest  part.     The  best 

proportion  for  nuts  is  that  of  a  Whitworth  standard  hexagon 

nut.    A  large  square  washer  is  generally  put  under  the  nut 

to  prevent  it  from  sinking  into  the  wood  and  tearing  the  fibres 

while  being  screwed  up ;  but  it  is  also  necessary  to  put  a 

similar  washer  under  the  head  to  prevent  it  sinking  into 

the  wood.       This   is,   however,   often  improperly   omitted. 

Straps  are  bands  of  wrought  iron  placed  over  a  joint  to 

strengthen  it  and  tie  the  parts  together.     When  the  strap  is 

carried  round  a  piece,  and  both  ends  are  secured  to  a  piece 

joining  it  at  right  angles,  as  in  a  king-post  and  tie-beam? 

it  is  known  as  a  stirrup,  and  is  tightened  by  means  of  a 

cotter  and  gib  keys,  as  shown  in  Fig.  510.     When  straps 

connect  more  than  two  pieces  of  timber  together,  they  are  made  withia  branch  leading 

in  the  direction  of  each  piece  ;  but  they  are  usually  not  strong  enough  at  the  point  of 

junction,  and  might  often  be   made  thorter   than  they   are  without  impairing  their 


Cakpentky— Construction.  279 

efficiency.  Sockets  are  generally  of  cast  iron,  and  may  be  described  as  hollow  boxes 
formed  to  receive  the  ends  of  timber  framing. 

With  regard  to  the  use  of  glue  for  securing  joints,  it  has  been  found  that  the  tensile 
strength  of  solid  glue  is  about  4000  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  while  that  of  a  glued  joint  in  damp 
■weather  is  350-360  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  and  in  dry  weather  about  715  lb.  The  lateral 
cohesion  of  fir  wood  is  about  562  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  and  therefore  in  a  good  glue  joint  the 
solid  material  will  give  way  before  the  junction  yiulds. 

Keying. — This  is  a  useful  joint  for  uniting  pieces  of  wood  at  right  angles,  as  in  the 
sides  of  a  box,  where  much  strength  is  not  needed.  Each  end  is  miti-ed  off  and  the 
bevels  are  then  joined  by  glue,  "When  the  glued  joint  is  quite  firm,  a  few  saw  cuts  are 
made  in  the  angle,  so  as  to  cross  both  pieces  forming  the  joint,  and  into  the  kerfs  are 
driven  small  slips  of  wood  previously  well  glued.  After  all  has  dried,  the  projecting 
ends  of  the  keys  are  cut  off.  The  direction  of  the  saw  cuts  should  not  be  horizontal : 
some  may  incline  upwards  and  some  downwards. 

Corner-piecing. — This  is  another  weak  joint,  only  admissible  in  the  lightest  work. 
The  bevelled  ends  of  the  side  pieces  (of  a  box,  for  instance)  are  glued  together  as  for 
keying,  and  then  a  triangular  piece  is  glued  inside  the  corner. 

Mortising  and  Tenoning. — This  joint  is  so  important  and  so  constantly  employed  in 
one  modification  or  another  in  almost  all  branches  of  carpentry  and  joinery  that  it 
deserves  special  description  at  some  length.  The  gauge  used  for  marking  out  the 
mortice  has  been  spoken  of  on  p.  186 ;  and  the  use  of  the  chisel  in  cutting  it  out  has  been 
explained  on  p.  232.  In  cutting  the  tenon,  a  very  sharp  and  accurately  set  saw  should  be 
used,  so  that  the  edges  left  will  need  no  paring  or  trimming  of  any  kind.  The  simple 
mortice  and  tenon  have  been  shown  on  p.  233.  In  sawing  the  shoulders  of  a  tenon,  there 
should  be  just  a  tendency  to  undercutting  them,  as  a  safeguard  against  rounding  them. 
A  few  words  may  be  said  about  wedging  and  pinning.  Suppose  that  a  tenon  nicely  fitted 
is  to  be  wedged  and  glued.  Taking  it  out  of  the  mortice,  the  latter  has  a  wedge-like 
portion  cut  out  on  each  side  to  be  filled  in  by  a  pair  of  wooden  wedges  of  similar  form.  If 
these  are  made  short  and  blunt,  they  will  not  be  able  to  be  driven  home,  but  will  jump 
back,  and  have  no  effect  in  tightening  up  the  joint  by  drawing  the  parts  together.  The 
wedges  should  be  long  in  proportion  to  their  thickness.  The  object  is  to  convert  a 
straight  tenon  into  a  dovetailed  shape,  which  cannot  be  drawn  back  out  of  its  mortice.  The 
whole  tenon  and  the  wedges  are  carefully  glued  with  hot  glue,  about  as  thick  as  cream, 
the  wood  having  also  been  well  warmed.  The  joint  is  driven  up,  wedged,  and  left  to 
dry.  In  pinning  a  tenon  and  mortice  through  (which  is  always  the  method  used  in 
heavy  carpentry),  having  cut  and  fitted  the  parts  accurately,  bore  through  the  mortice 
carefully  at  right  angles,  having  just  removed  the  tenon.  Use  for  this  a  shell  or  nose 
bit  in  a  brace.  Now  insert  the  tenon,  put  the  nose  bit  in  again,  and  just  begin  to  bore 
the  tenon  sufilciently  to  mark  it.  Take  it  out  and  bore  the  hole  about  J^  in.  nearer 
the  shoulder  of  the.  tenon  than  you  would  have  done  if  it  had  been  left  in  its  mortice 
and  bored  while  therein.  Then  make  a  nice  oak  pin,  and  not  too  tapering,  but  a  tight 
fit ;  as  it  enters  the  hole  in  the  tenon,  it  will  draw  it  in  close  in  the  endeavour  to  bring 
its  hole  true  with  those  of  the  mortice.  It  must  not  be  so  bored  that  it  cannot  draw  in, 
and  80  will  be  in  danger  of  tearing  and  splitting :  but  must  almost  tally  at  the  outset 
with  the  other  holes.  This  forms  a  perfect  joint  that  can  (if  need  be)  be  at  any  time 
separated  by  knocking  out  the  pin,  which  is  sometimes  left  long  that  it  may  be  more 
readily  driven  back 

As  an  example  of  more  difficult  fitting,  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  mortice  is  cut 
in  a  piece  of  hexagonal  form,  or  rather  section  of  that  nature,  and  that  a  rail  has  to  be 
fitted  in  which  the  shoulders  of  the  tenon  must  be  so  made  as  to  embrace  the  parts 
about  the  mortice.  Fig.  511,  a  and  i,  represents  such.  The  shoulders  c,  d,  are  specially 
difficult  to  pare,  owing  to  the  angular  direction  of  the  grain,  as  the  natural  way  of 
cutting  such  a  surface  smoothly  would  be  to  work  from  x  to  ?/  of  e,  and  this  cannot  be 


280 


Carpentry — Construction, 


done  in  this  case.  It  may  be  pared  with  a  chisel  more  readily  when  laid  down  on  its  side, 
as  at/,  the  cliisel  cutting  perpendicularly  ;  but  the  angles  frequently  prohibit  the  chisel 
from  cutting  into  them  closely.  Still,  there  is  no  help  for  it,  and  there  is  no  job  which 
requires  a  sharper  tool  deftly  managed.  When  the  work  is  small,  the  finest  saw,  used 
carefully,  may  suffice  without  any  subsequent  paring,  and  is  the  safer  tool  to  use.  When, 
however,  the  parts  are  to  be  constructed  of  wood  of  more  than  usually  curled  grain,  it 
may  suffice  to  cut  a  recess  into  the  standard,  to  receive  the  hexagonal  rail  itself  beyond 
itsteuon,  Fig.  512,  a,  h,  and  c,  where  the  mortice  is  shown  quite  black,  and  the  recess  is 


511. 


512. 


K 


^ 


y 


~ZL 


/■ 


513. 


a 


shaded.  Neatly  done,  the  effect  is  the  same  as  when  the  shoulders  are  cut,  as  in  the 
previous  case  ;  but  allowance  must  be  made  in  the  length  of  the  rail,  or  it  will,  of  course, 
I>e  too  short  when  fitted  into  its  place.  The  first  plan,  even  if  well  done,  is  not  .so  strong 
as  the  second,  and,  in  an  outdoor  job,  where  exposed,  the  latter  would  be  far  less  liable 
to  admit  rain  to  injure  the  tenon ;  but  there  are  many  cases  in  which  the 
same  kind  of  fitting  is  needed  where  a  plan  similar  to  that  first  described  is 
essential.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  a  mortice  and  tenon  ought  to 
just  slide  stiffly  into  place,  without  requiring  a  lot  of  knocking  with  the 
mallet. 

A  curious  form  of  mortice  and  tenon  is  shown  in  Fig.  513,  and  is  made  in 
the  following  manner : — Get  2  pieces  of  clean,  straight-grained  yellow  pine, 
recently  cut  from  the  log  that  is  not  seasoned,  9  in.  long,  1^  in.  broad,  and 
-}  in.  thick.  In  the  middle  of  one  of  these  make  a  5-in.  mortice  I5  in.  long, 
as  at  a ;  and  on  the  other  piece,  after  it  has  been  dressed  to  f  in.  thick  at  3  in. 
from  one  end,  make  a  tenon  I  in.  thick  and  l\  in.  long,  as  at  h,  and  taper  the 
other  end  as  shown,  so  as  to  make  it  easy  to  introduce  into  the  mortice. 
Then  get  both  pieces  steamed,  and  while  they  are  heating  prepare  something 
to  support  the  sides  of  a,  so  as  to  prevent  it  from  splitting  when  b  is  being 
driven  through,  and  a  strong  cramp  or  vice  to  compress  h.  When  the  wood  is 
thoroughly  steamed,  place  b  in  the  vice  or  cramp,  with  a  piece  of  hard  wood 
on  each  side,  so  as  to  press  its  whole  surface  from  the  tenon  to  the  tapered 
end  equally,  and  screw  up  as  hard  as  possible.  Withdraw  a  from  the 
steam,  and  place  it  in  its  prepared  position ;  try  the  screw  again  on  b ; 
then  take  it  out,  enter  its  tapered  end  into  the  mortice,  and  drive  through  until  tho 
shoulders  that  have  not  been  pressed  rest  on  a ;  put  them  into  warm  water  for 
several  hours,  then  take  them  out  and  dry ;  afterwards  cut  all  the  arms  to  an  equal 
length,  and  clean  off.  It  will  allow  of  examination  better  if  the  tenon  on  h  is  made  2  in. 
long,  60  us  to  enable  a  to  be  moved  along,  us  when  all  is  firmly  together  it  will  be  at 


■D 


Cakpentry — Constructiou.  281 

once  asserted  that  the  cross  is  made  of  3  pieces.  Obviously  no  practical  carpenter  would 
use  such  a  joint,  as  the  wood  must  suffer  much  in  the  unequal  compression  and 
expansion  of  its  fibres,  besides  giving  no  particular  strength.  It  is  a  sort  of  puzzle  in 
joinery. 

Half-lap  Joint. — This  is  an  every-day  joint,  and  apparently  one  of  the  simplest,  yet  it 
is  very  often  badly  made.  Each  of  the  pieces  has  3  surfaces  in  contact,  viz.  the  broad 
face  a  of  Fig.  514,  the  side  d,  the  front  h,  corresponding  to  similar  ones  on  h,  to  which 
it  is  supposed  to  be  necessary  to  attach  it  at  right  angles.  As  a  joint  it  has  no  strength 
however  well  made ;  but  it  is  of  very  frequent  use 

in  stuff  of  all  sizes,  and  is  used  not  only  to  join  514  ^, 

a  piece  at  right  angles  (or  at  some  intermediate.  X   /\ 

angle)  to  another,  but  also  to  join  them  length  /         ~  ~7|        /— — /    y 

wise.     The  line  of  the  end  h  must  be  accurately       -^ ;        /y^  / — '/ x 

scribed  with  the  help  of  a  square,  and,  with  the      iA     ^.  l/\     ri/      / X 

same  appliance,  the   line   answering  to  c  e  of  li      ' ■ Y /  L—^/^ 

must  be  marked  round  3  sides  of  each  piece.   Then  ^■' 

with  a  marking  gauge,  ef  and  its  counterpart, 

which,  together,  determine  the  plane  of  a,  are  set  off,  and  this  line  is  carried  along  the 
endgf.  On  white  wood,  a  finely-pointed  (or  finely -edged)  pencil  will  make  a  better  line. 
It  is  here  that  amateurs  are  apt  to  be  lazy.  They  mark  perhaps  h,  saw  down  a  shoulder, 
with  no  further  guide  line,  and  holding  a  broad  chisel  at  the  end,  hit  it  with  a  mallet, 
and  off  goes  the  whole  cheek  piece,  leaving  possibly  a  fairly  true  face,  and  more  generally  a 
very  untrue  one — so  untrue  frequently  that  no  subsequent  paring  will  correct  it.  But  as  it 
will  be  much  concealed  from  view,  it  is  allowed  to  pass  muster,  and  a  nice  botched  job  it 
makes.  Supposing  this  intended,  as  it  oftt-n  is,  to  be  a  glued  joint,  the  grtat  object  to 
be  aimed  at  is  to  make  each  face  as  level  and  true  as  possible,  so  as  to  provide  plenty  of 
surface  contact.  Wo  may,  in  this  way,  even  make  the  half-lap  joint  strong  enough. 
Hence  it  is  essentially  necessary  to  scribe  all  lines  with  accuracy,  and  then  to  cut 
precisely  up  to  them.  The  cutting  across  the  grain  will,  of  course,  be  done  by  the  tenon 
saw,  which  be  will  carried  down  to  the  line  gauged  to  show  the  line  e  f  marking  the 
position  of  the  half-thickness  of  the  stuft'.  Then  the  work  should  be  stood  end  up  in  the 
vice,  and  the  cheek  piece  carefully  removed,  leaving  the  surface,  if  possible,  so  flat  and 
true  as  not  to  need  subsequent  dressing  with  the  chisel.  A  small  hand  saw  will  do 
this  best,  its  teeth  set  out  only  just  so  far  as  to  prevent  the  blade  from  binding  in  the 
cut.  A  saw  known  as  a  panel  saw  will  do  nicely ;  a  large  hand  saw  with  much  set  is 
far  more  ditBcult  to  use. 

Dovetailing. — This  forms  a  secure  and  strong  joint,  but  needs  great  care  in 
marking  out  and  cutting  the  work.  The  dovetails  should  not  have  too  sharji 
angles,  or  they  will  be  liable  to  be  broken  off.  The  fit  may  be  tight,  but  not  so 
tight  as  to  require  considerable  force  to  effect  a  juncture,  or  the  top  and  bottom  dove- 
tails may  be  split  off.  When  a  dovetail  joint  is  used  at  a  corner  that  is  to  be  rounded 
■externally,  the  joint  should  be  made  in  the  usual  way  first,  and  the  rounding  done 
afterwards. 

Blind  Dovetails. — These  are  so  named  when  the  pins  or  dovetails,  or  both,  are 
hidden  from  view  in  the  finished  article.  One  plan,  in  which  the  joint  is  seen  at 
the  side  only,  is  shown  in  Fig.  515.  The  wood  a  forming  the  side  should  be  rather 
thinner  than  b  on  the  front.  The  pins  c  are  cut  first,  and  their  outline  is  marked 
out  on  b,  in  which  the  sockets  are  then  cut  for  their  reception,  noting  that  these  sockets 
do  not  extend  farther  in  length  than  the  dotted  line  d,  nor  farther  in  width  than  the 
dotted  line  e. 

The  plan  illustrated  in  Fig.  516  allows  only  a  line  to  be  seen  in  the  side  piece.  In 
this  case,  each  piece  has  a  distance  marked  off  on  it  equalling  the  thickness  of  the  piece 
to  be  joined  to  it ;  at  about  half  this  thickness  another  line  is  marked  to  indicate  the 


282 


Carpentry — Construction. 


depth  (in  the  thickness  of  the  wood)  to  which  the  pins  and  dovetails  are  to  be  cut.  As 
the  pins  in  a  have  to  overlap  and  liide  the  ends  of  the  dovetails,  half  their  (the 
pins')  lengthdscut  off  after  their  full  dimension  has  been  used  in  marking  out  the  dove- 
tails.  All  the  cutting  must  be  carefully  done  with  a  chisel.  When  the  joint  is  complete 


515. 


516. 


and  dry,  the  edge  of  the  lap  on  a  can  be  rounded.  Or  again,  by  making  a  lap  on  each 
piece  and  cutting  the  edges  of  the  Japs  to  the  same  bevel,  they  will  meet  so  as  to  exhibit 
only  a  single  line  at  the  corner. 

Mechanical  aids  in  dovetailing. — To  an  amateur,  dovetailing  is  no  easy  matter, 
when  beauty  and  strength  of  joint  are  aimed  at.  The  pins  are  less  difBcult  to  make 
than  the  dovetails,  but  they  must  be  truly  vertical.  The  real  trouble  is  with  the  dove- 
tails, as  they  are  on  arbitrary  lines.  Much  assistance  may  be  got  from  the  employment 
of  a  fret  sawing  machine.  This  should  either  have  a  wooden  table,  or  its  iron  table 
must  be  covered  with  a  wooden  one  f  in.  thick.  On  this  are  scribed,  i  in.  apart, 
parallel  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  saw  front ;  about  i  in.  in  front  of  it  is  grooved  out 
2  in.  deep  between  tlje  lines.  Fitted  to  slide  in  this  groove,  2  pieces  of  hard  wood  are 
prepared :  one  carries,  at  right  angles,  a  sloping  block  as  a  guide  for  cutting  the  pins, 
and  the  other  a  similar  guide  for  the  dovetails.  Screws  can  be  used  to  hold  the  guides 
in  place.  A  slot  is  cut  through  the  table  (or  false  table,  as  the  case  may  be)  to  let  the 
saw  work.  The  guides  just  described  are  used  to  regulate  and  govern  the  direction  of 
the  saw  so  that  it  shall  not  deviate  from  the  lines  marked  out. 

Dowelling. — The  "  dowels,"  which  are  tapering  cylindrical  pegs  of  tough  wood, 
prepared  beforehand,  and  kept  dry,  should  bo  placed  3-12  in.  apart  in  holes  prepared 
for  them  by  the  centre-bit,  all  of  uniform  depth  (secured  by  a  gauge  on  the  bit),  and 
countersunk.  The  dowels  are  cut  ^  in.  shorter  than  the  united  depths  of  the  holes,  and 
rounded  at  the  ends.  The  dowels  are  warmed  for  an  hour  to  shrink  them,  then  the 
joint  is  warmed,  and  thin  hot  glue  is  quickly  applied  to  joint,  dowels,  and  dowel-holes. 
This  joint  is  largely  tised  by  chairmakcrs,  and  known  as  "  framing."  When  the  work 
comes  shoulder  to  shoulder,  the  dowel-hole  must  be  bored  square  to  the  shoulder. 


Carpentry— Construction.  283 

_  Joining  thin  icoods.—Foi  making  joints  iu  i-iu.  to  J-in.  stuff,  the  material  is  cut  to 
size,  trimmed  clean,  and  arranged  in  sets,  with  the  joints  numbered.  The  edges  are 
planed  off  with  a  sharp  trying-plane  on  a  shooting-board.  To  make  tougued  joints,  the 
joints  are  shot,  then  grooved  and  tongued  with  a  pair  of  pLecing-planes,  to  match  the 
thickness  of  the  stuff,  always  keeping  the  fence  of  the  plane 
to  the  face  of  the  work.     For  glueing,   the  tongue  must  be  ^i^- 

slack  to  allow  for  swelling  when  the  hot  glue  is  put  iu. 
(J.  Cowan.)  The  ligliter  and  smaller  the  work,  the  greater 
IS  the  dilEculty  of  securing  accurate  joints,  because  defects  in 
squaring-up  are  not  obvious  on  very  thiu  wood.  In  the  case  of 
a  small  box  with  a  deep  cover,  it  is  easiest  to  make  box  and 
cover  all  in  one  piece,  and  afterwards  saw  them  apart.  A  neat 
and  strong  joint,  allowing  the  corners  to  be  rounded,  is  shown 
in  plan  in  Fig.  517 :  the  end  pieces  of  the  box  are  rebated 
like  a,  and  the  front  and  back  pieces  are  grooved  like  h. 

Glueinj.— For  an  account  of  glue,  its  qualities,  characters,  &c.,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  '  Workshop  Receipts,'  second  series,  pp.  78-84,  in  which  full  details  are  given  for 
soaking,  boiling,  and  otherwise  preparing  the  adhesive  solution.  Glued  surfaces  need  to 
be  forced  into  the  closest  possible  contact,  so  that  there  shall  intervene  the  slightest 
possible  film  of  the  adhesive  substance ;  and  there  is  no  point  upon  which  amateurs 
make  greater  mistakes.  A  thick  wad  of  glue  does  not  stick  2  pieces  of  wood  together, 
but  keeps  them  apart.  If  we  could  plane  2  boards  perfectly  true,  so  as  to  exclude 
even  a  film  of  air,  they  would  adhere  without  glue.  But  this  is  not  possible.  Never- 
theless, we  make  some  approach  to  such  condition  when,  having  planed  both  approxi- 
mately level,  we  insert  the  thinnest  possible  layer  of  some  adhesive  substance — in  this 
case  glue — and  press  them  into  the  very  closest  contact  that  we  can.  The  bulk  of  the 
glue  is  squeezed  out,  and  is  to  be  wiped  off;  but  after  all  is  squeezed  out  that  is  possible, 
a  sufficient  film  will  remain  to  give  the  necessary  adhesion  ;  and  supposing  the  glue  of 
good  quality  and  properly  applied,  the  closest  union  of  the  parts  will  be  found  to  take 
place.  The  glue  should  be  applied  quite  hot ;  and  in  cold  weather  it  is  well  to  warm 
the  joint  before  applying  the  glue,  if  the  character  of  the  work  will  allow  it.  With 
very  thin  stuff  this  warming  is  not  advisable,  as  the  fire  will  warp  the  wood.  A  con- 
venient "  glue-brush,"  according  to  Cowan,  may  be  made  from  a  piece  of  rattan  cane, 
having  the  outside  crust  pared  off,  and  the  end  dipped  in  boiling  water  and  hammered 
out  till  the  fibre  is  well  separated.  It  is  described  as  the  best,  cheapest,  most  durable, 
and  most  effective  means  of  applying  glue. 

Ringing. — Hinging  is  the  art  of  connecting  two  pieces  of  metal,  wood,  or  other  material 
together,  such  as  a  door  to  its  frame ;  the  connecting  ligaments  that  allow  one  or  other 
of  the  attached  substances  to  revolve  are  termed  hinges.  There  are  many  sorts  of  hinges, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned,  butts,  chest  hinges,  coach  hinges,  rising  hinges,  case- 
ment hinges,  garnets,  scuttle  hinges,  desk  hinges,  screw  hinges,  back-fold  hinges,  centre- 
point  hinges,  and  so  on.  To  form  the  hinge  of  a  highly-finished  snuff-box  requires 
great  mechanical  skill;  but  few  of  the  best  jewellers  can  place  a  faultless  hinge  in  a 
snuff-box. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  hinges,  and  hence  there  are  many  modes  of  applying 
them,  and  much  dexterity  and  delicacy  are  frequently  required.  Iu  some  cases  the 
hinge  is  visible,  in  others  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be  concealed.  Some  hinges 
require  not  only  that  the  one  hinged  part  should  revolve  on  the  other,  but  that  the 
movaWe  part  shall  be  thrown  back  to  a  greater  or  lesser  distance.  Figs.  518  to  564 
exhibit  a  great  variety  of  methods  of  hinging. 

Fig.  518  shows  the  hinging  of  a  door  to  open  to  a  right  angle,  as  in  Fig.  519.  Figs. 
520,  521,  and  Figs.  522,  523,  show  modes  of  hinging  doors  to  open  to  an  angle  of  90°. 
Figs.  524,  525,  show  a  manner  of  hinging  a  door  to  open  at  right  angles,  and  to  have 


284 


Carpentry — Construction. 


the  hinge  concealed.    The  segments  are  described  from  the  centre  of  the  hinge  A,  and 
light  portion  requires  to  be  cut  out  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  leaf  of  the  hinge  A  B. 


618. 


519. 


620. 


524. 


525. 


526. 


Figs.  526,  527,  illustrate  an  example  of  a  centre-pin  hinge,  the  door  opening  either  way, 
and  folding  back  against  the  wall  in  either  direction.    Draw  E  F  at  right  angles  to  the 


Caepentry — Construction. 


285 


door,  and  just  clearing  the  line  of  tlio  wall,  M'liich  represents  tlio  plane  in  wliich  the 
inner  face  of  Ihe  door  will  lie  when  folded  back  against  the  wall  in  either  direction. 
Bisect  E  F  in  B ;  draw  A  B  perpendicular  to  E  F,  which  make  equal  to  E  B  or  B  F 
then  A  is  the  position  of  the  centre  of  ihe  hinge. 

To  find  the  centre  of  the  hinge,  Figs.  528,  529 ;  draw  A  D,  making  an  angle  of  45° 
■with  the  inner  edge  of  the  door,  and  A  B  parallel  to  the  jamb,  meeting  D  A  in  A  the 
centre  of  the  liingf^;  the  door,  in  this  cafC,  will  move  through  a  quadrant  D  C. 

Figs.  532,  533,  are  of  another  variety  of  centre-pin  hinging,  opening  through  a 


527. 


528. 


529. 


630. 


531. 


C32. 


fe^;^;A,Siiig^^ 


quadrant.     The  distance  of  A  from  BC  is  equal  to  half  B  C.    In  this,  as  in  a  previous 

case,  there  is  a  space  between  the  door  and  the  wall  when  the  door  is  folded  back.     In 

Figs.  528,  529,  as  well  as  in  Figs.  532,  533,  there  is  no  space  left  between  the  door  and 

the  wall. 

3 

Fig.  530 ;  bisect  the  angle  at  D  by  the  line  D  A ;  draw  E  C  and  make  C  F  =  -  D  E ; 

draw  F  G  at  right  angles  to  C  E,  and  bisect  the  angk  G  F  C  by  the  liae  B  F,  meeting 
D  A  in  A ;  then  A  is  the  centre  of  the  hinge.  Fig.  531  shows,  when  ihe  door,  Fig.  530, 
is  folded  back,  that  the  point  C  falls  on  the  continuation  of  the  line  G  F. 

Figs.  534,  535;  Figs.  536,  537;  Figs.  538,  539;  and  Figs.  540,  541,  are  examples  of 
centre-pin  joints,  and  require  no  particular  or  detailed  describing. 


28G 


Carpentry — Construction. 


Figs.  542  to  544  are  of  a  hinge,  tlie  flap  of  •which  has  a  bead  B  closing  into  a 
corresponding  hollow,  so  that  the  joint  cannot  be  seen  through. 

Figs.  545  to  547  show  a  hinge  b  a  let  equally  into  the  styles,  the  knuckles  oi  which 


533. 


?K^ 


539. 


540. 


B41. 


form  a  part  of  the  bead  on  the  edge  of  the  style  B.     In  this  case  the  beads  on  each  side 
are  equal  and  opposite  to  each  other,  with  the  joint-pin  in  the  centre. 


CAPtrENTRY — Construction. 


287 


In  the  example,  Figs.  548  to  550,  the  knuckle  of  the  hinge  forms  a  portion  of  the 
bead  on  the  stylo  C,  and  is  equal  and  opposite  to  the  bead  of  the  style  D.  In  Figs.  551 
to  553,  the  beads  are  not  directly  opposite  to  one  another. 


543. 


544. 


552. 


Fig.  554  exhibits  the  hinging  of  a  back  flap  when  the  centre  of  the  hinge  is  in  the 
middle  of  the  joint. 

Figs.  555,  556,  relate  to  the  manner  of  hinging  a  back  flap  when  it  is  necessary  to 
throw  the  flap  back  from  the  joint.     An  example  of  a  rule-joint  is  given,  Figs.  557,  558. 


288 


CAErENTEY — Construction. 


Figs.  559,  560,  point  out  or  define  the  ordinary  mode  of  hinging  shutters  to  sash- 
frames. 

Figs.  561,  562,  illustrate  a  method  of  hinging  employed  when  the  flap  on  being 

554.  556. 

\ 


opened  has  to  be  at  a  distance  from  the  style.     This  method  of  hinging  is  used  on  the 
doors  of  pews,  to  throw  the  opening  ilap  or  door  clear  of  the  mouldings. 


Cabpentrt — Construction. 


289 


Figs.  563,  564,  show  the  manner  of  finding  the  rebate  when  tlio  hinge  is  placed  on 
the  contrary  side.  Let  h  be  the  centre  of  the  hinge,  y  e  the  line  of  joint  on  the  same 
side,  a  c  the  line  of  joint  on  the  opposite  side,  and  e  c  the  total  depth  of  the  nbitc. 
Bisect  ecin  d,  and  join  dh;  on  dh  describe  a  semicircle  cutting  ?/  e  in  /,  and  through  / 
and  d  dmvffb,  cutting  a  c  in  6,  and  join  a  b,  bf,  andfy,  to  complete  the  joint. 


562. 


561. 


Examples  of  Construction. — In  giving  a  selection  of  examples  illustrative  of 
the  construction  of  articles  in  which  wood  forms  the  chief  if  not  only  material 
employed,  it  will  be  convenient  to  adopt  some  sort  of  classification.  The  following 
will  be  found  to  have  practical  advantages  : — (1)  Workshop  Appliances,  (2)  Rough 
Furniture,  (3)  Garden  and  Yard  Erections,  (4)  House  Building. 

Workshop  AprLiANCES. — The  principal  workshop  appliances  which  can  be  made  by 
the  mechanic  or  amateur  for  his  own  use  are  the  tool-chest,  carpenters'  bench,  and 
grindstone  mount. 

Tool-chest. — The  most  common  way  of  arranging  a  tool-chest  is  in  the  form  of  a 
box,  i.  e.  with  the  cover  opening  at  top.  This  has  one  great  disadvantage  as  compared 
with  what  may  be  called  the  cupboard  arrangement,  in  that  some  of  the  tools  must 
necessarily  be  below  the  others  and  in  the  dark,  giving  double  trouble  to  get  them  out 
or  replace  them,  and  tending  not  a  little  to  their  injury.  The  chest  or  cupboard 
shown  in  Fig.  565  is  based  on  one  described  in  Amateur  Work  by  the  designer.  It 
measures  4  ft.  high,  3  ft.  wide,  and  11  in.  deep  from  back  to  front,  the  shell  being  made 
of  f-in.  boards  11  in.  wide.  These  are  carefully  sawn  to  size,  planed  up,  and  dove- 
tailed at  the  joints.  The  shelves  are  of  |-in.  boards  planed  down  to  about  J  in.  The 
back  is  formed  of  5-in.  lining  boards,  which  may  be  bought  ready  ploughed  for  putting 
together.  The  interior  is  divided  into  compartments :  a  measures  about  3  ft.  high,  and 
8  in.  wide,  and  is  adapted  for  hanging  saws  in,  hooks  being  screwed  into  h  for  that 
purpose ;  6  is  2  ft.  2  in.  wide,  and  14  in.  deep,  so  as  to  admit  full-sized  bottles  containing 
turpentine,  &c.,  as  well  as  a  paint-pot  and  glue-pot  ;  c  is  about  9  in.  high  and  the 
same  width  as  b  ;  d,  e,  f,  g  equally  divide  the  remaining  height  of  the  cupboard,  the  2 
former  being  only  2  ft.  2  in.  wide,  while  the  2  latter  have  the  full  width  of  the  cup- 
board. All  the  boards  forming  the  partitions  of  the  interior  are  of  |-in.  stuff  planed 
down  to  about  J  in.  The  ends  of  the  shelves  which  abut  on  the  sides  of  the  cupboard 
are  rabbeted  into  grooves  -j-\  in.  deep,  and  those  ends  which  abut  on  the  partition  i  are 
supported  on  triangular  strips  screwed  to  i.  The  shelves  may  be  free  to  slide  to  and 
fro  if  desired,  except  h,  which  receives  the  upper  end  of  the  partition  i.  The  front  side 
of  the  cupboard  is  made  in  the  following  ingenious  manner.     A  frame  of  wood  3  in. 

u 


290 


Carpentry — Construction. 


s^s: 


565. 

3 


e' 


d' 


Oi 


■^ 


v!         b 


^v-^  ;^'^^^■'^^^^^^^>^^^^^■^^^»vy:^^ 


broad,  and  1^  in.  thick,  is  made  to  go  right  round,  with  an  upright  bar  in  the  centre, 
the  whole  being  fixed  together  with  mortice  and  tenon.  Tenons  cut  on  the  ends  of  the 
centre  bar  are  let  into  mortices  in  the  end  pieces,  and  tenons  on  the  ends  of  the  end 
pieces  into  mortices  in  the  side-pieces.  A  J-in.  bead-plane  is  run  along  the  inside  edges 
of  the  frame  before  the  tenons  are  cut  or  the 
mortices  made.  If  neatly  done,  this  will  leave 
a  complete  bead  round  each  door.  This  frame  is 
nailed  to  the  front  of  the  case ;  and  if  it  has  been 
made  slightly  large,  there  will  be  a  little  border 
to  clean  off  with  the  plane.  The  doors  may  be 
of  any  desired  style.  A  good  appearance,  with 
little  cost  or  trouble,  is  gained  by  the  following 
plan.  The  frame  is  \\  in.  thick ;  and  the  aper- 
tures to  be  closed  are  about  14  in.  wide :  take 
two  pieces  of  board  of  the  necessary  length  and 
width,  and,  when  planed,  |  in.  thick ;  fit  these 
into  the  apertures  of  the  frame  as  doors ;  next 
take  some  slips  of  |-iii.  wood,  2J  in.  broad, 
dressed  and  squared;  upon  one  side  make  a 
moulding,  f  in.  broad,  with  an  0-G  moulding- 
plane,  and  with  the  slips  thus  prepared  plant 
tlie  outside  of  the  doors,  of  course  keeping  the 
square  edges  along  the  edges  of  the  doors,  and 
the  moulding  inwards.  There  is  a  little  caution 
needed  if  the  deception  is  to  be  complete,  as 

viewed  from  the  outside.  Consider  that  you  require  to  keep  the  pieces  appearing 
as  styles  full  width  from  top  to  bottom  of  door,  but  cutting  the  mouldings  at  an 
angle  where  they  meet  on  the  inner  edges.  For  the  middle  and  lower  rails,  these 
slips  should  be  considerably  broader  than  the  styles  and  top-rail,  but  proportionate 
to  the  size  of  the  door.  While  the  inside  of  the  doors  is  plain  board,  the  outside  has  all 
the  appearance  of  a  proper  framed  door.  Secure  the  case  with  a  lock  on  each  door,  as 
being  most  handy  and  neat.  Obviously  one  or  more  of  the  spaces  e,  /,  g  may  be  fitted 
with  a  nest  of  drawers  for  holding  assorted  nails,  screws,  and  small  tools.  These  drawers 
will  resemble  small  shallow  boxes,  but  differing  from  ordinary  boxes,  inasmuch  as  the 
front  side  is  of  thicker  stuff  than  the  remainder,  because  it  has  to  take  a  blind  dovetail 
(Fig.  515,  p.  282).  The  sides,  back,  and  front  of  the  drawers  are  dovetailed  together,  and 
the  bottom  rests  in  a  rebate  or  groove.  The  dovetails  need  be  only  2  or  3  in  number, 
and  shallow,  as  the  sides  are  thin,  say,  ^-in.  stuff.  The  depth  (height)  of  the  drawer 
should  not  in  general  exceed  3  in.  The  bottom  is  secured  by  a  few  small  brads 
in  the  rebate  or  groove  cut  for  it ;  being  supported  in  this  way,  it  leaves  a  small 
portion  of  the  sides  of  the  drawer  projecting  below  it.  These  form  the  runners  on 
which  the  drawer  slides  in  and  out,  and  which  may  be  lubricated  by  rubbing  with  a 
little  soap  or  domestic  blacklead  (graphite).  Tlie  drawers,  when  more  than  one  in 
depth  (height)  or  width,  are  separated  by  a  narrow  framework  running  back  about  |  of 
the  total  distance  from  front  to  rear. 

Carpenters'  6e?ic7t.— Several  forms  of  bench  which  can  be  purchased  ready  made  have 
been  already  described  (pp.  257-9) ;  but  a  home-made  bench  is  much  less  expensive 
and  affords  good  practice  in  joinery,  accurate  work  being  necessary,  while  the  materials 
are  not  too  dehcate.  Good  sound  deal  is  a  suitable  wood  to  use,  and  the  dimensions 
must  depend  on  circumstances.  Figs.  566,  567,  568  represent  a  bench  described  by  a 
contributor  to  Amateur  Work ;  the  dimensions  refer  to  the  rough  unplaned  wood,  which 
must  all  be  planed  up  with  the  least  possible  waste.  The  legs  a  are  4J  in.  by  2J  in. ; 
the  side  ties  1, 1  in.  thick,  are  let  into  the  legs  f  in.,  and  the  legs  are  let  into  the  ties 


Carpentry — Construction. 


291 


I  in.,  and  both  are  screwed  together  by  stout  2-in.  screws  placed  bo  as  not  to  interfere 
with  each  other.  The  top  c  is  at  least  I2-2  in.  thick,  and  made  up  of  two  pieces,  which 
are  caused  to  lie  close  by  the  following  means.  When  the  frame  (legs  and  ties)  lias  been 
made  quite  firm  and  even,  the  two  11-in.  boards  to  form  the  top  are  planed  smooth  and 


S66. 


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true  along  the  edges  that  are  to  meet ;  the  outer  edge  of  the  board  d  is  screwed  securely 
to  the  frame,  and  wedges  are  put  under  its  inner  edge  to  force  it  up  about  h  in.  from 
the  frame  ;  while  in  this  position  the  other  board  e  is  thrust  as  tightly  as  possible  against 
d  and  has  its  outer  edge  screwed  down  in  a  similar  manner  while  its  inner  edge  is 
raised  §  in.  The  2  boards  thus  form  a  table  with  a  ridge  along  the  centre,  whilst  an 
angular  trough  separates  the  inner  edges  of  the  boards.     In  this  trough  hot  glue  is 


r  2 


292 


Caepentey — Construction. 


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applied,  the  wedges  are  -withdrawn,  and  the  boards  are  gently  pressed  down  quite  flat 
and  secured  by  screws  and  heavy  weights,  the  latter  being  removed  when  the  glue  has 
set.  This  plan  avoids  the  necessity  for  a  powerful  clamp.  The  chop  /  of  the  old- 
fashioned  wooden  bench-vice  is  made  of  beech  or  oak,  2  in.  thick  and  8  in.  wide,  and 
reaches  to  the  lower  edge  of  the  bottom 

side  tie.     The  screw  g  passes  through  568. 

the  chop  /  and  the  top  side  tic,  at  the 
back  of  which  the  nut  should  be 
screwed.  In  the  neck  of  the  screw  is  a 
groove  for  the  reception  of  a  thin  slip 
of  hard  wood  li,  to  be  mortised  through 
tlie  side  of  the  chop,  and  cut  into  shape 
to  fit  half  round  the  neck  of  the  screw 
and  into  the  groove,  serving  to  pull  the 
chop  outwards.  The  chop  is  also  fur- 
nished with  a  guide  bar  i,  about  2  in. 
sq.,  mortised  into  it,  and  sliding  in  a 
guide  box  or  channel  provided  for  it; 
the  angles  of  the  guide  bar  may  be 
planed  off  to  ease  its  movements.  The 
stop  &  consists  of  a  couple  of  wedges 
let  right  through  the  bed  of  the  bench. 
The  bottom  ties  may  support  a  table 
of  ^-in.  boards,  convenient  for  holding 
tools  temporarily.  The  cost  of  the 
complete  bench  is  estimated  not  to  ex- 
ceed 20s.;  say  wood  1.5s.,  bench-screw 

2s.,  screws,  glue,  stop,  &c.,  3s.  Obviously  the  various  etceteras  of  more  perfect  benches 
can  be  added  if  desired  ;  and  there  is  scarcely  any  limit  to  the  uses  which  may  be  made 
of  the  open  spaces  under  the  bed  of  the  bench,  as  situations  for  drawers,  cupboards, 
tool-racks,  or  even  for  a  treadle  to  work  a  small  bench  grindstone,  circular  or  band  saw, 
lathe,  or  other  contrivance  finding  a  suitable  foundation  on  the  firm  frame  of  the 
bench. 

Grindstone  mount. — As  already  stated  (p.  240),  grindstones  may  be  bought  ready 
mounted ;  but  while  the  stone  and  its  iron  handle,  friction  rollers,  and  other  metallic 
accessories  had  best  be  obtained  in  a  complete  form  from  some  reputable  firm  (e.  g.  Booth 
Bros.,  Dublin),  the  wooden  frame  can  be  easily  and  most  cheaply  put  together  (Fig.  569) 
by  the  workman  himself.  A  good  durable  wood  for  the  purpose  is  pitch  pine;  of  this 
will  be  wanted  the  following  pieces :— 2  (a)  3  ft.  by  4  in.  by  3  in.,  1  {h)  4  ft.  by  4J  in.  by 
1  in.,  1  (c)  2  ft.  by  4  in.  by  2  in.,  1  {d)  3  ft.  by  2  in.  by  1  in.,  4  (e)  3  ft.  by  3  in.  by  2  in., 
the  lot  costing  about  3s.  Plane  them  all  true  and  square.  Take  the  2  pieces  o, 
forming  the  long  sides  of  the  top,  and  prepare  them  to  receive,  at  4  in.  from  each  end, 
the  ends  of  the  cross-pieces  formed  by  cutting  c  in  half,  the  joints  being  made  by  dove- 
tailing H  in.  deep.  This  should  make  the  inside  measurement  of  the  top  20  in.  by  Tin. 
The  four  pieces  e  for  the  legs  are  mortised  into  the  frame  sides  a  at  an  angle  of  about 
85°,  the  mortices  and  tenons  being  cut  on  the  bevel  to  suit ;  the  legs  should  be  11|  in. 
apart  at  the  top  and  14  in.  at  the  bottom,  to  give  stability  to  the  structure.  This  is 
further  increased  by  cutting  the  piece  d  into  two  halves,  and  letting  it  into  the  legs 
across  the  ends  at  14  in.  above  the  ground.  The  dovetailed  joints  of  the  frame  and  the 
tenons  of  the  legs  should  be  put  in  with  white-lead  ;  in  addition,  a  stout  3-in.  screw  is 
driven  into  each  dovetail,  and  the  tenon  joints  are  tightened  by  wedges.  The  next  step 
is  to  fix  the  friction  rollers  exactly  in  the  centre  of  each  side  of  the  top  frame,  and  accu- 
rately parallel ;  this  done,  the  axle  has  to  be  fitted  into  the  stone  so  that  it  traverses  it 


Carpentry — Construction. 


293 


precisely  at  right  angles.  This  has  to  be  done  gradually  by  putting  the  axle  loosely  in 
and  plugging  it  round  with  red  deal  wedges  just  inserted  with  slight  pressure.  Then 
put  the  stone  on  the  frame  with  the  ends  of  the  axle  resting  on  the  friction  rollers.  Keep 
the  stone  slowly  turning,  holding  a  rule  against  the  stone,  and  drive  in  wedges  from  botli 
aides  of  the  stone  at  the  4  sides  of  the  axle,  and  also  at  the  4  corners.  The  stone  has  to 
be  true  2  ways,  so  try  it  on  the  side  as  well  as  the  front.    When  you  have  it  as  true  as 

669. 


the  stone  will  allow,  cut  off  the  wedges,  put  on  the  handle,  and  get  some  one  to  tum. 
Get  an  old  plane  iron  or  a  well-tempered  piece  of  steel,  and,  resting  it  on  the  stand,  hold 
it  close  to  the  face  of  the  stone.  Keep  the  stone  dry,  and  set  it  going.  "Work  more  oa 
the  edges  than  the  centre,  so  as  not  to  hollow  out  the  stone.  Keep  at  it  till  you  have  the 
stone  perfectly  true  and  smooth.  Do  not  put  on  a  trough  unless  you  contrive  a  plan  for 
raising  and  lowering  it.  A  can  /  overhead  is  better :  a  meat-tin,  with  a  fine  hole  drilled 
in  the  bottom,  will  do.  A  blacksmith  can  make  a  set  of  fittings  which  will  cost  about 
3s.  gr  is  a  plate  of  J-in.  iron,  7  in.  by  If  in.,  with  4  screw  holes  in  it,  and  with  a  spud 
3  in.  long  riveted  in  the  centre,  at  the  end  of  which  a  small  pin-hole  has  been  drilled. 
h  ia  a.  plate  of  i-in.  iron,  7  in.  by  If  in.,  with  3  screw  holes  in  it,  bent  round  to  an  eye, 
to  fit  the  spud  very  tightly,  i  is  a  plate  of  |-in.  iron,  5  in.  by  1  in.,  with  4  screw  holes 
and  a  "plate,  with  an  eye  in  it,  riveted  in  the  centre,  k  is  the  connecting  rod  for  the 
treadle,  made  out  of  |-in.  round  iron,  about  36  in.  long,  bent  to  a  hook  at  one  end,  and 
to  an  eye  (to  which  i  has  to  be  attached)  at  the  other.  Z  is  a  guard  (in  duplicate)  of  J-iu. 
iron,  17  in.  by  1  in.,  with  4  screw  holes,  bent  as  shown,  which  passes  over  axlu  and 
rollers,  and  screws  to  the  stand.  This  must  be  made  carefully,  just  to  shave  the  axle  but 
well  clear  of  the  rollers,  m  is  a  rest,  made  out  of  J-in.  iron,  15  in.  by  If  in.,  bent  as 
shown,  at  9  in.  from  the  end,  with  2  screw  holes.  Take  the  piece  of  wood  b,  and  cut 
it  as  shown,  half  of  it  the  full  width,  and  the  other  half  2i  in.  wide.  About  J  in.  from 
the  bottom  of  one  of  the  right  side  legs,  screw  g.  Underneath  the  treadle,  at  the  narrow 
end,  screw  h.  Hang  the  connecting  rod  k  on  to  the  axle.  Fix  the  treadle  on  the  spud, 
and  raise  it  about  1  in.  from  the  ground ;  bring  the  rod  and  eye  forward  till  it  meets  the 
treadle,  mark  it  and  screw  it  on.    The  length  of  the  rod,  of  course,  is  an  essential  point 


294 


Carpentry— Construction. 


and  will  depend  on  the  bciglit  of  the  top  of  the  stand  from  the  ground ;  it  must  be 
determined  by  bending  a  piece  of  wire  to  the  necessary  length.  Screw  on  the  guards 
I  over  the  rollers.  The  hook  supplied  with  the  rollers  may,  if  desired,  be  hung  over  the 
axle,  on  the  handle  side,  and  screwed  to  the  wood,  and  the  guards  dispensed  with,  but 
the  guards  are  preferable.  Screw  the  support  for  the  can  /  into  the  stand,  on  the  handle 
side,  between  the  rollers  and  the  stone.  Screw  on  the  rest  m,  so  tliat  the  short  arm  just 
shaves  the  stone.  A  water  guard  made  out  of  back  board  may,  if  wished  for,  be  tacked 
on  under  the  rest  at  one  end,  and  one  to  match  it  at  the  other,  but  they  are  not  essential 
imless  you  have  a  trough.     (W.  J.  Stanford  in  Amateur  Worh.) 

EouGH  FuKNiTL-RE.— Perhaps  the  term  "  furniture  "  is  hardly  appropriate  here  in  its 
commonly  accepted  sense.  Furniture  proper  will  come  under  Cabinet-making  and 
Upholstery  ;  but  there  are  some  few  articles  that  admit  of  being  made  in  a  rough  and 
ready  style,  simply  of  wood,  and  these  will  come  under  immediate  consideration. 

Stejjs.— These  are  shown  in  Fig.  570.  The  sides  (2)  a  may  be  2J-6  ft.  long  (high), 
5  in.  wide,  and  1  in.  thick  ;  their  top  and  bottom  ends  are  bevelled,  so  that  the  finished 
article  shall  stand  in  a  slanting  attitude.    The 

4  steps  h  are  6  in.  wide,  1  in.  thick,  and  increase 
about  1  or  Ih  in.  in  length  as  they  descend,  i.  e. 
supposing  the  topmost  of  the  4  to  be  12  in.  long 
internally,  the  lowermost  might  bo  10^  in. ;  this 
gives  solidity  by  spreading  the  sides.  Each  of 
these  4  steps  b  is  let  about  J  in.  to  |  in.  into  grooves 
cut  in  the  2  side  pieces  o,  and  secured  by  a  few 
nails  or  screws.    As  the  side  pieces  a  are  only 

5  in.  wide  while  the  steps  b  are  6  in.,  there  re- 
mains 1  in.  of  step  projecting  beyond  the  sides ; 
this  projection  comes  in  front,  where  the  step  is 
allowed  to  have  the  full  width  so  as  to  come 
flush  with  the  outside  of  the  side  pieces.  The  top 
step  c  differs  from  all  the  others :  it  is  long 
enough  to  have  about  1  in.  at  each  end  over- 
hanging the  sides ;  it  is  about  2  in.  wider  than 

the  other  steps ;  and  into  it  the  upper  ends  of  the  side  pieces  a  are  mortised,  or  let 
into  a  groove  and  screwed.  When  this  half  of  Ihe  steps  is  complete,  a  piece  of  board  d, 
about  6  in.  wide,  1  in.  thick,  and  of  a  shape  to  fit  flush  with  the  outside  of  the 
side  pieces  a,  is  firmly  screwed  to  the  back  of  the  side  pieces.  To  this  board  d  is 
attached,  by  a  couple  of  stout  flap  hinges,  a  light  frame  e,  formed  by  mortising'  and 
glueing  together  2  upright  strips  2i  in.  wide  by  1  in.  thick  and  2  cross  pieces  3  or 
4  in.  wide  and  1  in.  thick,  in  such  a  manner  that  each  upright  falls  at  the  back  of  one 
of  the  side  pieces,  while  the  upper  cross  piece  comes  immediately  below  d  and  receives 
the  lower  halves  of  the  2  hinges,  and  the  bottom  cross  piece  is  at  the  level  represented  by 
the  cord/,  which  is  attached  to  it  at  one  end  and  to  one  of  the  side  pieces  a  at  the  other. 
The  length  of  the  frame  e  should  correspond  exactly  to  that  of  the  side  pieces  a.  The 
front  top  edges  of  the  steps  are  rounded  ofi".  The  distance  between  the  steps  is  usually 
7-9  in. 

Ladders.— Ihe  simplest  form  of  ladder,  and  suited  only  to  lengths  of  12  ft.  and 
under,  consists  of  2  pieces  of  good  red  deal,  about  2  in.  by  3  in.,  placed  side  by  side  some 
14  in.  apart,  and  joined  by  cross  pieces  2  in.  by  1  in.,  at  intervals  of  8  in.,  the  cross  pieces 
being  generally  let  into  notches  about  J  in.  deep  in  the  side  pieces,  and  securely  nailed 
or  screwed.  For  ladders  of  greater  length  recourse  is  had  to  a  sound  fir  pole  of  the 
requisite  length,  which  is  planed  smooth  all  over,  and  bored  through  at  0-in.  intervals 
with  a  series  of  f  -  or  ^-m.  holes.  The  pole  is  then  sawn  in  half  down  the  centre,  form- 
ing 2  pieces  flut  on  the  inside,  but  rounding  on  the  outside.     Spokes  cut  for  the  puriDOse, 


Carpentry — Construction. 


295 


of  ash  or  oak,  are  next  inserted  by  one  end  into  all  the  holes  in  one  side  piece,  and  their 
free  ends  are  afterwards  similarly  introduced  into  the  holes  of  tlic  fithcr  side  piece.  This 
done,  the  projecting  ends  of  the  "  rounds  "  or  spokes  are  sawn  oif  iliish  with  the  outside 
of  the  side  pieces,  a  chisel  cut  is  made  in  each  of  them  (the  rounds)  in  the  direction  of 
their  length,  and  these  chisel  cuts  are  filled  by  little  wooden  wedges  driven  tight.  Extra 
strength  is  given  in  long  ladders  by  inserting  an  iron  rod  across  under  the  steps  near 
the  top  and  bottom,  and  putting  a  washer  and  nut  on  each  end  to  tighten  up. 

Cask-cradle. — Tiiis  is  simply  a  stout  frame  on  4  legs  9-12  in.  high,  made  of  quarter- 
ing which  may  vary  from  2  in.  sq.  for  small  casks  to  3  in.  sq.  for  larger  ones.  T  ho 
proportions  given  in  the  annexed  illustration  (Fig.  571)  are  suited  to  a  9-gal.  cask. 
This  should  be  22  in.  long,  15  in.  wide,  9  in.  high,  and  made  of  2|-in.  stuff,  of  which  it 


[23  \  /^      a^ 


r,3  2/3 


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V* 


571. 


n 


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a- 


IV 


IS- 


7i 


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■ 

1 

K^ 

■( 

will  consume  about  9J  ft.  run.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  sides  a,  h  are  joined  to  the  legs 
c,  d,  e,  f  by  mortice  and  tenon  joints,  while  the  ends  g,  h  are  dovetailed  into  the  sides  a,  h. 
The  joints  are  secured  by  pins  of  oak  or  red  deal  driven  into  holes  bored  by  a  gimlet. 
The  stand  thus  made  is  only  adapted  to  carry  casks  stood  on  end.  For  holding  them 
steadily  on  their  side,  and  at  tlio  same  time  giving  them  a  tilt  forward  to  allow  all  the 
clear  contents  lying  above  the  sediment  to  be  drawn  out  without  disturbing  the  barrel, 
use  is  made  of  2  pieces  of  board  hollowed  out  to  receive  the  barrel.  For  the  sized  cask 
mentioned  (9-gal.),  15  in.  will  suffice  in  length  and  1  in.  in  thickness  for  each  piece. 
Both  are  prepared  for  letting  down  into  the  frame  by  cutting  out  a  piece  2^  in.  sq.  from 
each  of  the  2  bottom  corners  as  at  a,  and  can  then  be  screwed  to  the  cross  piece  b  of  the 
frame.  Previously  the  cradle  is  formed  by  describing  on  the  piece  of  wood  an  arc  of 
a  circle  corresponding  to  the  size  of  the  cask  at  the  point  where  it  is  to  be  supported. 
Supposing  the  diameter  of  the  cask  to  be  15J  in.,  the  radius  of  the  circle  to  be  described 
will  be  7f  in.,  as  shown.  This  gives  the  correct  arc,  but  as  the  cask  will  lie  sloping  and 
not  flat,  the  foremost  edge  of  the  arc  must  be  shaved  away  till  the  cask  will  rest  on  the 
entire  breadth  of  the  edges  of  the  cradle  c.  For  the  front  cradle  the  board  may  be  6§  in. 
wide,  and  for  the  back  8h  in. 

Tables. — To  begin  with  a  simple  example  and  one  where  but  little  finish  is  necessary, 
recourse  may  be  had  to  a  kitchen  table  described  by  Cabe  in  Amateur  Mechanics.  The  table 
audits  parts  are  shown  in  Figs.  572-58-1 ;  the  top  measures 3  ft.  G  in.  long  by  1  ft.  10  in. 
wide.  For  the  4  legs  get  a  piece  of  clean  yellow  pine,  30  in.  long,  8  in.  broad,  and  2  in. 
thick ;  line  it  out  so  that  each  piece  has  a  taper  (Fig.  574) ;  this  is  called  cutting  one  out  of 
the  other.  The  proper  method  to  line  out  the  wood  is  : — Draw  a  line  down  the  middle, 
which  will  give  2  halves,  each  4  in.  broad  ;  from  the  outer  edge  of  each  half,  mark  2^-  in. 


296 


Carpentry — Construction. 


at  b, and  If  in.  at  c ;  draw  lines  to  these  marks  2  in.  thick,  and  saw  up ;  you  thus  have  4 
pieces  each  tapering  from  2i  in.  to  IJ  in.  Plane  up  the  2  best  adjacent  faces  of  each  piece, 
and  square  them  ;  when  planed,  mark  their  faces  with  pencil.  Set  marking  gauge  to  bare 
2  in.,  and  gauge  from  the  dressed  faces  for  about  6  in.  in  length,  at  the  broad  end  or  top 
of  each  piece.     This  is  the  part  of  the  leg  that  comes  opposite  the  rails,  and  has  no 


5T2 


573. 


o 

O 

- — 1 

d 

taper.  Plane  and  square  the  4  pieces  to  their  gauge  marks,  and  place  them  together  on 
the  bench,  even  at  tlie  bottom.  Mark  from  the  bottom  24  in.,  which  will  be  6  in.  from 
the  top,  and  square  across,  continuing  the  line  round  the  remaining  sides  ;  this  is  the 
line  the  tapering  commences  from.  Set  the  making  gauge  to  1^  in.,  and  gauge  the 
bottom  end  of  each  piece  from  the  dressed  side.  Taper  from  the  lines  mentioned  above, 
stopping  at  the  gauge  marks  on  the  end.  The  legs  will  be  2  in.  square  for  6  in.  of  their 
length,  and  the  remainder  tapered  to  Ih  in.  square  at  the  bottom. 

Plane  and  square  the  back  rail  35  in.  long,  5  in.  broad,  and  1  in,  thick;  2  end  rails 
19  in.  long,  5  in.  broad,  and  1  in.  thick ;  front  rail  over  the  drawer,  35  in.  by  2  in.  by 
I  in. ;  1  under  the  drawer,  35  in.  by  2  in.  by  I  in. ;  2  end  stretchers,  a.  Fig.  573,  19  in. 
by  2  in.  by  1  in. ;  and  2  long  ones,  35  in. 


574. 


577.       57e. 


575. 


C       b 


1^ 


by  2  in.  by  1  in.  These  pieces  prepared, 
draw  in  the  legs  for  mortising.  Place 
them  on  the  bench  in  2  pair.s,  each  pair 
having  a  taper  side  up,  and  the  remain- 
ing taper  sides  opposite  each  other,  as  in 
Fig.  575,  the  parallel  portions  of  all  4 
lying  close,  and  the  bottoms  of  each  pair 
about  1  in.  apart.  2  mortices  are  made  in 
each  leg  to  receive  the  5-in.  rail.  First 
draw  a  line  across  all  4  at  the  beginning 
of  the  taper  a,  set  a  pair  of  compasses  to 
\\  in.,  and  mark  from  a  to  6;  mark  1  in. 

from  }}  to  r,  then  H  in.  with  the  compasses  l^J  I 

tod.  During  this  operation  the  legs  should 
be  clipped  by  their  ends  in  a  hand  screw, 

to  prevent  shifting.  Draw  in  the  mortices  for  stretchers,  by  making  the  line  e  6  in. 
from  the  bottom,  and  /  \\  in.  higher  up.  Set  the  mortice  gauge  to  |  in.  mortice  line, 
and  set  the  head  \  in.  from  the  inner  spike.  Gauge  with  this  all  the  mortices  both  for 
rails  and  stretchers,  from  the  marked  faces  of  the  legs.  Square  over  1  pair  of  the  legs 
for  the  5-in.  long  or  back  rail,  which  will  be  on  the  remaining  taper  side,  as  in  Fig.  576, 
and  the  other  pair  square  across  for  a  rail  beneath  the  drawer,  1  in.  thick,  the  mortice 


d 

fi 

\ 

L 

1 

b 

a}' 

"T 

F 

1 

f 

A 

\ 

\ 

\ 

Carpentry— Construction.  297 

being  J^  in.  less  than  the  thickness  of  rail  (see  Fig.  577).  Gauge  for  mortices  as  before, 
from  the  marked  faces,  as  in  the  case  of  Fig.  577  from  both  faces,  as  there  are  2  mortices 
in  the  breadtli. 

Place  the  legs  for  mortising  on  the  bench  as  in  Fig.  575.  Mortise  for  the  rails  1 J  in. 
deep,  and  for  the  stretchers  IJ  iu.  deep.  When  mortised  clean  out,  blaze  with  a  -j^.j-in. 
chisel,  taking  care  not  to  bruise  the  edge  of  the  mortices,  which  should  be  smoothed  a 
little  on  the  sides  with  a  chisel,  but  not  pared  wider,  or  they  will  be  too  wide  for  tenons. 

Draw  in  the  rails  and  stretchers — first  of  all  for  the  2  ends,  as  they  are  cramped 
together  first.  Draw  in  the  two  end  rails  IG  in.  long  between  the  shoulders :  this  will 
give  2  tenons  IJ  in.  long.  Draw  in  the  back  rail  and  the  2  front  rails  over  and  under 
the  drawers,  32  in.  long.  This  "  drawing-iu  "  means  marking  them  across  with  square 
and  cutting  knife  for  shouldering.  Place  the  2  end  rails  edge  up  on  the  bench,  mark 
off  IG  in.,  and  square  both  across.  Then  from  these  lines  square  and  mark  both  sides 
of  each  rail.  The  cutting  knife  is  best  for  tliis  marking,  making  a  good  deep  cut,  which 
serves  as  a  channel  or  guide  for  the  dovetail  saw. 

Though  tlie  shoulders  of  the  5-in.  rails  are  square  across,  it  will  be  evident  that  the 
shoulders  of  the  stretchers  a,  Fig.  573,  are  bevelled,  arising  from  the  taper  on  the  feet 
or  legs,  and  the  stretcher  is  also  somewhat  longer  than  the  rail.  Now  to  find  this  length, 
and  this  bevel,  proceed  as  follows : — To  find  the  length,  place  a  pair  of  the  legs  together 
with  a  hand  screw  at  top,  mortices  together ;  at  the  stretcher  mortice  they  will  be  apart 
about  f  in.,  and  this  is  the  extra  length  over  the  rails.  To  find  the  bevel,  square  across 
any  part  of  the  taper  of  a  leg  from  the  outer  face  with  bench-square  and  pencil,  and  with 
a  bevel  square  or  bevel  stock  set  the  blade  to  this  line.  The  stock  being  on  the  inner 
or  taper  side  of  leg,  the  bevel  thus  found  is  that  for  stretcher  shoulders,  the  bevel  stock 
being  worked  from  upper  edge  of  stretcher.  The  shoulders  being  marked,  shift  the 
head  of  mortice  gauge  i  in.  nearer  the  spikes,  and  gauge  rails  and  stretchers  from  the 
outer  face.   Thus  they  will  be  J  in.  within  the  surface  of  the  legs  when  cramped  together. 

The  rail  under  the  drawer  is  flush  with  the  legs,  and  must  be  gauged  same  as  the 
mortices,  then  shifted  to  fit  the  second  or  inner  mortice  ;  see  Fig.  577.  For  this  reason 
the  rails  and  legs  should  be  gauged  togetlier,  as  it  saves  time  and  shifting  of  the  gauge. 
The  shoulders  are  cut  in  with  dovetail  saw,  and  the  tenons  are  ripped  with  a  tenon  saw. 
Then  the  rails  have  a  piece  cut  out  for  the  bridge  in  the  mortices,  and  a  rebate  of  1  in.  at 
the  upper  edge,  which  will  leave  2  tenons  a  little  over  1|  in.  broad.  They  should  be  a 
little  less  in  length  than  the  depth  of  mortices.  The  tenoning  being  finished,  the  2 
stretchers  a.  Fig.  573,  are  mortised  for  long  stretchers  b,  Fig.  572.  These  mortices  are 
shown  at  a,  Fig.  573,  where  the  tenons  come  through  and  are  wedged.  The  long 
stretchers  are  6  in.  apart,  and  the  mortising  is  exactly  as  that  for  the  rail  below  drawers 
where  let  into  legs,  and  also  at  the  division  between  the  drawers.  Tliis  being  done,  the 
insides  of  the  legs  are  hand-planed  and  sandpajjered,  as  also  the  faces  of  5-in.  rails  and 
stretchers  all  round. 

Now  the  ends  are  ready  to  cramp  together.  Cut  a  little  off  the  corner  of  each  tenon, 
and  see  that  they  enter  their  respective  mortices  before  glueing.  The  glue  should  be 
thin,  and  while  one  heats  the  tenons  at  a  fire  another  puts  glue  in  the  mortices  witii  a 
bit  of  lath.  A  very  little  glue  will  do  on  the  tenons.  The  object  of  heating  is  to  prevent 
the  glue  getting  chilled.  In  cramping  up,  protect  the  work  with  bits  of  wood  under  the 
jaws  of  tiie  cramps.  When  cramped,  see  that  it  is  square  by  gauging  with  a  rod  from 
corner  to  corner,  diagonally  between  stretcher  and  rail  ;  also  see  that  it  is  out  of  twist. 
If  the  work  is  well  done,  the  cramp  may  come  off  at  once,  as  the  shoulders  will  stay 
close.  If  ill  performed,  no  amount  of  cramping  will  ever  make  it  a  good  job.  Another 
important  thing  in  cramping  these  table  ends,  and  in  all  kinds  of  mortised  framing,  is  to 
see  that  the  legs  are  not  pressed  out  of  the  plane  of  the  rails.  If  the  jaws  of  the  cramp 
are  kept  too  high,  then  the  legs  are  slanted  inwards.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  cramp 
be  too  low,  the  legs  are  turned  outwards,  so  that  the  point  of  pressure  should  be  opposite 


298  Caepentry — Construction. 

the  centre  of  the  thickness  of  the  rails.  "\\Tien  cramping,  place  a  straight-edge  across 
the  2  legs  ;  the  straight-edge  should  touch  the  legs  on  the  whole  of  their  breadth — then 
they  will  not  be  winding. 

The  2  ends  being  framed  together,  the  next  operation  is  to  fill  them  in  for  drawer 
guides.  These  consist  of  pieces  of  wood  2  in.  broad,  and  thick  enough  to  flush  the  table 
legs,  fitted  in  between  the  legs,  and  glued  to  the  rails,  being  kept  iiush  with  the  bottom 
edge  of  rail.  They  should  be  fixed  down  with  hand  screws,  and  laid  aside  for  an  hour 
or  so,  after  which  they  are  planed  straight  and  flush  with  the  legs.  The  tops  of  the  2 
front  legs  are  cut  off  flush  with  the  edge  of  the  rails,  and  planed  ;  then  the  2-in.  rail 
over  the  drawers  is  drawn  in  same  length  as  that  under,  and  a  dovetail  made  on  each 
end  about  1^  in.  long.  These  dovetails  are  drawn  on  the  tops  of  the  legs,  and  then  cut 
out  to  the  depth  required — namely,  f  in.  The  space  from  this  to  the  2  mortices  under 
the  drawer  is  the  length  to  make  the  short  upright  division,  or  fore-edge  between  the 
drawers.  This  has  a  double  tenon  each  end,  same  as  for  the  stretchers,  the  2  rails  being 
mortised  to  receive  it ;  see  Fig.  578,  which  is  the  frame  without  drawers  or  top.  The 
rail  below  the  drawers  is  mortised  to  receive  the  cross  rail  a  (Fig.  578),  which  is  a  rest 
for  both  drawers  It  is  3  in.  broad,  and  same  thickness  as  front  rail  ;  one  end  is  tenoned 
to  enter  the  front  rail,  while  the  opposite  or  back  end  has  a  dovetail,  and  is  kt  in  flush 
into  the  under  edge  of  the  back  rail  ;  its  position  is  from  front  to  back,  and  in  the 
centre  of  the  frame.  The  mortice  and  tenon  being  prepared,  the  proper  length  of  this 
rail  will  be  found  when  the  frame  is  cramped  up,  and  stood  on  its  legs. 

To  find  the  length  of  the  long  stretchers,  place  the  2  ends  together,  with  the  mortices 
towards  each  other  ;  catch  them  in  a  hand  screw  at  top,  when  you  can  measure  the  gap 
between  the  end  stretchers  :  this  is  the  length  that  the  long  stretchers  are  to  be  in 
excess  of  the  rails  at  back  and  front.  Tenon  the  long  stretchers  to  fit  the  mortices  in 
cross  ones  ;  all  mortising  and  tenoning  being  done,  hand  plane  all  the  parts  that  cannot 
afterwards  be  reached,  before  glueing  up.  Being  now  ready  to  glue  the  frame  up,  set  a 
cramp  to  about  3  ft.  2  in.,  which  will  allow  of  2  pieces  of  wood  to  protect  the  job.  The 
back  rail,  front  rail  below  drawer,  and  2  long  stretchers  all  receive  glue,  and  are  fitted 
in  their  places  at  once.  Insert  them  all  into  one  end,  first  with  the  hands,  then  turn 
them  over,  and  insert  them  in  the  other  end  ;  now  rap  them  nearly  home  with  a  piece 
of  wood  and  a  hammer  ;  then  apply  the  cramp.  It  is  almost  necessary  for  2  persons  to 
be  at  this  part  of  the  job,  one  heating  tenons,  and  afterwards  assisting  with  the  cramp. 
Cramp  all  the  shoulders  close,  wedging  the  long  stretchers  with  the  cramp  in  the  centre 
between  them. 

Glue  and  insert  the  short  upright  rail  between  the  drawers,  then  above  this  the  rail 
with  2  dovetails  ;  press  the  short  upright  home  with  a  small  cramp  or  a  hand  screw  on 
either  side  of  the  projecting  tenons,  and  drive  in  wedges  as  explained  in  glueing  the 
long  stretchers.  Eap  home  the  dovetailed  ends,  and  drive  a  2-in.  nail  through  them  into 
each  leg.  You  will  now  find  the  correct  length  of  the  rail  across  the  centre,  which  fit  by 
dovetailing  into  back  rail.  Make  2  bearing  fillets,  1  in.  sq.,  and  nail  them  inside  of 
each  end  and  level  with  the  front  rail,  when  they  will  be  on  the  same  level  with  the 
centre  bearing  rail,  and  support  the  drawers  properly  on  both  sides.  The  2  drawers  arc 
made  with  fronts  |  in.  thick,  and  are  fitted  closely  into  the  apertures  to  receive  them. 
Mark  the  front  on  the  outside  thus,  /y,  when  you  will  always  know  the  end  to  be  kept 
uppermost.  Plane  the  bottom  edge  first,  then  make  one  end  square,  assuming  that  the 
aperture  is  rectangular.  Place  the  front  against  the  aperture,  with  the  squared  end  in 
its  place,  and  draw  the  other  on  the  inside  with  drawpoint.  Saw  oif  and  square  this 
end  with  the  plane  on  the  shooting-board.  Having  got  the  ends  to  the  exact  length, 
place  the  front  against  the  aperture  again,  letting  the  lower  edge  enter  a  little  waj'. 
Draw  again  along  the  upper  edge  inside,  and  plane  down  to  this  mark.  These  fronts 
should  fit  tight,  and  at  present  it  is  sufficient  if  they  just  enter.  Cut  out  4  sides  of  |-in. 
wood,  dress  and  square  the  ends  on  the  shooting-board,  ^  in.  shorter  than  the  width  from 


Cakpentey — Construction. 


299 


face  of  rail  to  inside  of  back  rail.  These  4  sitleg  may  be  at  present  a  little  broader  than 
the  finished  side.  Groove  the  sides  and  front  with  a  drawer-bottom  plane,  and  make  li 
backs  exactly  same  length  as  fronts,  and  1  in.  narrower  ;  these  are  also  *  in.  thick,  and 
have  no  grooves  like  the  sides  have.  Being  ready  to  dovetail,  set  the  cutting  gauge  to  a 
shaving  less  than  the  thickness  of  sides  ;  gauge  all  tlio  pieces  with  tliis — the  fronts  on 
the  inner  face  and  also  on  the  end  wood,  gauging  from  the  inside  ;  then  the  backs  and 
sides  on  both  sides.     Mark  on  the  fronts  4  pins,  as  in  Fig.  579,  and  on  the  backs  3  pins. 


5T9. 


sso. 


as  in  Fig.  5S0,  cutting  down  to  the  gauge  lines.     The  backs  are  cut  from  both  bides,  as 
is  all  "  through"  dovetailing,  while  the  fronts  are  only  cut  to  a  depth  of  |  in. 

To  draw  the  sides  for  dovetailing  :  Place  a  pair  of  sides  in  position,  groove  to  groove 
(Fig.  581),  and,  taking  a  front,  stand  on  the  end  of  the  side  flush  with  gauge  line,  and 
flush  on  grooved  edge.  Draw  close  to  each  pin  with  the  drawpoint,  reverse  the  front, 
and  draw  on  other  side  same  way.  Turn  the  sides  end  for  end  and  draw  the  backs  in 
the  same  way,  having  each  back  marked  so  that  you  make  no  mistake  when  fitting  the 
drawers  together.    Observe  by  Fig.  582  that  in  drawing  the  back  pins,  the  back  is  placed 


581. 


582. 


533. 


LiLnjU 


even  with  the  groove  in  the  side,  as  the  bottom  slips  in  under  it — in  other  words,  the 
groove  in  the  sides  is  clear  of  the  back  to  receive  the  bottom.  The  pieces  to  be  taken 
out  of  the  sides  are  ripped  with  a  dovetail  saw,  and  cut  out  with  a  -f-in.  chisel ;  these 
pieces  are  3  at  the  back  end,  and  2  at  the  front,  with  the  2  corners  cut  out  as  in  Fig. 
583.  In  dovetailing,  it  must  be  observed  that  the  thickness  taken  by  the  cut  of  the  saw 
must  come  off  the  piece  to  be  cut  out — in  other  words,  the  piece  cut  out  is  exactly  the 
portion  within  the  drawpoint  lines,  so  that  the  pins  from  which  they  were  drawn  will  fit 
exactly  in  the  openings  thus  made.  In  "  through  "  dovetailing,  which  is  cut  from  both 
sides,  the  chisel  is  inclined  very  slightly  to  cut'inwards,  which  allows  the  sharp  edges  to 
come  closely  and  neatly  against  the  adjoining  part  when  glued  up  ;  this  is  called  making 
it  "lenn"  in  the  centre.  The  same  remark  applies  in  dovetails  not  tlirough,  as  on  the 
drawer  fronts,  which  are  slightly  "  lean  "  at  the  bottom  both  ways— that  is,  both  from 


300  Carpentry — Construction. 

face  to  end.  The  dovetails  are  cleaned  neatly  out  with  narrow  chisels,  and  the  corners 
of  the  sides  pared,  after  sawing  otf,  to  the  gauge  lines. 

The  drawer  stutf,  all  dovetailed,  lias  to  be  planed  on  the  inside  and  sandpapered  ; 
then  try  if  the  fronts  and  backs  enter  their  respective  sides  ;  after  which  glue  them  as 
follows,  and  this  rule  will  hold  good  in  all  work  of  a  similar  kind  : — Take  a  drawer  front 
and  the  corresponding  side,  put  some  glue  with  a  small  brush  into  the  recesses  in  end  of 
front,  taking  care  to  allow  none  to  get  on  to  the  inner  face ;  put  a  little  on  the  end  wood 
of  the  side  and  on  the  2  cut-out  corners  ;  stand  the  front  on  the  bench,  glued  end  up, 
enter  the  side,  and  rap  it  home  with  hammer  and  a  bit  of  wood ;  turn  it  over  on  the 
bench,  the  side  standing  vertically  ;  see  that  the  junction  inside  is  perfectly  close  ;  apply 
a  large  square  inside  and  press  the  side  to  agree  with  the  square.  This  done,  take  the 
back  belonging  to  this  drawer,  put  glue  on  the  pins  to  enter  this  same  side,  enter  it  and 
rap  home  as  with  the  front.  Glue  the  remaining  end  of  front  and  back,  and  rap  on  the 
remaining  side.  See  that  the  inside  junctions  are  all  close.  Lay  the  drawer  flat  down 
on  the  bench,  and  square  it  with  a  foot  rule,  applied  from  corner  to  corner. 

When  both  drawers  are  glued,  lay  them  aside,  and  prepare  the  bottoms.     These  are 

of  |-in.  wood,  and  if  not  broad  enough  may  be  jointed  with  |-in.  match-ploughs.     To  do 

this  jointing,  mark  the  best  side  of  each  piece,  place  in  the  bench-vice  lug  with  marked 

side  next  you,  plane  straight  with  half-long.     It  is  usual  to  work  the  "  feather  "  in  the 

narrower  piece,  if  there  is  a  broad  and  a  narrow ;  it  is  also  usual  to  work  the  feather 

first.     The  groove  and  feather  made,  rap  the  joint  up  dry  to  see  it  is  close.     If  it  is  a 

perfect  joint,  use  thin  glue  made  liy  dipping  the  bru^h  into  the  boiler  of  the  glue-pot. 

Apply  the  glue  directly  with  one  stroke  of  brush,  and  rap  the  pieces  together  very 

smartly  with  a  mallet ;  they  should  need  no  cramping.     When  glueing  of  the  bottoms  is 

set,  plane  up  both  sides  with  half-long,  one  edj^e  and  one  end  squared  to  each  other  ; 

hand  plane  inside  of  each  bottom.     Take  the  drawer  bottom — plane,  and  make  a  gauge 

by  running  a  groove  in  a  piece  of  wood  -i  in.  or  5  in.  long.     Lay  the  bottoms  face  down  on 

the  bench,  and  bevel  the  edges  now  uppermost  for  about  li  in.  inwards,  bringing  the 

thickness  down  to  the  size  of  groove  in  gauge  (Fig.  584),  in  which  g  is  the  gauge  and  b 

the  bottom.     This  done  on  front  ed^e  and  one  end,  find 

684 
the  length  to  cut  the  bottom,  by  placing  one  corner  in 


the  groove  at  back  of  the  drawer  ;  mark  at  the  bottom       , L__       _ 


of  opposite  groove.     From  this  mark  cut  the  bottom  to 

the  square,  and  bevel  the  back  to  fit  gauge  as  before, 

sandpaper  the  bottoms    inside,   and  before    driving  them  into  their  places,  try  that 

they  enter  both  grooves  by  inserting  the  bottom,  both  back  and  front  edges,  because, 

if  wider  at  the  back,  they  will  burst  or  split  the  sides.     All  being  correct,  drive  them 

down  gently  with  mallet,  and  see  that  they  enter  the  groove  in  the  front  to  the  full 

depth  ;  see  also  that  the  sides  are  perfectly  straight  and  not  bulged  in  the  middle. 

To  block  the  bottoms,  glue  on  fillets  %  in.  broad,  and  \  in.  thick.  These  are  fitted  to 
the  drawers  along  the  bottom  and  side,  and  must  be  bevelled  to  the  required  angle. 
They  are  well  glued,  and  rubbed  in  with  a  motion  lengthway,  when  they  will  take  hold. 
If  they  do  not  lie  close  along  their  length,  cut  them  into  2  or  more  pieces  before  glueing ; 
2  or  3  short  blockings  of  this  kind  are  also  glued  on  behind  the  front ;  these  may  be  3  in. 
or  4  in.  apart ;  whereas  those  on  the  sides  are  continuous,  being  subject  to  wear  in  after 
use.  These  blockings  should  harden  for  G  or  7  hours,  after  which  drive  3  nails  about  \\ 
in.  long  through  the  bottom  into  the  back. 

Fit  the  drawers  to  the  table  frame  by  planing  with  jack  and  half-long.  First  reduce 
the  breadth  of  the  sides  to  enter  easily,  then  place  a  piece  of  board  across  the  bench, 
catch  the  drawer  in  the  bench  lug,  and  let  the  side  rest  upon  this  board.  Plane  both 
sides  and  try  into  frame :  when  they  push  in  with  an  easy  motion,  but  not  loose  enough 
to  shake,  they  may  be  hand  planed,  the  back  dressed  off,  and  the  front  planed  to  stand 
even  with  the  face  of  the  frame.     They  must  be  stopped  at  the  back  by  glueing  small 


Carpentry — Construction. 


301 


685. 


pieces  of  wood  to  the  bnck  rail.  Tusli  tlie  drawer  in  J  in.  beyond  tlio  fuee  of  the  frame, 
and  fit  the  bits  of  wood  in  the  space  loft  at  the  back.  A  guiding  fillet  is  also  fitted 
between  the  2  drawers  and  running  from  the  short  upright  to  the  back  ;  this  should 
not  be  too  tight.  The  drawers  should  pull  out  and  in  easily,  and  without  sticking  or 
shaking. 

The  table  frame  is  cleaned  off  with  the  hand  plane  in  all  parts,  the  tops  of  the  back 
legs  are  cut  off,  and  the  upper  edges  of  rails  planed,  to  receive  the  top.  The  frame  is 
3  ft.  long  by  1  ft.  8  in.  broad,  and  the  top  3  ft.  6  in.  by  1  ft.  10  in.  It  is  planed  both 
sides  -with  half-long,  and  squared,  then  nailed  down  to  frame  at  back  and  ends  ;  the 
front  is  fastened  by  4  screws  passing  upwards  through  the  rail  over  the  drawers.  The 
top  is  planed  flat  to  agree  -with  a  btraight-edge,  hand  planed,  and  sandpapered  ;  each 
corner  is  rounded  off  and  sandpapered.  The  nail  holes  in  the  top  are  stopped  with 
white  putty.  The  bottoms  of  the  legs  are  cut  all  to  the  same  length.  Turn  tlie  table 
feet  up,  take  2  straight-edges,  and  place  one  across  each  pair  of  feet  ;  the  eye  will  at 
once  detect  whether  the  legs  are  all  one  lengtli  or  not.  Cut  a  little  off  the  foot  that 
carries  the  straight-edge  too  high.  Bore  a  |-in.  hole  in  the  centre  of  each  drawer  front 
for  a  2J-in.  patent  zebra  knob. 

A  modified  form  of  kitchen  table  is  shown  in  Fig,  585.  The  slab  a  is  li  in.  thick  ; 
the  legs  b  are  2  ft.  2^  in.  high 
from  floor  to  slab,  3  in.  square, 
and  are  slightly  bevelled  inside ; 
the  rails  c  are  4^  in.  deep,  and  are 
attached  at  each  end  d  by  means  of 
a  double  tenon,  let  into  mortices 
in  the  legs  to  the  depth  indicated 
by  e,  the  inner  half  of  the  tenon 
shown  by  the  line  f  on  d  entering 
the  leg  only  so  far  as  the  line  g 
on  e.  The  mortice  and  tenon  joints 
are  glued  and  pinned  with  wooden 
pegs.  The  top  is  fastened  down 
to  the  frame  by  one  of  the  following 
methods: — (1)  It  maybe  screwed 
to  the  rail  c  as  at  /*,  by  making 
a  small  recess  in  c  and  driving 
the  screw  somewhat  diagonally, 
assuming  c  to  be  stout  enough  for 
the  purpose ;  (2)  it  may  be  nailed 

or  screwed  down  from  above,  the  holes  in  the  slab  being  afterwards  stopped  with  putty  ; 
(3)  it  may  be  secured  by  a  number  of  wooden  buttons  placed  about  1  ft.  apart  all  round 
it,  and  each  revolving  on  a  screw  as  at  ?,  the  flange  on  the  button  h  fitting  into  a  groove  I 
cut  in  the  rail  c,  this  plan  jjresenting  the  advantage  that  the  top  may  be  removed  and 
refixed  at  will.  The  rail  c  is  generally  "  blocked,"  or  strengthened  by  a  series  of 
rectangular  wooden  blocks  m  glued  into  the  angle  between  the  top  a  and  rail  c. 

The  construction  of  a  gipsy  table  is  a  very  simple  matter.  This  form  of  table 
consists  of  a  top,  usually  round,  supported  on  3  legs,  which  converge  from  near  the 
margin  of  the  top  to  a  wooden  ball  about  midway  in  height  from  the  top  to  the  floor  ; 
from  this  ball  start  3  other  legs  diverging  so  as  to  constitute  a  tripod  stand.  The  top 
of  the  table  is  built  up  of  boards  pinned  together,  and  is  usually  provided  with  a 
fringed  cover.  Underneath  the  top  is  attached  a  second  thickness  of  wood  to  receive 
the  upper  ends  of  the  3  top  legs.  The  lower  ends  of  the  top  legs  and  the  upper  ends  of 
the  bottom  legs  fit  into  holes  in  the  ball,  and  are  secured  by  glueing. 

One  more  example  of  the  arrangements  adopted  for  supporting  table  tops  must 


302 


Carpentry — Construction. 


PuflSce.  This  consists  in  having  crossed  legs  (x-shaped)  at  each  end  of  an  oblong  top, 
see  Fig.  586,  a.  The  top  is  formed  in  the  usual  manner  of  f-in.  boards  joined  up  by 
tongueing  and  grooving  and  by  glueing,  with  2  or  3  cross  ledges  h  screwed  on  beneath 
to  give  additional  strength.  These  cross  pieces  shoiild  come  so  near  the  ends  of  the 
top  a  (say  within  6  in.)  as  to  afford  space  for  the  legs  c  (top  ends)  to  abut  against  them, 
and  be  flanked  in  turn  by  a  rail  d  without  the  rail  coming  within  say  2  in.  of  the  edge  of 


586. 


3       C 


ct 


% 


9 


the  top.  The  legs  c  are  of  red  deal,  about  3  ft.  long,  6  in.  wide,  and  \\  in.  thick,  and 
are  halved  into  one  another  where  they  cross.  They  are  held  in  position  by  the  rail  d 
and  the  bar  e  at  top,  the  latter  being  run  the  full  length  of  the  table  and  pinned  outside 
at  each  end/;  and  by  a  second  stouter  rail  g  passing  through  the  legs  at  the  point  where 
they  are  halved  into  each  other,  and  held  by  a  pin  at  h.  It  is  obvious  that  any  desired 
ornamentation  by  carving,  &c.,  can  be  given  to  the  legs  and  rails. 

Seats. — Seats  are  of  miscellaneous  kimls,  ranging  from  rustic  garden  chairs  to  iron 
benches  and  the  most  elegant  specimens  of  artistic  furniture.  Here  attention  will  be 
K-onfined  to  simple  forms. 

Box  stool. — The  box  stool  or  ottoman  consists  of  a  box  without  a  bottom  and  with  a 
stuffed  lid,  supported  on  knob  feet.  One  is  shown  in  Fig.  587.  The  box  a  is  formed  of 
4  pieces  of  wood,  12-15  in.  long,  and  3  in. 

wide,  dovetailed  together.     The  top  h  is  ^^^• 

nailed  on  so  as  to  cover  the  whole  and 
overlap  \  in.  all  round ;  this  supports  the 
stuffing  c  covered  by  a  piece  of  carpet  or 
woolwork.  The  interior  of  the  box  is  left 
empty.  There  is  no  complete  bottom,  but 
a  wide  strip  of  wood  d  is  nailed  all  round 
the  bottom  edge  of  the  sides,  and  into  this 

are  screwed  the  4  knob  feet  e.  A  bead  /  may  be  run  round  in  the  angle  between  the 
strip  d  and  the  sides  of  the  box.  The  stuffed  top  c  may  be  made  separately  and  after- 
wards attached  by  screws  from  the  inside. 

3-legged  stool.— This  is  simplicity  itself.  The  top  or  seat  proper  consists  of  a 
circular  slab  of  wood  \\  in.  tliick  having  3  1-in.  holes  bored  through  it  at  equidistant 
intervals  about  \\  in.  from  the  edge.  Into  these  holes  are  driven  the  stout  rods  forming 
the  legs,  the  holes  having  been  bored  somewhat  sloping  so  that  the  legs  may  diverge 
outwards  to  give  solidity.  When  the  legs  are  driven  in  quite  tight,  the  portion  which 
projects  above  the  seat  is  sawn  off,  and  a  wooden  wedge  is  driven  firmly  into  a  slit  cut 
in  the  top  of  each  leg  by  means  of  a  chisel.  If  the  legs  are  less  than  1  ft.  high,  no 
rails  will  be  needed ;  but  if  more,  they  should  be  strengthened  by  joining  them  together 
with  |-in.  wooden  rods  let  into  holes  bored  in  the  legs  at  about  \  the  height  of  the 
seat  from  the  ground,  and  secured  by  glue. 


Carpentry — Construction. 


303 


Cliairs. — A  short  description  may  bo  given  here  of  the  general  principles  underlying 
the  coustruction  of  chairs,  with  some  illustrated  examples  of  the  commoner  and  rougher 
kinds,  showing  how  they  are  made  and  repaired.  Briefly,  a  chair  consists  of  a  more 
or  less  flat  "seat"  or  slab  supported  at  a  convenient  sitting  heiglit  above  the  floor 
on  a  wooden  framework  formed  of  4  legs  joined  by  cross  rails ;  on  one  side,  these  legs 
are  prolonged  upwards  to  constitute  the  "  back,"  and,  on  each  of  the  sides  adjoining 
the  back,  they  may  be  similarly  heightened  to  produce  "  arms."  The  framework  may 
be  plain  or  ornamented,  and  the  materials  of  the  seat  may  be  wood,  cane,  rushes, 
or  a  " stuffing"  (horsehair,  flock,  &c.),  enclosed  in  a  textile  or  leather  covering. 

A  very  cheap  and  simple  kind  of  chair  known  as  the  "  cane-bottomed,"  is  shown 
in  Fig.  588.  a  is  the  back,  cut  out  of  2  pieces  of  wood  to  the  required  shape,  and 
strengthened  by  2  flat  rails  b  completing  the  back  of  the  seat,  and  by  a  round  rail  c 


583. 


^     b^ 

... 

.... 

zzZ^^JZ^ 

-,i. 

a, 

a 

^ 

3         e-       c 

z> 

a 

i 

0 

1- 

a 

o 

^^ 

_ 

^ 


\    :.                   d 

■  — h — !■ 

:  'h 

completing  the  back  of  the  legs.  The  seat  consists  of  a  front  rail  d,  back  rail  e,  and  2  side 
rails  /.  The  front  legs  g  are  similarly  joined  by  round  rails  /*,  and  let  into  the  front  rail  d 
of  the  seat.  The  front  legs  g  are  connected  with  the  back  legs  i  by  means  of  round  rails  h. 
The  joints  are  all  made  by  mortices  and  tenons,  and  are  well  glued,  and  clamped. 
There  is  a  tendency  in  light  chairs  of  this  description  to  suffer  injury  in  the  frame, 
generally  in  one  of  the  pieces  /  near  where  they  join  the  back  rail  e.  One  good  plan 
for  repairing  such  an  injury  is  to  introduce  a  strij)  of  wood  I  from  beneath,  just  long 
enough  to  fit  tightly  between  the  2  legs  i,  and  to  fasten  it  by  screws  into  the  back 
frame  e  and  both  sides  /.  Another  efficient  method  is  to  screw  a  small  angle-iron  m 
to  the  injured  frame  and  to  the  leg  nearest  it.  As  implied  by  its  name,  tlie  seat  of  this 
chair  is  formed  by  stretching  strips  of  rattan  cane  across  it  in  the  manner  of  a  network, 
attaching  them  to  holes  bored  for  the  purpose  in  the  frame  of  the  seat,  and  securing 
them  by  little  wooden  pegs  driven  into  the  holes.  It  may  be  mentioned  that  the  front 
part  of  the  frame  of  the  seat  should  be  wider  than  the  back,  and  made  rounding  in 
shape  ;  the  front  legs  may  be  perpendicular,  but  the  back  legs  should  diverge  gradually 
towards  the  feet. 

The  Windsor,  kitchen,  or  wooden  seated-chair  is  even  simpler  than  the  last,  the 
seat  consisting  simply  of  a  somewhat  dished-out  slab  of  wood,  attaclied  to  the  front 
legs  by  having  them  inserted  in  holes  bored  into  it,  and  to  the  back  by  mortising. 
The  seat  should  be  of  elm  and  the  back  and  legs  of  beech.  These  chau-s,  though 
strong,  are  liable  to  injury  from  being  used  for  improper  purposes,  such  as  carrying 
clothes  while  drying,  which  causes  warping  and  shrinkage,  and  consequent  looseness  of 
joints.  Such  evils  may  bo  remedied  by  reglueing  and  clamping  tightly  till  fixed.  A 
broken  rail  may  be  replaced  by  a  new  one,  but  a  broken  leg  is  generally  beyond  anything 


304 


Caepentry— Construction. 


approaching  neat  repair.  Frequently  one  corner  of  the  seat  will  split  away  at  the  line 
where  the  leg  is  inserted.  This  may  be  put  right  by  temporarily  removing  the  leg,  and 
boring  (with  a  centre-bit)  3  or  4  holes  laterally  in  tlie  wood,  from  the  edge  towards 
the  centre  of  the  seat,  filling  them  with  wooden  pegs  dipped  in  good  hot  glue,  and 
clamping  till  quite  dry  and  firm,  when  the  leg  may  be  reintroduced  into  its  place. 

Washstand. — A  rough  handy  washatand  of  simple  design  is  shown  in  Fig.  589.. 
The  legs  a,  of  2-in.  or  2J-in.  wood,  are  shown  square,  but  may  of  course  be  rounded  at 
the  corners  by  a  plane,  or  completely  turned  in  a  lathe,  in  the  intervals  between 
the  joints,  this  being  done  before 

the   mortices    are  cut.       These  .^s9. 

latter  will  be  2  in  each  inner 
face  of  each  leg — an  upper  to 
take  the  tenons  on  the  bearers  h 
that  carry  the  top  c,  and  a  lower 
to  receive  the  supports  d  e  of  the 
drawer  /.  The  mortices  should 
be   cut    deeply    but    not   quite 


through  the  legs.  The  bearers 
h  d  are  3  in.  wide  and  §-|  in. 
thick,  placed  edge  upwards ;  e 
are  only  1^  in.  wide  and  laid  flat. 
All  are  best  situated  about  the 
centre  of  the  width  of  the  legs, 
and  therefore  flush  with  neither 
the  back  nor  the  front.      The 

2  side  bearers  d  have  little  strips  glued  and  tacked  inside  on  a  level  with  the  top 
edge  of  the  lower  bearer  e,  on  which  the  drawer  /  is  supported  and  can  slide  to  and  fro. 
The  drawer/  is  made  with  half-lap  dovetails,  as  the  tool  chest,  Fig.  565,  p.  290.  The  top 
should  be  made  complete  before  it  is  fixed  to  the  stand.  Its  table  c  will  require  to 
be  cut  out  of  2  pieces  to  gain  sufficient  width.  These  must  be  i^inned  and  glued 
securely  together,  and  further  strengthened  by  strips  attached  beneath  while  cutting 
out  the  circular  hole  g.  This  latter  operation  is  efi'ected  by  means  of  a  fret-saw  or  key- 
hole saw  worked  with  the  face  of  the  table  towards  the  operator.  When  the  table  of  the 
top  is  so  far  complete,  the  back  h  and  sides  i  are  attached,  being  first  dovetailed  together 
at  the  corners,  and  then  bradded  or  screwed  to  the  table  from  the  other  side.  It  will  be 
seen  that  the  table  c  is  large  enough  to  project  about  2  in.  beyond  the  frame  on  each 
side  and  1  in.  in  front.  It  is  fixed  to  the  frame  by  first  glueing  some  triangular  blocks 
on  to  the  sides  h,  inside  the  frame,  and  flush  with  the  top  of  it,  one  in  the  centre  of 
each  side  h,  in  such  a  way  as  to  ofi"er  a  flat  surface  at  top,  which  may  take  some  of  the 
bearing  of  the  table  c.  When  these  blocks  are  quite  firm,  their  upper  surface,  as 
well  as  that  of  the  whole  frame,  receives  a  coat  of  glue,  and  the  complete  top  is  laid  in 
place.  It  may  be  further  secured  by  driving  a  screw  through  it  and  into  the  top  of  the 
leg  at  each  corner,  allowing  the  heads  of  the  screws  to  be  countersunk  and  hiding  them 
by  putty  before  painting.  The  washstand  is  completed  by  fastening  a  board  I;  cut  out  at 
the  corners  so  as  to  fit  between  the  legs,  over  the  drawer  /,  and  reaching  a  little  beyond 
the  bearers  d. 

Bedstead. — A  simple  yet  comfortable  trestle  bedstead  is  shown  in  Fig.  590,  which 
is  an  end  view  looking  at  the  head.  The  frame  consists  in  the  main  of  2  lengths  of 
deal  a,  about  3  in.  by  2^  in.,  planed  olf  to  the  sectional  shape  indicated  in  the  figure, 
into  which  are  mortised  3  sets  of  cross  legs  b,  formed  of  hard  wood  2  in.  sq.,  with 
the  feet  cut  sloping  as  at  c,  and  joined  at  the  centre  by  a  bolt  and  nut  d.  To  allow  for 
the  legs  crossing  each  other,  it  is  obvious  that  the  mortices  in  the  rails  a  for  receiving 
the  ends  of  the  legs  h  must  not  be  opposite  each  other,  but  exactly  the  width  of  the 


Carpentry — ConstructioD. 


305 


leg  apart.  The  pairs  of  legs  are  situated  one  at  each  end  and  one  in  the  middle. 
Throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  bedstead,  coarse  sacking  e  is  strained  tightly  across 
from  one  rail  to  the  other,  and  brought  round  the  corner,  where  it  is  securely  nailed. 
This  sacking  prevents  the  legd  opening  too  wide,  and  forms  the  support  of  the  bed  and 
its  occupant.    An  additional  solidity  and  finish  is  given  by  attaching  a  head-board  /  on 


590. 


which  are  screwed  2  strips  of  iron  g  brought  to  a  pin  form  at  their  free  ends,  and 
dropping  into  holes  bored  for  them  in  the  rails  a.  By  removing  the  head-board  /,  the 
bedstead  may  be  shut  up  so  as  to  occupy  very  little  space.  A  foot-board  may  be  added 
in  the  same  way,  and  will  further  strengthen  the  structure. 

Equally  simple  in  constructive  detail,  only  requiring  more  wood,  is  the  ordinary 
4-post  bedstead.  As  to  material,  almost  any  wood  but  deal  is  suitable,  e.  g.  beech,  birch, 
ash,  mahogany.  The  joints  are  all  simple  mortices  and  tenons,  with  the  addition  of  a 
special  feature  in  the  shape  of  a  bed-screw.  Dimensions  vary  with  requirements  ; 
6  ft.  long  by  5  ft.  wide  to  5|  ft.  by  4^  ft.  forms  a  "  double  "  size ;  5 J  to  6  ft.  by  3J  ft. 
is  a  "  single  "  size  ;  and  cots  are  made  smaller  for  children.  The  section  of  the  frame 
timber  may  run  from  ih  in.  by  2J  in.  to  3J  in.  by  2  in.,  according  to  the  size  of  the 
bedstead.  These  measurements  refer  to  the  rough  timber,  and  are  reduced  considerably 
by  the  planing  down  and  perhaps  turning.  The  legs  may  be  3J  in.  sq.  in  the  rough. 
Their  length  will  depend  upon  whether  there  is  to  be  a  foot-board,  head-board,  tester,  or 
other  addition  to  the  frame.  The  height  of  the  frame  above  the  floor  varies  from 
12  to  18  in.,  and  the  posts  should  in  any  case  stand  up  some  12  or  18  in.  above 
the  frame,  both  to  enclose  the  bedding  and  to  afford  sufficient  material  for  the  mortices 
which  have  to  support  the  frame.  When  the  logs  are  of  minimum  length  they  need 
only  be  planed  smooth  and  square,  and  covered  with  a  piece  of  chintz  or  other  material, 
corresponding  with  that  which  is  hung  around  the  sides  and  ends  to  fill  up  the  space 
between  the  frame  and  the  floor ;  but  when  the  legs  are  prolonged  upwards  to  support 
head-board  and  foot-board,  it  is  almost  imperative  to  turn  those  portions  which  intervene 
between  the  mortices,  or  the  appearance  is  very  mean.  The  plan  of  the  bedstead  having 
been  decided  on,  the  4  pieces  for  the  legs  and  the  other  4  pieces  for  the  frame 
are  planed  up  smooth  and  square.  On  the  sides  of  the  legs  are  marked  where  the 
mortices  have  to  be  cut  for  the  reception  of  the  ends  of  the  frame,  remembering  that 
in  each  case  there  will  be  2  contiguous  sides  of  the  leg  to  be  mortised.  Before 
proceeding  to  cut  the  mortices,  which  need  only  be  £  in.  deep,  it  is  essential 
to  mark  the  spot  where  a  hole  is  to  be  bored  for  the  insertion  of  the  bed-screw. 


306 


Caepentry — Construction. 


Now,  each  post  contains  2  mortices,  as  at  a,  Fig.  591,  and  a  screw  has  to  be  inserted 
through  the  back  (not  side)  of  the  mortice  and  into  the  end  (not  side)  of  the 
tenon ;  consequently  the  hole  for  the  screw  must  be  exactly  in  the  centre  of 
the  post  so  far  as  its  width  is  concerned,  and  this  is  ascertained  by  drawing  diagonal 
lines,  the  centre  being  their  point  of  junction,  as  at  h.  But  as  there  are  to  be 
2  screws  inserted  in  the  post,  one  h  for  the  mortice  which  is  hidden  in  the  cut,  and 
another  for  the  mortice  a,  these  holes  must  not  be  on  the  same  level,  or  they  would 
cross  each  other  in  the  middle  of  the  post — one  must  be  at  least  1  in.  higher  than  the 
other.  To  ensure  these  holes  being  bored  quite  straight,  it  is  well  to  mark  opposite 
sides  of  the  post,  and  bore  half-way  from  each  side.     The  size  of  the  holes  should  be 


591. 


t::..^-#.:, 


such  as  just  to  admit  with  ease  the  bed-screws  available  for  the  job,  several  sizes  being 
made.  At  the  outer  surface  of  the  hole  a  recess  is  cut  to  allow  the  head  of  the  bed-screw 
to  drop  in  out  of  the  way.  "When  the  holes  are  completed,  the  mortices  may  be  cut  ; 
and  after  this  the  legs  may  be  turned  according  to  any  desired  pattern,  so  long  as  the 
portions  carrying  the  mortices  are  not  interfered  with.  Next  the  tenons  are  cut  on 
the  ends  of  the  frame-pieces  and  fitted  into  their  respective  mortices.  Whilst  in  this 
position,  each  hole  which  has  been  bored  in  the  posts  is  continued  into  the  end  of  the 
frame-jnece  corresponding  to  it,  as  seen  by  the  dotted  line  c,  the  hole  being  carried  a 
little  deeper  than  the  full  length  of  the  bed-screw  when  its  head  is  recessed.  The 
holes  will  be  alternately  a  little  above  and  a  little  below  the  centre  of  the  tenon,  to  admit 
of  the  screws  crossing  each  otlier,  and  not  in  the  exact  centre.  When  a  hole  is  finished, 
a  notch  is  cut  into  the  side  of  the  frame-piece,  as  at  d,  with  a  sharp  chisel,  just  large 
enough  to  receive  comfortably  the  nut  of  the  bed-screw,  which  must  lie  so  that  it  is 
central  with  regard  to  the  hole  for  admitting  the  bed-screw.  The  nut  is  made  quite 
tight,  so  that  it  shall  not  revolve  when  the  screw  turns  in  it,  by  wedging  in  a  little  slip 
of  wood,  previously  glued.  When  all  these  preparations  have  been  completed,  the 
bedstead  is  put  together  by  inserting  the  tenons  on  the  frame-pieces  into  the  mortices 
in  the  legs,  and  screwing  all  up  tight  and  firm  by  the  bed-screws.  If  there  is  to  be  a 
foot-board,  it  is  recessed  a  little  into  the  legs,  and  a  rail  is  then  generally  added  above  it 
to  connect  the  tops  of  the  legs.  The  head  legs  may  also  be  of  a  height  (5  or  6  ft.)  to 
tarry  a  canopy,  the  frame  of  which  is  mortised  into  the  legs  and  fm-ther  supported 
by  angle  irons.  The  recessed  ends  of  the  bed-screws  are  covered  by  little  turned  woodeo 
cups  made  for  the  purpose. 

Oiesl  of  Drawers. — This  article  of  furniture  may  be  divided  into  3  parts — the  case 
or  frame,  the  cross  pieces  or  partitions,  and  the  drawers.  A  rough  form  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  592.  The  sides  a  and  bottom  h  of  the  case  are  of  1-in.  pine  about  18  in.  wide.  The 
bottom  is  let  into  a  v-shaped  groove  in  the  sides,  and  further  supported  by  blocks  glued 
on  to  the  sides  all  round  underneath  it.     The  cross  pieces  c  d  are  dovetailed  into  the 


Carpentry — Construction. 


307 


top  edges  of  the  sides,  and  serve  to  hold  the  sides  from  spreading  out.  The  cross  pieces 
e  f  g  are  mortised  into  the  sides  of  the  case,  but  not  so  that  the  tenons  come  tlirough  to 
tlie  outside  of  the  case.  The  side  ledges  h  running  back  from  the  cross  pieces  on  each 
side  of  the  case  are  glued  and  screwed  to  the  sides.  A  board  i,  3  in.  wide  and  1  in. 
thick,  is  notched  into  the  cross  piece  c  and  the  bottom  h  and  supports  by  a  mortice 

592. 


the  bearer  h,  whose  other  end  is  mortised  into  the  cross  piece  e  ;  this  bearer  7.;  carries  tht 
sides  of  the  2  small  top  drawers.  A  strip  I  placed  edgewise  on  it  is  screwed  from  beneath 
on  to  the  bearer  h,  and  is  replaced  in  front  by  a  vertical  partition  m  mortised  into  the 
cross  pieces  d  e.  The  back,  which  is  next  put  on,  consists  of  alternate  pieces  of  ^-in.  and 
f-in.  stuff,  the  outer  ones,  as  n,  being  f -in. ;  these  pieces  are  nailed  to  the  cross  i^iece  c 
at  top  and  to  the  bottom  h,  and  the  sides  a  are  nailed  to  them.  The  thicker  pieces  n 
have  their  edges  rebated  so  as  to  cover  those  of  the  thinner  ones  o,  and  thus  the  surface 
of  the  back  is  flush  inside  but  irregular  outside.  The  top  is  made  of  1-in.  pine,  screwed 
on  to  the  cross  pieces  c  d  and  to  2  strips  p  from  below,  and  lying  flush  with  the  back  but 
projecting  1  in.  over  the  sides  and  front.  The  strijjs  p  are  fastened  to  the  sides  a  by 
screws.  The  sides  a  are  made  in  one  piece,  and  are  cut  out  at  the  bottom ;  angular 
pieces  r  glued  into  the  front  below  the  bottom  drawer  then  give  the  appearance  of 
dwarf  legs.  The  drawers  are  made  of  1-in.  wood  in  the  fronts,  |-in.  in  the  sides  and 
back,  and  J-in.  or  y'^-in.  in  the  bottom.  Their  construction  resembles  that  described  on 
p.  290.    The  completed  article  may  be  painted,  stained,  or  polished. 

The  preceding  is  not  a  very  workmanlike  plan.  A  superior  way  is  as  follows : — 
The  case  is  made  like  a  box  turned  up  on  end,  all  the  corners  having  dovetail  joints.  The 
edges  of  the  boards  which  come  at  the  back  of  the  chest  are  rebated  about  a  of  their 
thickness  to  admit  of  letting  the  back  in  so  as  to  lie  flush  with  the  sides,  top,  and 
bottom.  The  partitions  for  separating  the  drawers  are  made  so  as  to  completely  cover 
the  drawer  immediately  beneath,  and  are  not  merely  strips  for  giving  support ;  they  are 
let  into  grooves  previously  cut  for  them  about  f  in.  deep  into  the  sides  of  the  chest,  and, 

X  2 


308 


Carpentry —  Construction. 


instead  of  being  formed  of  single  boards,  which  are  liable  to  warp,  are  built  up  of 
frames  and  panels,  after  the  manner  of  a  door,  the  joints  being  made  by  tongues  and 
grooves,  with  mortices  and  tenons  at  the  angles,  and  wooden  pins  driven  through.  The 
top  is  formed  of  an  extra  slab  laid  on  the  top  of  the  case,  projecting  at  the  sides  and 
front,  secured  by  screws  from  below,  and  having  a  bead  or  moulding  run  round  imder 
it.  The  back  is  constructed  of  thin  panelling,  glued  and  bradded  into  the  rebate  in  the 
sides.  The  bottom  is  added  in  the  same  way  as  the  top,  and  may  project  rather  more. 
A  moulding  is  also  run  round  it.  The  legs  should  be  turned,  and  are  fastened  to  the 
chest  by  a  btech  pin  screwed  into  them  and  into  stout  beech  blocks  under  the  bottom 
corners  of  the  case. 

Dresser. — A  useful  form  of  kitchen  dresser,  removable  at  pleasure,  is  shown  in  Fig. 
593.  It  is  constructed  out  of  best  clean  yellow  pine,  French  polished.  The  ends  are 
formed  by  2  gables  a,  5  ft.  2  in. 

high,  20  in.  wide  in  the  full  body,      r ^  593. 

10  in.  wide  at  the  top  drawers  h,     \  „     \Z 

and  1   in.  thick.      They  rest  on 

strips  c,   2  in.   sq.,  and  projecting 

2^  in.  in  front,  to  which  they  are 

mortised.     The  3  large  drawers  d 

are  surmounted  by  a  slab  e,  4  ft. 

long,  1|  in.  thick,  projecting  f  in. 

beyond  the  front  of  the  drawers, 

and  at  a  height  of  3  ft.  2  iu.  above 

the  floor.    Being  of  the  same  width 

as  the  gables  (20  in.),  this  slab  does 

not  reach  the  back  of  the  dresser 

by  f  in.,  thus  leaving  a  space  for 

the  back  lining.      Boards  /,  4  ft. 

long,  9J  in.  wide,  and  |  in.  thick, 

are  placed  above  and  below  the  5 

small  drawers  b,  which  latter  are 

separated  by  partitions  7  in.  long, 

32  in.  wide,  and  f  in.  thick.     The 

fronts  of  the  large  drawers  d  are 

6  in.  wide,  and  of  the  small  ones  b 

2f  in.     There  is  a  clear  space  h 

10  in.  high  between  the  2  rows  of 

drawers.       As    indicated    iu    the 

drawing,  the  joints  in  the  frame  are  made  by  mortices  and  tenons,  the  latter  being 

of  full  depth  and  diagonally  wedged.     A  shelf  i,  4  ft.  long,  18  in.  wide,  and  1  in. 

thick,  divides  the  cupboard  k  into  an  upper  and  a  lower  compartment.     A  fore  edge  I 

and  a  back  edge  m,  each  3  in.  wide,  1  in.  thick,  and  4  ft.  long,  are  morticed  as  shown, 

to  support  the  weight  of  the  large  drawers  d.     The  curves  on  the  gables  are  cut  as 

follows.     The  first  one  n  is  a  quarter  circle  of  4  in.  radius,  the  next  0  is  a  reversed 

quarter  circle  of  5 J  in.  radius,  the  2  being  joined  by  a  straight  line ;  the  top  curve  p  is 

a  quarter  circle  of  4  in.  radius.     The  base  rail  r  is  4  ft.  long,  2|  in.  wide,  and  1 J  in. 

thick,  and  mortised  into  the  2  gables  a  with  its  under  side  resting  on  the  strips  c.   From 

the  centre  of  the  base  rail,  and  mortised  into  it,  rises  the  mounter  s,  also  2^  in.  by  1|  in., 

30  in.  long,  and  mortised  into  the  fore  edge  I  at  top.     The  case  for  the  5  small  drawers 

is  made  by  mortice  and  tenon  joints,  carefully  fitted,  planed,  glued,  and  wedged.     The 

wedging  is  done  in  the  following  way.     Diagonal  saw-cuts  are  made  in   the  ends  of 

the  tenons  before  putting  together,  and  for  these  are  prepared  little  wooden  wedges  fin. 

wide,  §  n.  long,  and  ^V  in.  thick,  tapering  to  a  fine  edge.    Wheu  one  wedge  has  been 


cB 


CL 


E3  Q  SiS  £3    3 


Carpentry— Construction.  SOD 

driven  into  one  slit,  a  second  is  cut  in  halves  and  driven  into  the  other  slit  at  right  angles 
to  the  first.  The  frame  for  the  3  large  drawers  d  consists  of  the  fore  and  back  edges  I  m, 
into  which  2  cross  rails,  3  in.  wide,  are  mortised  exactly  under  the  divisions  t  between 
the  drawers.  These  divisions  are  6  in.  wide,  and  have  tenons  at  top  and  bottom,  fittin'' 
into  mortices  in  the  cross  rails  t  and  the  shelf  e.  The  cross  rails  may  be  thinner  than  I 
and  m,  but  their  upper  surfaces  must  all  be  made  flush.  The  frame,  thus  far  completed,  is 
glued,  wedged,  and  cramped  up  till  quite  firm.  The  bottom  is  next  fitted  in  so  as  to  lie  close 
up  to  the  gable  at  each  end,  to  the  base  rail  r  in  front,  and  to  the  back  behind,  its  ends  resting 
upon  the  strips  c,  which  project  ^  in.  inwards  for  that  purpose.  The  method  of  fastening 
the  bottom  to  the  base-rail  r  and  strips  c  by  screws  presents  some  peculiarities,  and  is 
illustrated  at  u.  At  intervals  of  about  9  in.  on  the  under  side  of  the  bottom,  recesses 
are  gouged  out  in  triangular  form,  shallowest  at  the  apex,  and  deepening  to  ^  in.  at  the 
base,  which  latter  is  about  f  in.  within  the  margin.  From  the  edge  of  the  bottom  |-in. 
holes  are  bored  through  into  these  recesses,  for  the  reception  of  IJ-in.  screws,  which  are 
driven  from  the  recess,  as  shown.  The  3  large  drawers  are  made  of  -J -in.  wood  for  the 
fronts,  f-in.  for  the  backs  and  sides,  and  |-in.  for  the  bottoms;  the  5  small  ones  take 
f-in.,  2-in.,  and  J-in.  respectively.  The  backs  of  the  drawers  may  be  ^  in.  lower  than 
the  sides,  to  prevent  catching ;  and  the  drawers  themselves  may  be  -^  in.  shorter  than 
their  niches  in  the  case,  to  ensure  their  shutting  in  flush  with  the  front.  Tlie  corners 
of  the  drawers  are  made  with  dovetail  joints,  and  glued.  Tiie  bottoms  are  let  into 
grooves  previously  cut  with  a  plough,  and  are  further  supported  by  narrow  fillets  glued 
beneath  along  the  sides,  and  two  or  three  blocks  of  hard  wood  along  the  front,  the  latter 
making  contact  witli  stops  in  the  frame  to  regulate  the  degree  to  Mdiich  the  drawer  is 
pushal  in.  For  the  2  doors  k,  make  4  stiles  v  or  upright  pieces  of  framing,  3  in.  wide, 
1^  in.  thick,  and  2  in.  longer  than  the  height  of  the  aperture  to  be  covered  ;  also  4  rails  w 
or  horizontal  pieces  of  framing,  of  the  same  width  and  thickness.  Draw  in  the  stiles 
for  mortising  and  rails  for  tenoning.  Find  tlie  height  and  width  of  the  apertures  in 
the  dresser  front,  place  the  stiles  on  edge  on  the  bench,  and  draw  at  each  end  with 
pencil,  tlie  breadth  of  a  rail  at  the  outer  lines  being  a  little  farther  apart  than  the  height 
of  the  opening.  Then  mark  oflf  J  in.  from  the  inner  lines  towards  the  ends.  From  this 
line  mark  ofi"  If  in.  towards  the  ends.  Between  these  last  2  lines  is  the  portion  to  be 
mortised,  leaving  f  in.  at  the  extreme  end  to  give  strength  to  the  frame.  When  drawing 
in  the  rails,  deduct  the  breadth  of  the  2  stiles  from  the  width  of  opening,  allowing 
■I  in.  for  fitting ;  draw  in  the  shoulders  at  this  with  cutting  knife.  Gauge  for  |  in. 
mortice-iron  in  the  centre  of  the  stufi".  Mortise  about  2  in.  deep,  taking  care  to  iiave  all 
mortices  in  the  centre  of  the  stuff  for  their  whole  depth,  otherwise  the  framing  will  be 
twisted.  When  the  rails  are  tenoned  the  thickness  way,  gauge  the  inner  edge  of  tenons 
I  in.  to  be  ripped  off,  and  f  in.  bare  to  rip  off  the  outer  edge ;  then  the  tenon  should  fill 
the  mortice.  Cut  it  to  within  -i  in.  of  the  depth  of  the  mortice.  All  these  pieces,  being 
mortised  and  tenoned,  are  grooved  for  the  panels.  This  is  done  in  the  centre  of  the 
stuff  with  a  flit  plough  and  |-in.  iron,  the  groove  being  h  in.  deep  ;  all  the  grooving  is 
done  with  the  outer  face  of  each  piece  towards  the  operator.  The  panels  k  are  of  J-in. 
wood,  and  "fielded"  on  the  front  side,  i.e.  a  ribbon  about  2  in.  wide  is  sliced  off  all 
round,  so  as  to  bevel  the  front  face  gradually  to  a  thickness  of  about  half  at  the  edge. 
This  fielded  edge  is  let  about  |  in.  deep  into  a  groove  cut  for  it  in  the  inner  edges  of 
the  pieces  v  w.  When  tlie  frame  and  panel  have  been  fitted  and  glued  up,  a  small 
moulding  x  is  run  round  in  the  angle.  When  the  door  is  thus  completed  and  has  been 
duly  cramped  and  dried,  it  may  be  fitted  to  the  aperture  it  has  to  close,  and  its  edges 
planed  away  smooth  till  the  adjustment  is  perfect.  The  doors  are  not  hung  till  the 
back  y  of  the  dresser  has  been  put  in.  The  back  consists  of  |-in.  boards  arranged  to 
run  up  and  down,  or  across,  or  partly  both,  according  as  the  wood  available  best  suits. 
The  boards  are  united  by  groove  and  feather  joints,  and  any  exposed  ends  are  contrived 
to  come  where  they  will  not  be  seen.    The  curves  at  z  in  the  top  of  the  back  are  of 


310  Carpentry — Construction. 

2  in.  radius.  The  boards  are  secured  by  l|-in.  screws,  and  a  bead  is  run  round  the 
edge.  The  stoi:)s  for  the  small  drawers  may  be  glued  on  the  back  boards,  and  of  such  a 
thickness  as  to  allow  the  drawer  fronts  to  come  ^  in.  within  the  face  of  the  frame.  The 
stops  for  the  large  drawers  are  2  in.  sq.  and  I  in.  thick,  and  are  screwed  on  to  the  frame 
under  the  drawers  -jL  in.  farther  in  than  the  point  reached  by  the  blocks  on  the  drawers 
when  their  fronts  are  flush  with  the  outside  of  the  frame.  The  doors  are  hung  on  3-in. 
brass  butt  hinges,  and  great  accuracy  must  be  observed  in  fixing  the  hinges,  so  that  the 
doors  hang  perfectly  square  and  free.  Finally  the  whole  work  is  sandpapered  quite 
smooth,  and  polished,  varnished,  or  painted. 

Garden  and  Yard  Accessories. — This  section  is  intended  to  include  such  articles 
of  every-day  use  as  wheelbarrows,  coops,  hutches,  kennels,  hives,  flower-stands,  and 
garden  frames,  as  well  as  such  elementary  examples  of  rough  building  as  greenhouses, 
summer-houses,  fences  and  gates. 

Wkeelbarroiv. — For  ordinary  work,  good  sound  deal  board  f  in.  thick  is  quite  durable 
enough  for  the  body  of  tlie  ban-ow ;  elm  lasts  much  longer  ixnder  rough  wear,  but  is 
much  more  costly  and  difficult  to  work.  The  dimensions  will  vary  with  the  size  of  the 
person  using  the  barrow,  but  on  the  average  they  may  be  as  follows:  Total  length, 
including  wheel  and  handles,  4  ft. ;  maximum  length  of  body,  2  ft. ;  width  of  body, 
1|  ft.;  deptli  of  body,  10  in.  While  the  body  is  2  ft.  long  at  top,  it  should  slope  back 
to  18  in.  at  the  bottom,  to  allow  for  the  wheel.  The  first  step  is  to  make  a  frame  of 
l^-in.  or  2-in.  stuff,  measuring  18  in.  long  and  15  in.  wide,  but  with  the  long  sides  of 
the  frame  projecting  about  1  ft.  forwards  to  carry  the  wheel,  and  about  15  in.  backwards 
to  form  the  handles.  This  frame  should  be  dovetailed  together  at  the  corners.  The 
body  of  the  barrow  is  made  with  the  sides  perpendicular,  while  the  tail-board  may  slope 
a  little  outwards,  and  the  head-board  (next  the  wheel)  much  more  so.  This  body  is 
formed  with  mortice  and  tenon  joints.  It  is  fitted  to  the  frame  either  by  tenons  let  into 
mortices  in  the  frame,  or  by  rebating  the  frame  about  |  in.  all  round  on  the  inside.  The 
legs  are  attached  outside  the  body,  and  heliJ  to  strengthen  the  whole.  They  should  be 
cut  with  a  shoulder  at  such  a  height  as  to  support  the  barrow,  when  at  rest,  at  a  convenient 
distance  above  the  ground.  If  let  in  about  f  in.  into  the  frame,  so  much  the  better;  a 
J -in.  iron  rod  may  be  carried  through  the  legs  and  frame  from  side  and  side,  and  2  or  3 
screws  secure  it  to  the  body.  A  good  wheel  can  be  made  by  cutting  a  10-  or  12-in. 
circle  out  of  a  piece  of  1-in.  elm. ;  a  2-in.  sq.  hole  is  chiselled  out  in  the  centre,  to  receive 
an  axle  formed  of  a  piece  of  oak  or  ash,  having  a  diameter  of  2  in.  sq.  in  the  centre,  but 
tapered  off  to  about  IJ  or  IJ  in.  at  the  ends.  The  wheel  is  strengthened  by  having  a 
rim  of  stout  hoop-iron  "  shrunk  on,"  that  is  to  say,  the  rim  is  made  quite  close-fitting, 
and  is  tlien  heated  ready  for  putting  on  ;  the  heating  stretches  it  and  facilitates  its  being 
put  on,  when  a  plunge  into  cold  water  causes  it  to  contract  and  hold  firmly.  The  axle 
must  fit  very  tightly  in  the  wheel,  and  this  is  best  secured  by  making  the  hole  rather 
large  and  using  wooden  wedges  fur  tightening  up,  driving  them  from  oisposite  sides 
alternately.  The  ends  of  the  axle  are  each  shod  with  a  ferrule,  to  prevent  the  wood 
splitting  on  driving  in  the  iron  pins  on  which  the  wheel  is  to  revolve.  These  pins  are 
square  where  they  enter  the  wood,  and  round  in  the  projecting  part,  which  latter  passes 
on  each  side  of  the  wheel  to  the  front  shafts  of  the  frame  of  the  barrow.  About  the 
easiest  effective  way  of  connecting  these  pins  to  the  shafts  is  to  drive  a  staple  into  the 
imder  side  of  each  shaft,  of  a  size  large  enough  to  hold  the  pins  without  preventing 
their  free  revolution.  In  this  way  the  wheel  can  bo  added  last  of  all,  and  can  be 
removed  and  repaired,  if  necessary,  without  injuring  the  frame. 

PouUrij  and  Pigeon  Houses. — A  useful  size  for  a  hencoop  (Fig.  594)  to  place  against 
a  wall  is  about  4  ft.  long,  2  ft.  wide,  2i  ft.  high  in  front,  and  3|^  ft.  at  the  back.  The 
framework  will  consist  of  6  upriglits  a,  a  bottom  plate  b,  toji  plates  c  d,  and  rafters  e. 
All  the  wood  but  that  for  the  rafters  may  be  1 J  in.  sq. ;  the  rafters  are  Ih  in.  wide, 
1  in.  deep,  and  2J  ft.  long.     The  bottom  plate  is  fitted  to  the  uprights,  at  about  2  in. 


CARrENTRY — Construction. 


311 


594. 


above  the  floor,  by  halving  each  into  the  other.  The  top  plates  nre  fittoil  on  in  the 
same  manner,  and  nailed  up.  This  done,  the  rafters  are  cut  out  to  a  depth  of  about 
half  their  thickness,  and  fitted  into  the  top  plates.  The  roof  may  be  formed  of  7-in. 
feather-edj^e  boards,  long  enough  to  overhang  about  3  in.  at  each  end,  fastened  by 
nailing  them  to  the  rafters,  com- 
mencing at  the  bottom  edge  and  lap- 
ping about  1  in.  as  they  proceed ;  or 
it  may  be  flat  boarded,  covered  witli 
felt,  and  thoroughly  tarred.  The  right 
end  is  occupied  by  a  door,  the  left  end 
is  boarded  up  like  the  roof,  and  the 
3  front  spaces  are  closed  by  galvanized 
iron  -wire  netting.  The  door  frame  is 
made  cf  wood  H  in.  wide  and  1  in. 
thick,  and  both  it  and  the  triangiilar 
space  above  it  are  filled  in  with  net- 
ting. The  floor  is  of  f-in.  deal  boards 
laid  the  short  way.  Perches  must  be 
fastened  across  inside.   The  wall  forms 

the  back  of  the  coop ;  therefore  the  coop  should  be  tied  to  it  by  means  of  iron  stays 
driven  into  the  wall  and  nailed  or  screwed  to  the  frame  of  the  coop.  A  strip  of  sheet 
zinc  having  one  edge  driven  into  a  course  in  the  wall,  and  the  other  edge  nailed  down 
on  the  roof,  will  prevent  wet  finding  its  way  down  into  the  coop. 

Fig.  595  is  a  plan  of  a  fowl-house  of  more  ambitious  dimensions,  arranged  at  the 
end  of  garden  or  yard,  so  that  the  back  a  and  sides  h  c  are  formed  by  the  walls  of  the 
■enclosure,  thus  saving  expense.    Commencing  at  one  end,  the  compartment  d  is  a 


^'"//  ^^^j" 


Vr^ 


595. 


I 


Oj 


1^ 


9 


e 


no 


dj 


"^^^X- 


passage  giving  access  to  the  nests  e,  and  closed  by  a  door  /;  g  is  the  roosting-place, 
fitted  with  perches  7t,  reached  by  a  door  i  in  front,  and  leading  into  the  run  j,  also 
approached  through  the  door  fc.  In  arranging  the  construction,  it  is  beet  to  pursue  the 
following  order.  First  make  the  front  framing,  which  will  consist  of  a  bottom  rail  3  in. 
sq.  reaching  from  6  to  c  at  about  6  ft.  from  the  wall  a.  Into  this  will  be  mortised  at 
intervals  a  series  of  uprights,  about  3  in.  by  2  in.  and  6  ft.  high,  these  being  nowhere 
more  than  3  ft.  apart,  and  in  some  places  less  to  suit  the  positions  of  tlie  doors.  A  top 
rail  will  next  be  fitted  over  the  tenoned  tops  of  all  the  uprights.  At  about  8  ft.  from  the 
ground  a  wall  plate  3  in.  by  2  in.  is  nailed  to  the  wall  a,  and  then  the  rafters  are  fitted 
to  the  wall  plate  and  the  front  rail.  Before  proceeding  to  roof  over  and  close  in  the 
framing,  it  is  well  to  complete  the  internal  fittings.  These  are  bettor  shown  in  Figs. 
596,  597.  The  3  perches  7t  are  rough  poles  with  the  bark  on  ;  they  arc  arranged  in 
descending  order,  and  are  sufficiently  secured  at  each  end  by  dropping  them  loosely  into 


312 


CaepentPvI; — Construction. 


■wooden  blocks  nailed  to  the  partitions.  The  nests  e  are  raised  a  little  above  the  ground, 
and  closed  in  on  all  sides,  including  the  top,  a  small  hole  being  cut  in  front  just 
admitting  the  hen.  The  fowls  enter  the  nests  e  from  the  house  g;  the  nests  are 
provided  with  doors  along  the  back,  opening  into  d,  both  for  the  removal  of  the  eggs  and 
for  the  eccasional  cleansing  of  the  nests.  Tlie  front  of  the  house,  as  far  as  the  partition 
separating  the  run  j  from  the  roostiug-house  g,  may  be  covered  with  galvanized  iron  wire 


596. 


597. 


^ 


^ 


Ci 


netting,  the  remainder  is  boarded.  Tlie  doors  /  *  may  be  of  simj^le  construction,  such  as 
3  or  4  boards  placed  side  by  side  and  fastened  together  by  cross  pieces  nailed  to  them. 
The  portions  I  m  of  the  front,  coming  between  the  doors,  may  be  "  weather  boarded,"  i.e. 
covered  with  feather-edged  boards  overlapping  each  other  and  running  horizontally. 
The  roof  is  best  boarded  flat  with  |-in.  boards,  then  covered  with  felt  and  well  tarred. 
A  zinc  gutter  along  the  front  adds  to  the  comfort,  and  a  piece  of  3-in.  zinc  pipe  inserted 
in  the  roof  over  the  middle  of  the  house  g  forms  an  efiicient  ventilator,  when  surmounted 
by  an  overhanging  cap  to  keep  out  rain.  The  doors  /  i,  being  heavy,  will  need  T-hinges, 
while  butts  will  answer  for  k. 

A  rough  pigeon-coop,  only  suitable  for  placing  under  the  shelter  of  a  roof,  may  be 
made  as  shown  in  Fig.  598,  say  3  ft.  long,  2  ft.  wide,  20  in.  high  in  the  sides  and  29  in. 

598. 


to  the  top  of  the  roof.     For  the  ends  a,  3  strips  of  8-in.  by 

1-in.  deal  board  may  be  nailed  to  2  cross  pieces  2  in.  by  1  in. 

The  floor  Z>  is  of  f  -in.  deal  board  laid  the  short  way.     The 

back   and  half  the  roof  may  be  boarded  in,  while  in  the 

front  are  fixed  2  strips  c  1  in.  sq.,  joining  the  ends,  and 

perforated  at  intervals  of  IJ  in.  by  galvanized  iron  wires. 

At  each  end  is  attaclied  a  nest  box  d  18  in.  long,  9  in.  wide,  and  16  in.  high,  with 

sloping  top  ;  it  is  made  of  h-in.  stuff  nailed  together.     The  nest  box  is  entered  by  the 


Carpentry —Construction. 


313 


holes  in  the  ends  o.  One  or  more  of  the  front  wires  may  bo  made  movable  for  the 
egress  and  ingress  of  the  birds. 

A  house  for  7  couples  of  pigeons,  adapted  for  hanging  against  a  wall  having  a  warm 
aspect,  is  shown  in  Fig.  599.  The  principal  part  of  the  house  consists  of  a  box  of  1-in.  deal, 
measuring  3  ft.  long,  2  ft.  wide,  and  15  in.  deep.  Lengthwise  it  is  divided  into  3 
compartments  by  2  partitions  a  of  J-in.  wood,  and  these  are  supported  by  3  upright 
partitions  h  of  |-in.  wood.  The  bottom  of  the  box  forms  the  back  of  the  house.  Tho 
front  of  the  house  is  set  back  3  in.,  so  that  the  sides  and  iloors  of  all  the  compartments 
project  that  distance  beyond  their  entrances.  The  object  of  this  is  to  secure  greater 
privacy  for  each  pair  of  birds.  As  the  top  of  the  box  must  be  rendered  sloping  in  order 
to  throw  off  the  rain,  by  the  addition  of  2  boards  c,  the  triangular  space  thus  enclosed 
forms  a  convenient  compartment  ibr  a  7th  pair  of  birds.  The  2  boards  c  are  best  dove- 
tailed together  at  the  top,  and  protected  by  a  zinc  cap  ;  they  are  secured  to  the  top  of 
the  box  by  the  intervention  of  2  triangular  strips  which  afford  a  solid  bearing.  The 
entrance  holes  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  measure  about  6  in.  high  and  3  or  4  in.  wide, 
and  are  cut  in  the  positions  shown  by  means  of  a  keyhole  saw. 

The  following  description  of  a  combined  poultry  and  pigeon  house  is  condensed 
from  an  interesting  commimication  made  to  Amateur  Work.  The  ground  at  disposal 
measures  22  ft.  by  8  ft.,  with  walls  on  3  sides ;  it  is  divided  into  3  portions — a  central 
covered-in  house  6  ft.  sq.,  and  on  each  side  a  run  8  ft.  sq.  The  house  is  divided  into 
2  unequal  parts,  one  6  ft.  by  4  ft.  for  a  covered  shady  run  during  hot  or  wet  weather, 
and  another  6  ft.  by  2  ft.  for  a  breeding  house.  The  floor  is  sloped  throughout  from 
front  to  back,  and  trodden  quite  hard.     The  framework  (Fig.  600)  of  the  whole  rests 


601. 


on  a  course  of  bricks,  protecting  it  from  damp  and 

rendering    it    portable.      The    dimensions    of    tiie 

quartering  for  the  construction  of  the  house  will  be 

4  S-ft.   lengths   of  3-in.  by   3-in.  for   the   6-ft.  sq. 

ground  frame,  and  the  upright  joists  and  rafters  are 

2h  in.  sq.      The  joints  employed  are  illustrated  in 

Fig.  001,  a  being  that  of  a  corner  of  the  bottom 

frame,  b  that  of  the  upper  frame  with  the  upright,  and  c  that  of  the  cross  pieces.    Ta 

the  larger  division  of  the  house,  the  cross  pieces  are  placed  2  ft.  from  the  ground  as 

joists  for  the  loose  floor  of  the  compartment  reserved  for  fowls  and  egg-boxes,  this 

floor  forming  at  the  same  time  a  rr of  to  the  dry  shed  beneath.    In  the  smaller  division 


314  Carpentry — Construction. 

of  the  house,  the  joists  are  4  ft.  from  the  ground ;  the  lower  part  is  set  aside  for  nesting 
places,  and  the  upper  serves  as  a  pigeon-loft  extending  to  the  roof.  The  object  in 
putting  the  nests  (for  sitting)  upon  the  ground  is  to  give  the  eggs,  during  incubation, 
the  benefit  of  the  moisture  of  the  earth.  Hence  the  dry  run  underneath  the  larger 
compartment  goes  no  farther  than  the  wooden  partition  which  intervenes.  The  upright 
Avhich  bisects  tho  front  of  the  house  is  intended  for  a  stop  for  2  largo  doors,  hanging 
from  the  outer  supports.  The  8  rafters,  each  3|  ft.  long,  for  the  roof  are  simply  nailed 
in  position,  the  plank  placed  at  the  apex  acting  as  a  sort  of  keyboard,  and  the  weight  of 
the  roofing  material  afterwards  added  being  sufficient  to  make  all  secure.  So  far  the 
framework  may  be  made  in  the  workshop,  and  taken  to  its  place  for  putting  together, 
temporarily  strengthening  it  by  nailing  a  few  diagonal  stays  to  it. 

For  roofing  the  building,  sheet  zinc  is  perhaj^s  the  most  suitable  material.  Felt 
harbours  vermin,  requires  early  renewal,  and  necessitates  a  wooden  roofing  underneath 
it.  Corrugated  iron  is  expensive,  and  is  very  hot  in  the  su7i  and  very  cold  in  time  of 
frost ;  moreover,  it  wears  badly,  and  soon  begins  to  leak  where  nails  are  driven  through. 
Zinc  is  one-third  less  expensive,  looks  as  neat,  is  twice  as  durable,  and  can  be  fixed  with- 
out trouble.  For  the  roof,  63  sq.  ft.  of  No.  10  zinc  will  be  needed.  The  weight  should 
be  17  lb.  to  the  sheet,  measuring  6  ft.  S  in.  wide ;  3  such  sheets  will  be  sufficient,  and 
if  one  of  them  be  cut  in  two,  they  may  be  overlapped  an  inch  or  so,  and,  with  a  few 
nails,  all  soldering  will  be  avoided.  Out  of  the  same  quantity,  3  pieces  12  in.  wide  and 
3  ft.  long  may  be  cut.  With  these,  a  semicircular  ridge,  to  bend  over  the  key-board  of 
the  roof,  can  be  formed  ;  and  if  care  has  been  taken  not  to  carry  the  sheets  of  zinc  quite 
up  to  the  toj),  a  species  of  ventilator  will  be  the  result,  the  air  having  free  access  to  the 
channel  running  tho  whole  length  of  the  building,  whilst  direct  draught  is  obviated, 
and  no  rain-water  can  enter.  The  roof  will  have  eaves  extending  4  in.  from  the  sides 
of  the  house.  In  addition  to  the  ventilation  provided  by  the  channel  on  the  crown  of 
the  roof,  it  will  be  found  that  the  zinc  plates,  resting  on  the  rafters,  will  not  fit  closely 
to  the  2  sides  of  the  house,  but  an  aperture  will  be  left  underneath  tlie  eaves.  This 
aperture  should  not  bo  wholly  closed  in  as  a  well-ventilated  but  not  a  draughty  roost- 
ing-house  is  a  necessity.  A  wooden  strip  2i  in.  wide  should,  however,  be  nailed 
horizontally  under  the  eaves. 

For  boarding  in  the  4  sides,  the  cheapest,  warmest,  and  most  weather-tight  material 
is  G-in.  match-lining  (it  is  practically  5|  in.  in  width).  No  planing  will  be  wanted,  except 
that  which  it  has  received  at  the  mills.  The  tongue-and-groove  method  of  joining  each 
strip  to  its  fellow,  ensures  the  air-tightness  of  the  interior,  and  prevents  the  possibility 
of  the  boards  themselves  warping ;  in  addition,  the  superadded  beading  lends  an  orna- 
mental appearance  to  the  exterior.  This  match-lining  is  bought  by  the  "  square  "  of 
16  ft.,  and  3  such  squares,  at  lis.  6d.  each,  will  give  ample  material. 

The  principal  distinguishing  feature  of  this  poultry-house  is  the  facility  with  which 
every  part  of  the  interior  can  be  reached  without  requiring  to  go  inside.  Wherever  a 
jjlace  is  inconvenient  to  reach  the  chances  are  cleansing  will  be  neglected  and  dirt 
accumulate,  a  state  of  things  fatal  to  success.  Therefore,  in  the  whole  arrangement  of 
the  compartments,  every  corner  is  easily  accessible ;  hence  the  structure  consists  almost 
entirely  of  doors.  But  the  match-lining  throughout  being  used  horizontally,  the 
number  of  doors  is  not  obtrusive,  as  many  of  them  are  hardly  noticeable. 

Figs.  602  to  G05  represent  the  4  sides  of  the  house.  The  rear  (Fig.  602)  is  boarded 
up  from  top  to  bottom  with  the  exception  of  2  widths  of  match-lining  4  ft.  from  the 
ground,  which  are  battened  together  to  form  a  flap  a,  and  are  hinged  as  shown.  This 
flap  a  is  to  allow  the  loose  flooring  of  the  pigeon-loft,  situated  in  the  uppermost  part  of 
the  building,  to  be  withdrawn  whenever  necessary,  that  the  boards  may  be  cleansed. 
The  left  side  (Fig.  603)  of  the  poultry-house  faces  north.  The  small  door  h  is  hinged  to 
the  outer  upright,  and  does  not  extend  quite  to  the  top.  By  it  the  pigeon-lockers  are 
gained.    Underneath  it  is  door  c,  hinged  to  the  same  upright,  and  allowing  good  height 


Carpentry — Con  struction . 


315 


(4  ft.)  to  permit  of  entrance  to  the  breeding-house  for  fowls,  the  nests  in  which,  it  will 
be  remembered,  are  placed  on  the  ground,  d  is  timply  a  larger  flap  tlian  a,  consisting 
of  match-lining  battened  together  to  the  width  of  2  It.,  and  hinged  from  the  plank  above 
it.  AVhen  down,  this  flap  shuts  in  the  dry  shed  running  imder  the  roosting  compart- 
ment ;  when  open  at  an  angle  it  enlarges  that  shed,  admitting  at  the  same  time  fresh  air. 

€02. 


603. 


a. 


b       t 


c 


m 


> 


171 


604. 


G05 


c: 


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13 


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B    0 

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in.    y— 

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T 

h    y 

s     k 

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C       i) 

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r-        3 

U                                                J 

Passing  to  the  front  of  the  house  (Fig.  G04)  doors  e  /,  each  4  ft.  high  by  3  ft.  wide,  open 
up  tlie  entire  roosting  compartment.  It  is  important  that  this  pair  should  be  made  to 
fit  well.  Below  is  g,  a  flap  similar  to  d,  but  2  ft.  longer.  It  is  intended  to  allow  of  the 
earth  of  the  dry  run  being  removed  from  the  front  without  the  inconvenience  of  entering 
the  closed  yards.  The  material  forming  tlie  floor  should  be  changed  as  often  as  it 
becomes  polluted.  On  the  right  side  (Fig.  605)  of  the  house  facing  south  are  2  flaps, 
viz.  a  small  one  h,  10  in.  deep,  which  opens  on  to  the  egg-boxes,  and  a  larger  one  i, 
identical  in  every  respect  with  c7,  on  the  opposite  side.  When  it  is  wished  tliat  tiie  door 
xun  should  be  at  the  disposal  of  one  yard  exclusively,  it  will  be  necessary  to  keep  door/ 


316  Caepentry — Construction. 

closed,  but  when  there  are  no  chickens  and  pullets  to  occupy  the  other  yard,  and  the 
whole  of  the  available  space  is  to  be  given  to  the  adult  birds,  by  lifting  flaps  d  and  i  at 
the  same  time,  the  dry  shed  accommodation  will  be  much  increased.  The  last  entrance 
Zi;  is  4  ft.  high,  and  leads  into  the  breeding-house.  The  open  space  above  it  is  the  dormer 
part  of  the  pigeon-house. 

There  are  4  windows  to  be  added  :  one  m  on  either  side,  the  glass  of  which  slips  back- 
wards and  forwards  in  a  rabbet ;  and  2  n  in  the  front  which  are  for  lighting  purposes 
only,  the  glass  remaining  fixed,  with  strips  of  wood  at  the  back  and  a  beading  in 
front. 

Preliminary  to  fitting  the  doors,  lengths  of  2-in.  pine  beading  are  nailed  to  the  up- 
rights as  a  stop.  All  the  doors  are  made  in  the  same  way,  consisting  of  match-lining 
nailed  to  2  battens  formed  of  the  same  material,  sawn  in  half.  Flat -headed  wrought- 
iron  IJ-in.  nails  should  be  used,  as  they  drive  cleanly  into  the  wood.  Some  time  will  be 
spent  in  this  part  of  the  work,  and  open-air  labour  will  be  saved  by  nailing  together  the 
doors  full-large  in  the  workshop,  and  afterwards  fitting  each  by  sawing  it  to  its  exact 
dimensions  and  planing  down  the  edges  when  ready.  Cross-garnet  or  T  hinges 
are  the  best  suited  to  bearing  the  weight  of  the  doors.  For  the  two  largest  (e 
and  /),  the  IG-in.  size  will  be  required,  as  the  strain  is  great  from  the  side.  All  the 
other  flaps  and  doors  have  the  10-in.  size.  The  hinges  should  be  so  placed  that 
the  f-in.  screws  fixing  them  may  be  in  the  centre  of  the  plank.  The  doors  which  form 
integral  parts  of  the  divisions  of  the  house,  necessary  to  be  weather-tight  and  warm, 
should  be  nicely  constructed,  and  some  trouble  taken  in  fitting  will  be  amply  repaid. 
The  flaps  to  the  dry  shed  are  not  so  essential,  and  less  care  may  be  expended  upon 
them.  Should  the  doors  warp  in  the  fixing,  no  great  anxiety  need  be  felt,  for  when 
they  have  been  hung  a  short  time  they  will  be  sure  to  regain  their  right  shape.  They 
should  all  be  secured  with  wooden  buttons.  The  window  and  other  apertures  should  be 
cut  when  the  match-lining  is  fixed,  a  key-saw  being  first  used.  They  will  not  lessen 
the  strength  of  the  walls  if  cut  in  the  centre  of  the  planks. 

The  exterior  of  the  fowl-house  'should  now  receive  its  first  coat  of  paint,  3  coats  being 
the  rule.  Priming  of  the  ordinary  description  may  be  used  for  the  first.  If  prepared 
priming  be  used,  it  is  the  more  necessary  to  paint  swiftly,  as  it  dries  in  almost  im- 
mediately. About  12  lb.  of  paint  will  be  needed  for  the  first  coat.  The  main  thing  to 
be  observed  is  that  the  beading  shall  be  properly  covered,  and  therefore  the  better  plan 
is  to  paint  this  first  carefully,  and  afterwards  go  over  the  planks,  filling  in  all  white 
places  wherever  they  may  be  noticed.  If  beading  and  planking  were  treated  simul- 
taneously, it  would  be  diflicult  to  discover  whether  the  former  had  been  properly  done. 
For  the  second  coat  about  the  same  proportion  of  lead  colour  should  be  laid  thinly  on, 
and  these  2  coats  should  suffice  to  jjreserve  the  wood  efi'ectually.  The  third  coat  may 
be  according  to  fancy. 

On  reference  to  Fig.  COS,  showing  the  left  side  of  the  house,  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
is  a  small  opening  I,  9  in.  high  by  G  in.  wide,  with  a  circular  top.  This  is  the  entrance 
for  the  fowls,  and  it  is  closed  with  a  sliding  panel.  When  desirous  of  keeping  this  panel 
raised,  a  loop  of  wire  attached  to  a  screw  in  it  may  be  slipped  over  a  second  screw  placed 
a  few  inches  above  it  on  the  side  of  the  house.  To  prevent  the  sliding  glasses  of  the 
windows  from  being  withdrawn  too  far,  a  screw  should  be  driven  in  almost  flush  some 
few  inches  beyond  the  aperture  on  the  side  to  which  each  j^aue  is  slipped. 

To  complete  the  front  of  the  house,  2  planks  o,  cut  to  an  ornamental  pattern,  are 
nailed  under  the  eaves,  but  not  close  up  to  the  match-lining,  the  intention  being  to  allow  a 
current  of  air  to  ascend  under  them,  finding  its  way  to  the  channel  on  the  ridge  of  the 
roof.  These  boards  may  be  mortised  into  a  spike  p,  which  gives  a  finish  to  the  whole, 
and  nailed  at  their  further  extremities  to  the  projecting  strip  of  wood  running  under  the 
zinc  plates  at  each  side  of  the  house.  On  the  right  side  of  the  building,  3  pigeon-holes  r 
are  provided.     These  should  be  cut  in  a  permanent  partition,  their  measurement  being 


CARrENTRY— Construction.  317 

6  in.  by  4  in.  The  partition  should  be  nailed  to  the  inner  side  of  tlie  uprij^hts  and  2 
shelves,  one  under  each  opening,  added  to  serve  as  an  alighting  board,  which  ought  not 
to  measure  less  than  6  in.  in  width. 

The  interior  remains  to  be  dealt  with.  As  a  preliminary,  any  spare  mortar  sand 
and  lime  may  be  thrown  into  the  dry  run,  where  it  will  tread  down  and  form  an 
excellent  floor.  As  a  means  of  protection  against  the  burrowing  of  rats,  whilst  retaining 
the  advantages  of  the  moisture  of  the  natural  soil,  a  length  of  IS-in.  galvanized  wire- 
work,  1  in.  mesh,  shouhl  be  placed  on  the  floor  of  the  breeding  compartment.  A  little 
mortar  will  be  sufficient  to  keep  it  in  position . 

In  the  whole  interior  is  but  one  permanent  iiartition— that  is,  there  is  a  single  part 
only  wLich  is  nailed,  all  the  other  portions  being  removable  at  pleasure.  The  exception 
is  the  boarding  which  divides  the  breeding  compartment  and  pigeon-loft  above  it,  from 
the  dry  shed  aud  roosting-house.  If  the  first  pair  of  rafters  from  the  back  have  been 
placed  to  correspond  witii  the  uprights  2  ft.  from  the  rear,  as  shown  in  Fig.  600,  the 
match-lining,  nailed  vertically,  may  be  secured  to  them  at  the  toil,  and  to  the  uppermost 
joist  at  the  bottom,  taking  care  to  nail  the  planks  on  the  side  to  allow  the  top  of  the 
joist  to  remain  free  to  support  the  flooring  of  the  pigeon-loft.  No  difficulty  will  be  met 
with  if  the  match-lining  be  sawn  into  2  lengths,  the  shorter  to  reach  from  the  roof  to 
the  first  pair  of  joists  in  tlie  smaller  part  of  the  house  on  the  one  side,  and  the  longer 
planks  to  be  nailed  to  the  same  pair  of  joists  on  the  opposite  side,  and  to  extend  to  the 
ground,  in  which  a  piece  of  quartering  3  in.  by  3  in.  should  be  sunk  as  a  stop.  If  the 
measurements  are  a  little  out,  a  fillet  of  wood  nailed  to  the  joists  will  make  everything 
easy.  As  regards  the  flooring,  all  that  requires  to  be  done  is  that  broad  planks  be  sawn 
to  the  exact  length,  and  fitted  to  extend  from  back  to  front.  The  boarding  need  not  be 
of  more  than  f -in.  stuff,  but  the  broader  the  planks  the  better,  for  they  will  be  easier  to 
remove  when  it  is  desired  to  cleanse  them,  or  for  any  other  purpose,  and  the  quicker  to 
replace  when  that  purpose  is  accomplished.  If  the  flooring  be  of  a  slight  nature,  how- 
ever, a  plank  strong  enough  to  bear  a  man's  weight  should  be  made  fast  in  the  centre  of 
the  fowl-house,  for  it  will  be  found  convenient  to  stand  upon  it,  and  so  obtain  command 
over  every  corner  of  the  roof.  The  flooring  in  the  pigeon-loft  is  best  made  of  planed 
wood,  as  it  is  the  most  easy  to  clean.  The  advantage  of  having  it  loose  is  obvious,  for  by 
lifting  one  or  two  of  the  planks  the  whole  of  the  loft  may  be  easily  reached  by  a  person 
entering  the  breeding-place  underneath. 

In  the  roosting-house,  there  remain  to  be  fitted  the  nests  aud  the  perches.    The 
former  consist  of  a  strip  of  wood,  4  ft.  in  length  and  4  in.  high,  which  forms  the  front  to 
a  set  of  4  egg-boxes,  each  12  in.  wide,  and  without  bottom,  which  are  simply  made  by 
nailing  at  every  foot  an  upright  piece  of  board  II  in.  wide  and 
18  in.  high.     Stability  may  be  given  to  them  by  a  thin  length 
of  wood,  nailed  along  the  top.     As  a  back  to  this  row  of  nests, 
a  piece  of  wood  4  in.  high   should   be    dropped  into  grooves 
attached  to  the  uprights  of  the  building  on  the  right  and  left 
of  flap  h,  against  which  the  skeleton  boxes  should  be  set  so  that 
a  person  by  lifting  the  flap  may  take  the  eggs  out  of  the  boxes 
without  entering  the  house.    The  reason  why  the  back  of  the 
nests  should  be  movable,  is  that  they  may  be  cleaned  without 
inconvenience.     The  arrangement  of  the  nests  and  perches  is 
shown  by  Fig.  606.     a  is  tiie  skirting  nailed  to  the  front  of  the 
boxes ;  h,  the  movable  back  running  in  grooves  at  each  end ;  ^i 

c,  the  hinged  flap  on  the  outside  of  the  building;  d,  a  wide  ^ 

shelf  resting  upon,  but  not  attached  to,  brackets,  and  serving  a 

double  purpose :  first  as  a  roof  to  the  egg-boxes  beneath,  giving  them  that  privacy  in 
which  laying  hens  delight ;  and,  second,  as  a  tray  to  catch  the  droppings  of  the  fowls 
I'oostiug  upon  the  perch  e,  which  is  slipped  into  sockets  4  in.  above  it.    This  plan  is 


318  Cakpentey — Construction. 

higlily  desirable,  conducing  as  it  does  to  the  rapid  and  effectual  cleansing  of  the  house 
daily.  The  shelf  -will  also  serve  to  prevent  the  fowls  from  an  upward  draught,  which 
may  arise  from  deficiencies  in  fitting  the  floor-boards. 

The  fittings  of  the  pigeon-loft  consist  of  a  shelf  placed  12  in.  above  the  flooring,  on 
-which  is  an  oblong  box,  without  top  or  bottom,  and  divided  in  the  centre  so  as  to  form 
a  pair  of  nests,  which  are  reached  by  an  alighting  board.  A  similar  contrivance  is  on 
the  floor  below  it,  and  other  lockers  may  be  put  elsewhere  if  required.  A  house  of  the 
dimensions  stated  should  accommodate  with  comfort  6  fancy  pigeons  and  8  or  9  adult 
fowls,  besides  chickens.  In  regard  to  the  latter,  when  a  hen  becomes  broody  her  proper 
jilace  is  in  the  compartment  reached  by  door  c,  where  a  nest  may  be  made  up  for  her 
■with  3  bricks  and  some  moist  earth.  So  soon  as  the  chicks  are  hatched,  they  may  be 
allowed  the  run  of  the  compartment,  and  as  they  grow  older  may  be  given  the  use  ot 
one  yard,  from  which  the  grown  fowls  are  excluded  by  closing  flap  i.  Should  great 
pressure  be  felt  in  respect  to  accommodation  for  young  chickens,  an  excellent  rim 
sheltered  from  the  weather  is  furnished  by  the  dry  shed  under  the  roosting  house,  the 
adult  fowls  being  temporarily  deprived  of  it  by  dropping  flaps  d  and  i.  Sunshine  and 
air,  combined  with  perfect  safety  from  cats  and  vermin,  may  be  afforded  by  wiring  in, 
■with  1-in.  mesh  netting,  the  front  side  of  the  run ;  and  if  a  piece  of  small  quartering  be 
secured  to  the  bottom  of  the  wirework,  whilst  the  top  depends  from  staples  driven  into 
the  joist  above  it,  the  protecting  barrier  may  be  readily  raised  when  food  and  water  are 
to  be  given. 

The  fowls  enter  the  house  from  the  yards  by  the  side  doorway  already  described,  which 
they  reach  by  means  of  a  ladder  made  of  a  plank,  ■with  half  a  dozen  steps  of  beading  4 
or  5  in.  apart.  If  a  staple  be  driven  through  the  plank  and  the  flap  d,  a  peg  will  suffice 
to  keep  both  in  position ;  by  withdrawing  the  peg,  the  flap  falls  and  the  dry  shed  is  closed 
in,  whilst  the  ladder  remains  in  its  proper  place.  With  regard  to  the  yards,  the  uprights 
are  of  ii^-in.  by  U-in.  quartering,  mortised  into  a  bed  of  3-in.  by  3-in.  stuff.  The  rafters 
are  2  in.  by  Ih  in.  The  wire  below  is  1-in.  mesh  nailed  to  a  plank  1  ft.  high.  For 
the  remaining  portion  of  the  runs,  li-in.  mesh  netting  is  used.  A  door  is  at  each 
extremity.  Following  is  a  statement  of  the  actual  cost  of  materials  required  for  the 
combined  pigeon  and  poultry  house,  exclusive  of  the  yards : — 

£    s.    d. 

Quartering  . .  0  18    0 

Odd  planking         . .         . .         . .         ..026 

Bricks  and  Lime    . .         . .         . .  ..036 

Wood  (beading) 0    2     0 

Hinges  062 

Zinc  for  Eoofing , .     0  14     0 

Match-lining  1  14     6 

Glass  019 

Paint  0  14     0 

Nails  and  Screws    . .         . .         . .         ..037 


£5    0    0 


The  same  writer  in  Amaleur  Worlc  suggests  a  useful  adjunct  to  the  preceding 
arrangement,  for  the  breeding  season,  to  supply  the  following  demands :  (1)  secluded 
spots  for  sitting  hens,  the  nests  placed  on  the  ground,  so  that  the  eggs  may  benefit  by 
the  natural  moisture  of  the  earth  ;  (2)  dry  runs  for  young  cliickens,  in  which  they  may 
be  housed  with  the  mother  hen  during  wet  or  windy  weather  ;  (3)  dust  bath  and  ash 
bos  for  the  growing  broods,  chickens  being  particularly  plagued  by  insects  ;  (4)  coops  for 
fattening  cockerels  for  killing.   For  pigeons,  the  most  pressing  demands  are  :  (1)  pairing 


CAErENTEY — Construction. 


319 


pens ;  (2)  hospital  quarters  for  lame  birds ;  (3)  cages  for  prize  pigeons,  or  valuable  speci- 
mens. To  supply  these  requisitions,  if  tlie  articles  be  purchased  separately  from  makers, 
must  entail  considerable  oxitlay ;  while  for  the  home  construction  of  a  suitable  con- 
trivance, the  cost  for  material  should  not  exceed  15s. 

Fig.  607  is  a  sketch  of  the  completed  house.  Tier  a  is  a  portion  allotted  to  pigeons, 
and  as  the  flooring  does  not  extend  for  more  than  j  of  the  length  the  birds  can 
readily  obtain  access  to  it  from  below,  where  on  tier  b  they  are  provided  witli  a  run, 
partly  roofed,  and  a  compartment  in  which  to  nest,  reached  by  lioles,  and  placed  within 
command  of  the  owner  by  means  of  a  door  on  the  outside.  The  remaining  lower  half 
of  the  house  is  apportioned  to  chickens.  On  tier  c  are  two  boxes— one  containing  limo 
and  loam,  the  other  cinder-ashes  and  calcined  bones.  These  boxes  are  easily  lifted, 
and  as  they  serve  to  roof  over  the  run  underneath,  means  of  reaching  the  innermost 
recesses  of  that  part  are  at  once  at  hand.  The  sketch  represents  this  lower  run  shut 
in  by  2  flaps  d  e.  Behind  the  front  and  larger  flap  d  galvanized  wlrework  is  perma- 
nently fastened.  In  the  case  of  the  smaller  flap  e,  this  wirework  is  stretched  on  a  frame 
swinging  from  above,  and  so  arranged  that,  fastened  back  at  an  ascertained  angle,  the 
chickens  fiud  room  for  free  ingress  and  egress  under  it,  whilst  the  hen  is  not  permitted 
to  have  her  liberty,  the  aperture  not  allowing  of  her  escape.  In  fine  weather,  both  the 
outer  flaps  are  opened,  thus  allowing  the  light  to  enter  the  run,  and  in  themselves  pro- 
viding platforms,  of  which  the  chickens  avail  themselves  when  basking  in  the  sunlight. 
Closed,  the  flaps  effectually  exclude  wind  and  wet,  and  render  the  quarters  warm  and 
secure ;  and  again,  when  both  are  fastened  down,  there  is  ample  room  for  2  broody  hens, 
which  do  not  appreciate  too  much  light,  and  require  to  sit  on  the  soil.  The  same  space 
may  be  converted  into  fattening  pens  for  cockerels  whenever  occasion  arises. 

In  the  construction  of  the  house,  the  measurements  were  decided  witli  special  reference 
to  the  economical  use  of  wood  as  purchased  in  small  quantities  at  a  timber  yard.  The 
framework  is  formed  of  quartering  IJ  in.  sq.  obtainable  retail  in  lengths  of  12  ft.,  at 
5d.  per  length.  Fig.  608  gives  an  idea  of  the  skeleton  of  the  whole,  and  Fig.  60t> 
depicts  a  frame,  of  which  it  is  necessary  to  make  2 — one  for  each  end  of  the  house, 
which  is  6  ft.  in  height  and  2  ft.  in  depth,  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  frame.  The 
frames,  stood  up  on  end,  4  ft.  apart,  are  braced  together  on  either  side  by  widths  of 


607. 


60S. 


_,^--^^^ 

^^..-'^ 

A 

Cb 

^""^ 

h 

^ 
^ 

r-^- 

c 

-"""^^^"^ 

^ 

j 

< 4' 

ct 

Y 

_-— -^ — 

.^..^--'''''''^ 

quartering,  put  IS  in.  from  top  and  bottom.  As  to  how  the  frames  are  made.  Fig.  610 
represents  the  bottom  corner,  a  being  the  detached  pieces  of  wood  before  they  are  screwed 
together.  Fig.  611  in  the  same  way  shows  the  cross-bar  mortice.  Fig.  612  gives  a 
portion  of  the  left-hand  corner  of  the  entire  skeleton,  a  being  the  cross  braces,  4  ft.  in 
length,  and  h  the  bar  bisecting  the  frame  shown  in  the  smaller  sketch  in  Fig.  608.  All 
the  joints  are  of  the  simplest  mortice ;  they  are  quite  good  enough  for  the  purpose  in 


320 


Caepentry — Construction. 


609. 


view,  for  every  board  hereafter  added  to  the  structure  increases  its  stability.  Order  5 
lengths  of  quartering,  and  these  can  be  cut  to  the  required  measurements  with  a 
minimum  of  waste. 

In  Figs.  607  and  608  on  tier  c  in  the  skeleton  sketch,  4  short  cross  pieces  connecting 
the  lower  pair  of  braces  are  shown.  These  can  be  of  f -in.  wood  2  in.  wide,  and  2  similar 
pieces  can  be  nailed  on  the  top  of  the  frames  from  corner  to  corner,  as 
an  additional  stay;  2  lengths  will  afford  sufficient  stuff.  With  the 
framework  thus  erected,  the  braces  on  tier  a  will  form  joists  for  the 
flooring,  which  is  to  go  |  only,  or  length  of  the  compartment.  This 
flooring  consists  of  pieces  of  f-in.  match-lining,  6  in.  wide.  The  rabbet 
and  groove  arrangement  locks  the  several  boards  into  one  safe  whole, 
which  answers  the  double  purpose — that  of  a  roof  to  the  nests  below, 
and  of  a  platform  upon  which  the  pigeons  parade  in  the  sunshine.  To 
maintain  a  rapid  disposal  of  rain-water,  give  this  platform  an  incline 
from  left  to  right,  which  may  be  done  by  nailing  a  tajjering  fillet  of  "^(^ 
wood  upon  one  end  of  the  joists.  The  same  plan  serves  for  the  flooring  ^ 
below,  which,  in  its  turn,  protects  the  ash-box  and  dust-bath  beneath ; 
in  this  case,  the  floor  boards  run  lengthways  instead  of  across,  and  the 
fillet  without,  being  tapered,  must  be  attached  to  the  cross  bar  of  the 
left-hand  frame. 

For  the  sake  of  economy,  it  is  best  to  employ  match-lining  on  the 
other  parts  of  the  house,  using  say  3  lengths  of  16  ft.  each  at  Id.  per  ft. 
run.    Match-lining  should  be  nailed  round  3  sides  of  tier  o,  as  shown  in  Fig.  608.     A 
door  15  in.  wide  is  made  by  battening  the  wood  together,  with  the  planed  surface  out- 
wards ;  it  can  be  hung  to  the  upright  by  means  of  6-in.  garnet  hinges,  at  3dt.  per  pair. 
To  divide  the  breeding  place  from  the  run,  a  few  pieces  of  board  nailed  together,  having 


612. 


611. 


610. 


pigeon-holes  cut  therein,  may  be  kept  in  position  by  means  of  a  slide  at  top  and^bottom ; 
it  will  also  be  necessary  to  board  in  that  portion  of  tier  b  at  the  side  and  back.  Tiers 
a  b  are  under  control  by  the  addition  of  the  door  at  one  end  ;  measuring  3  ft.  in  height 
and  2  ft.  in  breadth,  it  answers  for  closing  in  the  ends  of  both  tiers,  one  large  door 
being  more  convenient  and  practicable  than  2  small  ones.  •  This  door  is  a  light  frame, 


Caepentey— Construction.  321 

constructed  on  the  same  model  as  that  whioh  is  given  for  the  frame  in  Fig.  COD;  but  the 
quartering  used  is  only  1  in.  sq.,  the  price  being  2^cl.  per  length  of  12  ft. — of  wliich  cue 
will  be  just  enough.  It  may  be  attached  either  by  hinges  or  with  latches ;  the  latter 
permit  of  the  door  being  unhooked  and  carried  out  of  the  way.  To  complete  the  pigeon 
part  of  the  house,  wirework  is  wanted  to  enclose  the  vacant  spaces.  A  mesh  of  IJ  in. 
will  do,  taking  2  yd.,  2  ft.  wide,  and  4  yd.,  1  ft.  wide. 

On  tier  c,  all  tliut  needs  attention  is  the  fitting  of  a  skirting  to  cover  in  that  portion 
not  already  roofed,  by  the  2  boxes  shown.  Such  boxes  (old  brandy  cases)  which  are 
thoroughly  well  made,  and  measure  20  by  18  in.  may  be  bought  of  a  grocer  for  say  4rf. 
a  piece.     The  skirting  consists  of  the  match-lining  already  obtained. 

Tier  d  is  all  the  better  if  made  draught  free,  and  for  the  sake  of  warmth,  match- 
lining  may  give  place  to  stouter  planks,  unplaned,  with  which  board  iu  on  2  sides, 
one  end,  and  the  back  permanently.  The  flap,  or  front  is  of  like  material,  one  board  in 
width,  and  hung  by  garnet  or  T-hingcs  to  the  brace,  or  joist  above.  The  structure  is 
skirted  with  planks,  screwed  to  the  4  uprights.  At  one  extremity,  the  smaller  flap  e, 
drawn  partly  open  in  Fig.  608,  is  hung  in  a  similar  manner,  but  as  it  is  now  and  then 
required  to  be  thrown  right  up,  it  is  made  of  match-lining,  as  less  weighty.  It  has 
already  been  explained  that  under  the  flaps  wirework  (1-in.  mesh)  is  stretched  in  the 
front  as  a  permanency,  and  at  the  end  in  the  form  of  a  swing  door.  Fig.  613 
indicates  a  mode  which  answers  to  confine  hen  and  chickens,  or  hen  alone,  at  will, 
according  to  the  angle  at  which  the  door  is  raised  and  suspended  by  a  stay-hook. 

Below  is  a  detailed  account  of  expenditure  for  materials ;  by  working  with  screws 
instead  of  nails  throughout,  every  part  may  be  rendered  easily  detachable  and  capable 
of  being  packed  away  in  small  compass,  either  for  removal  when  changing  resideuce,  or 
storage  during  the  winter  months. 

Cost  of  Materials. 
5  12-ft.  lengths  quartering,  li  in.  square,  at  5c7. . . 

2  „         „         f -in.  stuff,  by  2  in.,  at  5d. 

3  16-ft.     ,,  f-in.  match-lining,  6  in.  wide,  at  Id.  per  ft.  run 
1  12-ft.     „  1-in.  quartering,  at  21^.  .. 

1  „         „         1-in.  planking,  11  in.,  at  Is. 

2  old  brandy  cases,  20  by  18  in.,  at  id.     .. 

3  pair  6-in.  garnet  hinges,  at  3d.   .. 
Nails  and  screws,  catches,  say 
2  yd.  wirework,  l^-in.  mesh,  2  ft.  wide,  at  id.     .. 

4  „  „  „  „  1  ft.  wide,  at  2ci.  ., 
2  „  „  1-in.  mesh,  1  ft.  wide,  at  4d.  . . 
Paint  (3  coats) 


Hive.— The  construction  of  a  good  bar-frame  hive  at  a  low  cost  out  of  an  old  tea- 
chest  is  thus  described  by  A.  Watkins. 

Materials.— A  full-sized  or  Indian  tea-chest,  another  packing-case,  at  least  6  in.  longer 
than  the  tea-chest,  containing  some  sound  J-in.  boards.  Have  the  lids  with  the  boxes. 
The  2  will  cost  at  the  grocer's  Is.  to  Is.  3d.  The  tea-chest  is  left  whole  to  make 
the  body  of  the  hive ;  the  other  box  is  knocked  down  for  tho  boards  in  it.  In  the 
frames,  a  piece  of  best  pinejis  necessary  2  ft.  by  11  in. ;  have  it  sawn  by  the  circular 
into  2  equal  boards::  they  will  be  f  in.  thick.  If  at  the  same  time  you  could  get  these 
boards  sawn  into  strips  |  in.  wide,  it  will  save  a  deal  of  trouble.  You  will  also  want  a 
bit  of  l-in.  board  for  cutting  up  into  strips  for  the  bottom  of  the  super  case ;  17  in.  by 

Y 


s. 

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2 

1 

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10 

4 

0 

0 

3 

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0 

0 

8 

0 

9 

1 

5 

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8 

0 

8 

0 

8 

1 

0 

14 

0 

322 


Cabpentry — Construction. 


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i 

f 


G  in.  -will  do.     1  lb.  of  1^-in.  wire  nails,  and  a  few  of  the  deepest  round  flat-headed 
shoe-nails,  to  be  had  from  the  currier's,  will  also  be  wanted. 

Frames.— These  are  to  be  made  first.  If  your  pine  board  is  not  already  cut  up  into 
|-in.  strips,  you  must  do  so  by  means  of  a  cutting  gauge  (not  a  marking-gauge).  Set 
the  cutting  knife  |  in.  from  the  movable  block,  the  knife  projecting  a  full  \  in.  Make 
a  cut  along  one  edge  of  the  board,  keeping  the  block  tightly  pressed  against  it.  Do  the 
same  on  the  other  side,  and  a  strip 

of  wood  \  in.  wide  will  easily  break  6i4. 

off.  The  whole  of  the  boards  must 
be  cut  up  into  strips,  and  it  will  bo 
well  to  plane  the  edges.  Cut  the 
strips  to  exact  length.  You  will 
want  11  for  top  bars  15^  in.  (bare) 
long,  10  for  bottom  bars,  14  in.  long, 
20  for  side  bars  7f  in.  long.  Cut 
them  off  exactly  square.  The  frames 
(as  shown  in  Fig.  614)  must  now  be 
nailed  together  in  the  frame  block. 
They  are  of  the  Association  size, 
but  with  a  shorter  top  bar  (15J  in. 
i  nstead  of  17  in.).  This  makes  the 
hive  and  super  case  simpler  to  make 
than  with  a  long  top  bar.  The  top, 
sides,  and  bottom  of  frame  are  made 
of  the  same  thickness  of  wood  for 
the  sake  of  simplicity ;  but  if  the 
hive-maker  possesses  a  circular  saw, 
he  may  follow  the  Association  di- 
mensions exactly.  The  frame  under  consideration  has  the  same  outside  dimensions  as 
the  Association,  and  will  fit  into  any  Association  hive. 

Frame  Block. — A  piece  of  board,  thickness  not  important,  is  cut  ofl'  17  in.  long,  and 

are  nailed  across  the 


''m'/wM^/wwM/A)mw///ww,'}^^;//'w/m^ 


tO* 


\cu 


long, 


615. 


fa 

a 

.1 

^^ 

0 
Q 

a 

Q 

82  in.  deep;  2  strips  (a,  Fig.  615),  1  in.  square,  and  8 J-  in. 
ends  exactly  square,  and  with  a  space  of  14  in.  between. 
The  ends  of  the  strips  are  level  with  one  edge  of  the  board. 
Another  1-in.  striji  b  is  pivoted  in  the  centre  by  a  screw,  the 
ends  are  rounded  off",  and  the  sides  are  held  firmly  while 
being  nailed.  Two  nails  are  driven  half-way  in  15|  in.  apart, 
and  serve  to  keep  the  top  bar  in  its  place  while  being  nailed. 

Division  Board. — This  hangs  in  the  hive  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  frames  d,  Fig.  616.     A  piece  of  J-in.  board  is 

cut  14i  in.  long,  and  Si  in.  wide;  a  top  bar  15J  in.  long  nailed  to  the  top  edge,  and 
2  1-in.  strips  across  the  ends  to  keep  it  from  warping. 

Distance  Guides  for  Frames. — Advanced  bee-keepers  often  dispense  with  these,  but 
they  are  useful  to  a  beginner.  The  flat-headed  shoenails  are  driven  into  each  side  of  the 
top  bar  (4  to  each  frame),  1|  in.  from  each  end;  the  distance  between  the  heads  of  the 
nails  should  be  1^  in.,  so  that  the  frames  will  be  that  distance  apart  from  centre  to 
centre,  when  hung  in  the  hive  ;  they  are  indicated  in  Fig.  614  by  small  circles  on  the 
line  above  e. 

Body  of  Hive. — The  stand  and  flight  board  a  h,  Fig.  616,  should  be  made  first ;  they 
are  fixtures  to  the  hive ;  2  pieces  of  board,  4  in.  wide  and  as  thick  as  convenient  (not  less 
than  1  in.),  are  cut  with  one  end  slanting,  the  shorter  side  the  same  length  as  the  outside 
width  of  the  chest,  the  longer  6  in.  more.  They  are  nailed  on  edge  underneath  the 
bottom  of  the  chest,  and  the  flight  board  h,  7i  in.  by  J  in.  and  the  same  length  as  the 


Carpentry — Construction. 


323 


cliest,  is  naileJ  on  the  sloping  ends.  Tlie  entrance  slit,  4  in.  long  and  ^  in.  high,  can  now 

be  cut ;  it  is  shown  by  clotted  lines  in  Fig.  614.     In  order  to  fit  np  the  interior  of  the 

hive  to  receive  the  frames,  2  pieces  of  J-in.  board  8h  in.  wide,  and  the  same  length  as  the 

interior  width  of  the  chest  (from  back  to  front),  are  prepared.     One  edge  of  each  is 

bevelled  for  the  frames  to  rest  on, 

and  a  strip  of  ^-in.  wood  e,  Fig.  G14,  6ie. 

about  2  in.  wide  and  the  same  length 

as  the  board,  is  nailed  to  the  bevelled 

side,  and  =  in.  above  the  top  edges ; 

then  a  stout  strip  is  nailed  across 

the  ends  of  tbe  boards  on  the  same 

side  as  the  top  strip.     The  2  boards 

thus  prepared  have  now  to  bo  nailed 

across    the    chest    exactly   lih  in. 

apart;  but  before  doing  so,  it  will 

be  well  to  clearly  understand  their 

use.    They  form  the  support  for  the 

frames,  the  projecting  ends  of  which 

hang  on  the  thin  upper  edges.     It 

will  be  seen  that  the  frames  do  not 

touch  in  any  other  jmrt,  but  that 

there  is  "  bee  space  "  between  them 

and  the   sides  and   bottom.      This 

space   is    important,   therefore   the 

outside  size  of  the  frames  and  the 

inside  size  of  that  part  of  the  hive 

which  contains  them  should  always  be  exact.     In  nailing  the  2  boards  across  the  inside 

of  the  chest  (as  shown  in  d,  Fig.  G14)  the  division  board  will  form  a  good  guide  to  keep 

them  the  requisite  14|  in.  apart,  and  as  it  is  ditScidt  to  nail  from  the  outside  into  the 

ends,  it  will  be  best  to  nail  from  the  inside,  through  the  strips  at  the  ends  of  the 

boards. 

Super  Case. — Sectional  supers  are  used  by  most  advanced  bee-keepers  ;  they  can  be 
bought  much  cheaper  and  better  than  they  can  be  made,  and  as  the  most  used  (and  pro- 
bably the  best)  size  is  4|  in.  sq.  holding  when  filled  1  lb.  of  honey,  a  case  will  be  de- 
scribed to  take  that  size.  A  bottomless  box  (c,  Fig.  614)  is  made  of  J-in.  board,  4^  in. 
(full)  deep,  and  16§  in.  by  15J  in.  outside  measurement.  Four  strips  (7t,  Fig.  614),  each 
15§  in.  by  IJ  in.  by  J  in.,  are  nailed  across  the  bottom  of  the  box,  being  let  in  flush  ;  2  of 
them  are  at  the  outside,  the  other  2  at  equal  distances,  forming  3  equal  spaces  between ; 
4  strips  (i.  Fig.  614)  141  in.  by  ^  in.  by  ^  in.  are  nailed  on  the  top  of  the  wide  strips,  the 
2  outer  ones  against  the  sides  of  the  box,  the  others  on  the  centre  of  the  strips.  There 
must  be  a  space  of  a  little  more  than  4J  in.  between  these  strips,  as  they  serve  to  keep 
the  sections  the  right  distance  apart.  21  sections,  7  in  each  row,  are  placed  in  the  case  : 
they  do  not  quite  fill  it;  but  a  thin  board  15§  in.  by  4^  in.,  with  notches  cut  out  of  the 
lower  edge  to  fit  over  the  strips,  serves  to  wedge  them  up  together.  "  Separators  "  made 
of  tin,  or  exceedingly  thin  wood,  not  thicker  than  cardboard,  each  15J  in.  by  3J  in.,  are 
placed  between  the  sections,  as  shown  by  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  614.  They  are  necessary 
to  keep  the  combs  from  bulging  into  each  other  :  if  they  are  not  used,  the  sections,  when 
filled,  can  only  be  packed  in  the  order  in  which  they  come  out  of  the  hive.  The  section 
case  is  shown  in  its  place  iu  Fig.  614,  but  omitted  in  Fig.  616. 

Roof. — This  is  the  most  unsatisfactory  part  of  a  laj-ge  hive  like  this  to  make.  The 
chief  fault  is  that  it  is  heavy  and  cumbersome  to  lift  ofl:'.  A  good  carpenter,  with  new 
boards  to  work  on,  would  do  better  to  make  the  roof  of  a  gable  shape  instead  of  flat, 
and  it  would  be  worth  while  to  try  the  waterproof  paper  roofing,  which  is  not  expensive, 

Y  2 


324 


Carpentry — Construction. 


and  very  light.  To  describe  the  one  illustrated :  its  sides  are  made  sloping  like  a  desk 
or  garden  frame,  and  large  enough  to  slip  easily  over  the  hive  top  like  the  lid  of  a  box. 
The  front  of  the  roof  (h.  Fig.  610)  may  be  7  in.  deep,  and  the  back  2  in.,  so  that  they 
may  both  be  cut  out  of  one  length,  and  the  two  sloping  sides  out  of  another  length  of 
9-in.  board.  The  flat  top  is  nailed  on  the  top  of  this  frame,  projecting  1|  in.  to  2  in.  all 
round  ;  the  joints,  wliich  must  run  from  back  to  front,  should  be  as  close  as  possible,  and 
thin  strips  of  board  1  in.  wide  sliould  be  nailed  over  them.  If  the  boards  are  smooth, 
the  roof  may  be  well  painted ;  if  not,  treated  to  a  thick  coating  of  pitch,  melted  in  a  pot 
and  apj^lied  hot  (mind  it  does  not  boil  over).  If  the  boards  which  make  the  roof  ar& 
very  rough  and  uneven,  it  may  be  well  to  cover  them  with  common  roofing  felt  (cost  Id. 
per  sq.  ft.).  In  this  case  the  strips  on  joints  should  be  omitted.  A  block  of  wood 
(?M,  Fig.  616)  must  be  nailed  inside  the  front,  2  in.  from  the  bottom  edge,  to  keep  the 
roof  from  slipping  down  the  hive,  and  a  1-in.  ventilation  hole,  covered  with  perforated 
zinc,  bored  in  the  back  and  front.  The  hive  is  now  complete ;  but,  before  putting  a 
swarm  in,  the  frames  must  be  fitted  with  was  guides.  Most  bee-keepers  now  use  full 
sheets  of  comb  foundation ;  but  if  this  is  not  done,  a  thin  line  of  melted  wax  must  be 
run  along  the  centre  of  the  under  side  of  top  bar.  A  quilt  must  be  laid  on  the  frames ; 
a  single  thickness  of  China  matting  (from  the  outside  of  tea  chests)  is  best  for  the  first 
layer,  as  the  bees  cannot  bite  it,  and  above  it  2  or  3  thicknesses  of  old  carpet.  The  hive 
is  not  a  mere  makeshift  one,  but  can  be  used  to  advantage  on  any  system,  as  there  is 
plenty  of  room  at  the  rear  to  add  more  than  the  10  frames,  if  extracted  honey  be  the 
object ;  or  frames  of  supers  can  be  hung  behind  the  brood  frames.  It  can  also  be  packed 
with  chaff  or  other  warm  material  during  winter  if  thought  necessary.  Of  course  a 
couple  of  coats  of  paint  will  be  an  improvement.  Frames  placed  across  the  entrance  are 
much  better  than  if  running  from  back  to  front :  the  first  comb  acts  as  a  screen,  and 
brood  is  found  in  the  combs  clear  down  to  the  bottom  bar. 

Forcing -frames. — The  construction  of  the  wooden  portion  of  forcing-frames  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  617,  and  described  below;  the  fixing  of  the  glass  portion  will  be  found 
under  Glazing.     A  convenient  length   for  the  frame  is  6  ft.,  and  the  width  may  be 

617. 


T~^-±-± 


-A_ 


<^ 

^^'^ 

"'"'^'1'-'^ 

^^^ 

1     ) 

44 

cu 

r     1     ^ 

1     1     f 
(    1 

4*f 

1     ■ 

\      ! 

either  4  ft.  for  single  or  8  ft.  for  double  size.  It  is  an  advantage  to  have  a  frame  that 
will  take  to  pieces,  and  the  one  shown  is  designed  with  that  object.  The  sides  a,  foot  6, 
and  head  c  are  of  1  j-in.  deal.  The  top  edge  of  the  sides  a  is  cut  with  a  slope  so  as  to  allow 
the  glass  lid  to  be  at  an  angle  of  about  22°  30' ;  therefore  if  the  foot  &  is  1  ft.  high,  the 
head  c  on  a  frame  6  ft.  long  will  be  over  3  ft.  high.  The  ends  of  the  foot  and  head 
boards  6  c  are  halved  into  the  ends  of  the  sides  6,  so  as  to  make  a  good  joint.  Into  the 
ends  of  &  c,  staples  are  driven,  and  notches  are  cut  out  of  a  to  admit  them  ;  small  bars  or 
wedges  are  thrust  into  the  projecting  loops  of  these  staples  in  order  to  secure  the  sides 
and  ends  together  in  place.  Halved  into  the  top  edge  of  the  sides  a  are  2  strips  d, 
measuring  about  2  in.  by  1  in.  These  are  firmly  screwed  to  the  sides  and  constitute 
guards  for  the  sliding  sash  e,  to  prevent  it  slipping  sideways  off  the  frame.    In  a  double 


Carpentry — Construction. 


325 


frame  there  must  be  a  central  bar,  3  in.  by  2  in.,  run  from  tlic  head  to  the  foot  of  the 
frame  to  carry  the  inner  cJgcs  of  the  sashes,  and  this  should  have  a  strip  f  in.  wide 
placed  edgewise  down  the  middle  to  separate  the  2  sashes.  On  the  top  edges  of  the  sides 
a,  and  similarly  in  the  upper  surface  of  the  central  bar,  little  channels  should  be  grooved 
out  to  carry  away  any  water  that  may  find  its  way  under  the  edge  of  the  sashes.  Tlic 
sashes  themselves  are  made  of  2-iu.  by  1-in.  quartering,  dovetailed  at  the  corners,  with 
small  bars  for  carrying  the  glass,  as  described  on  p.  348. 

Greenliouses. — Fig.  GIS  illustrates  the  construction  of  a  greenhouse  with  a  span  roof 
20  ft.  wide,  as  recommended  by  E.  Luckhurst  in  the  Journal  of  Horticulture.  Following 
are  the  details : — 

The  Roof. — This  is  only  5  ft.  high  at  the  eaves,  and  10  ft.  at  the  apex.  It  consists 
simply  of  fixed  rafters  mortised  into  a  ridgc-board  at  top,  and  an  eave-board  at  bottom. 


618. 


^  [Z:! 


W 


The  width  of  the  ridge-board  a  depends  upon  that  of  the  sashbars ;  2  in.  will  be  thick 
enough  for  the  house  treated  of.  b  represents  the  beading  fastened  by  screws  or 
nails  to  the  top  of  the  ridge-board,  to  preserve  it  from  the  action  of  the  weather,  as  well 
as  to  impart  finish  to  building,  a  also  shows  how  the  sashbars  are  mortised  into  the 
ridge-board,  and  how  a  groove  c  for  the  glass  is  ploughed  in  the  ridgc-board  above  each 
tenon.  In  glazing,  especial  care  must  be  taken  to  thrust  the  glass  to  the  top  of  these 
grooves,  so  as  to  make  the  ridge  weather-proof.  The  size  of  the  sashbars  is  determined 
by  their  length,  and  whether  it  is  intended  to  strengthen  the  roof  with  stays,  or  pillars 
with  supports,  as  shown  in  d.    A  bar  of  the  form  shown  by  d,  2i  in.  by  |  in.  at  its 


326  Carpentry — Construction. 

•widest  part,  answers  very  ■well,  -with  every  fifth  bar  like  the  section  e,  in  size  3|  in.  by 
2  in.  When  interior  sujiports  are  not  used,  the  bars  should  be  3  in.  by  IJ  in.  -with  every 
eighth  bar  3i  in.  by  3  in.  The  eave-board  /  should  be  4  in.  by  2  in.,  bevelled  as  shown, 
and  with  a  small  semi-circular  groove  to  prevent  any  moisture  creeping  into  the  house, 
under  the  eaves,  as  will  happen  without  the  groove.  In  exposed  wiady  situations, 
additional  strength  may  readily  be  imparted  by  bolting  a  few  iron  braces  to  the  angles  of 
the  building  at  any  convenient  point,  as  shown  by  g.  Pieces  of  bar  iron  bent  to  the 
required  angle,  flattened,  and  holes  pierced  at  the  ends  by  a  blacksmith,  answer  admir- 
ably, and  are  neat  enough  in  appearance  when  painted.  To  those  who  prefer  the  usual 
plan  of  side  pillars,  h  will  be  useful,  as  showing  a  longitudinal  sectional  portion  of  such 
a  pillar,  with  a  slot  cast  in  the  top  to  admit  a  flat  iron  bar  on  edge,  running  along  under 
the  roof  from  end  to  end,  and  forming  a  capital  support,  so  light  as  to  make  no  appreciable 
shade,  and  yet  very  strong;  in  size  it  is  3  in.  by  J  in.  The  brackets  for  hangiug  shelves 
i  are  objectionable,  as  spoiling  the  appearance  of  the  interior ;  but  such  shelves  are  so 
useful  that  they  are  shown  where  to  be  placed,  for  the  guidance  of  those  who  are 
compelled  to  use  them.  The  roof  support  shown  is  considered  by  Luckhurst  preferable 
to  the  ordinary  style.  It  consists  of  central  pdlars  h,  with  arras  1,  the  pillars  being  jilaced 
about  9  ft.  apart.  The  hanging  baskets  m  are  suspended  by  chains  with  counter^TOise 
weights,  which  enables  them  to  bo  lowered  at  will  for  watering  and  insjiection. 

The  Sides. — Here  the  sashbars  are  similar  to  those  in  the  roof,  the  only  diff'erence 
being  in  the  large  size,  which,  as  they  help  to  support  the  roof,  are  3  in.  by  3.  They  are 
mortised  into  the  wall-plate  n,  which  is  about  6  in.  by  2i  in.  or  3,  as  may  prove  most 
suitable,  and  into  an  eave-plate  o  4  in.  by  2  J.  The  angle  pieces  p  for  the  corners  of  the 
building  are  4^  in.  by  3,  and  have  rebates  for  glazing  and  for  ventilators  to  shut  into. 
When  side  ventilators  are  iutroduced,  they  consist  simply  of  a  frame  2 J  in.  by  1^, 
grooved  for  the  glass,  with  sashbars  mortised  into  the  frame,  and  are  suspended  by 
hinges  to  a  fixed  bar,  2i  in.  by  1  J,  into  the  upper  side  of  which  the  top  side  fixed  sash- 
bars are  mortised.  Although  mention  is  made  of  side  ventilators,  it  is  by  no  means 
intended  to  imply  that  they  are  an  indispensable  necessity,  for  if  the  roof  ventilation 
be  put  through,  side  ventilation  is  not  wanted,  and  fixed  sides  point  of  course  to  a  con- 
siderable saving.  Let,  therefore,  the  roof  ventilators  run  from  end  to  end  of  the  roof 
and  consist  of  a  clear  space  of  quite  2  ft.  in  width,  so  as  to  admit  so  large  a  volume  of  air 
as  to  ensure  a  brisk  and  thorough  circulation.  Avoid  a  cheap  opening  apparatus  ;  let  it 
be  strong  and  yet  so  easy  that  a  touch  may  set  it  in  motion.  The  best  principle  is  that 
of  a  spiral  shaft  and  stout-jointed  levers  by  which  the  ventilators  may  be  regulated  to 
a  nicety.  The  brickwork  of  the  sides  and  ends  consists  of  5  coursjs  above  ground  and 
6  courses  below,  inclusive  of  the  footings.  The  walls  are  9  in.  thick,  and  the  footings 
are  respectively  131,  IS,  and  22J  in.,  so  that  1  yd.  in  length  of  wall  and  footings  will 
require  112  bricks  ;  and  to  make  enough  mortar  for  500  bricks  it  requires  3  bush,  new 
grey  lime  and  18  bush.  sand. 

The  doors  should  be  li  in.  in  thickness,  and  the  doorsteps  4  in.  by  3,  with  rebates 
and  beading  as  shown  by  t ;  one  for  door,  the  other  for  glass.  The  central  stage  has 
upright  supports  2  in.  by  2,  and  the  braces  are  3  in.  by  2.  The  strips  u  forming  the 
shelves  are  2  in.  by  1,  with  ^-iu.  spaces  between  every  2  strips.  The  woodwork  of  the 
side  stages  ■;;  is  of  the  same  size. 

The  glass  for  the  roof  is  21-oz.  seconds;  size  of  squares,  20  in.  by  12;  for  the  sides 
and  ends  IG-oz.  answers  very  well.  The  hot-water  pipes  are  4-in.,  and  slightly  elevated 
above  the  floor  on  pipe  stands  as  shown. 

Instead  of  the  pillars  I;  with  spreading  arms,  many  will  prefer  to  use  simple 
uprights  and  tie  the  main  rafters  together  across  the  house  by  iron  rods,  merely 
stepping  them  into  the  eaves  board  instead  of  mortising.  The  wall,  too,  may  with 
advantage  be  made  of  concrete,  where  the  materials  are  handy. 

Figs.  619  to  G21  represent  a  combined  greenhouse  and  potting  shed,  designed  to  be 


Carpentry — Construction. 


327 


portable.  It  is  span-roofed,  situated  so  as  to  be  exposed  on  all  but  the  north  side,  and 
erected  on  a  bed  of  earth  or  masonry  10  or  12  in.  above  the  surrounding  ground  and 
6  or  8  in.  wider  than  the  base  of  the  structure.  To  provide  against  the  building  being, 
disturbed  by  high  winds,  4  posts  about  2^  ft.  long,  and  5  in.  square,  are  driven  into  the 
ground  near  the  corners,  and  the  ground-plate  of  the  greenhouse  is  secured  to  them  by 
-|-in.  coach  screws.  The  size  of  the  combined  greenhouse  and  potting  shed  (the  latter 
being  at  the  north  end)  is  18  ft.  long  by  8  ft,  wide  outside.  The  ground-plate  a, 
running  all  round  the  base,  is  l^  in.  deep,  5  in.  wide,  and  is  formed  into  a  frame  8  ft. 
1  in.  wide  and  18  ft.  1  in,  long.  Fastened  at.  the  corners  arc  4  upright  posts  h,  4  in, 
sq,  and  kept  in  a  vertical  position  by  8  struts  c,  which  greatly  help  to  stiffen  the  frame- 
work, until  the  boards  are  fastened  over  it.    The  space  between  the  end  posts  is  divided 

619. 


on  either  side  of  the  house  into  5  equal  spaces  by  4  posts,  3  of  them  d  being  4  in.  by  3  in. 
and  the  fourth  e  4  in.  by  4  in.  This  latter  divides  the  potting  shed  from  the  green- 
house. These  are  all  4  ft.  9  in,  long,  and  as  they  are  mortised  into  the  wall-plate  /  at 
the  top,  and  the  ground-plate  a  at  the  bottom,  each  of  which  is  1^  in.  thick,  the  space 
between  the  wall-plate  and  ground-plate  is  4  ft.  6  in.  The  wall-plate / is  4  in.  wide; 
G  other  posts  g,  7  ft.  4  in.  long,  3  in.  thick,  and  4  in.  wide,  are  mortised  at  one  end  to  the 
ground-plate  a,  and  at  the  other  are  nailed  to  the  rafters  h.  Of  these,  2  at  cither  end 
form  the  door-posts,  of  which  the  doorways  i  are  6  ft.  3  in.  high  by  2  ft.  3  in.  wide. 
The  rafters  h  h  are  nailed  at  one  end  on  the  wall- plate  /,  and  on  the  other  to  the  ridge- 
board  I,  which  is  18  ft.  3  in.  long,  6  in.  deep,  and  1  in.  thick.  Those  lettered  h  are  2  in. 
by  3  in.  and  those  lettered  k  of  the  form  shown  in  section ;  they  are  all  4  ft.  9  in.  long. 


328 


Carpentry — Construction. 


These  rafters  can  be  piirchased  of  the  section  shown,  and  should  be  all  carefully  placed 
at  equal  distances,  when  the  width  must  be  measured,  and  the  glass  ordered  accordingly. 
To  ventilate  the  house,  about  9  in.  next  to  the  ridge-board  on  one  side  should  be 
unglazed,  and  the  space  covered  with  |-in.  board,  hinged  in  4  lengths  to  the  ridge- 
board,  and  arranged  so  as  to  be  easily  opened  from  the  inside,  as  shown  at  m,  and  the 
same  must  be  adopted  at  the  bottom  of  the  opposite  rafters,  where  4  lengths  of  board  n 
are  hinged  to  the  wall-plate  /.    The  outward  thrust  of  the  rafters  can  be  counteracted 

e20. 


by  pieces  of  wood  used  as  ties,  as  shown  at  o.  The  house  should  be  glazed  with  glass 
16  oz.  in  weight  to  the  sq.  ft.  With  regard  to  doors,  the  amateur  had  better  get  them 
made  by  a  carpenter,  as,  to  look  well,  they  require  good  work,  and  they  are  not  expensive. 
The  framing  of  the  sides  must  be  covered  with  §-  or  |-in.  boarding,  tarred  or  painted  on 
the  outside,  and  the  spaces  between  the  inner  and  outer  boards  filled  with  sawdust, 
which  is  a  slow  conductor  of  heat.  The  best  material  for  construction  will  be  thoroughly 
dry,  soft  deal,  as  free  from  knots  as  possible ;  and  it  will  save  much  trouble  to  obtain  the 
different  pieces  of  the  sections  shown,  only  a  little  larger,  from  saw-mills,  so  that  he  will 
f  nly  Lave  to  plane  them,  and  follow  the  drawings  in  cutting  to  required  length.  When 
all  tbe  woodwork  has  been  put  together,  and  is  thoroughly  dry,  the  knots  are  stopped, 
and  the  whole  framing  is  given  one  coat  of  white-lead  ;  this  will  make  the  putty  in  the 
glazing  hold  well.  Then  the  glass  is  put  on  of  the  required  width,  the  length  of  each 
piece  being  15  to  18  in.,  and  each  overlapping  the  next  to  it  by  about  IJ  in.  This  com- 
pleted, the  inside  and  outside  wood  should  receive  2  good  coats  of  pale  stone  coloui-  or 


CARrENTRY — Construction. 


329 


white  paint.  The  heating  apparatus  employed  consists  of  a  small  circular  hoiler  jj, 
tank  r,  and  piping  s,  the  fumes  of  the  fuel  being  carried  away  by  the  capped  stovepipe  t. 
The  pipes  s  for  conveying  the  hot  water,  should  be  2  in.  or  2^  in.  in  diameter,  and  lie 
immediately  imder  the  stage  u. 

621. 


When  a  suitable  wall  is  available,  it  is  often  preferred  to  make  a  lean-to  greenhouse, 
in  which  case  the  roof  is  considerably  modified.  If  the  greenhouse  is  to  be  6  ft.  high 
in  front  and  about  8  ft.  wide,  the  roof  must  slope  upwards  at  the  back  to  a  height  of  about 


10  ft.  If  the  back  wall  does  not  admit  of  this,  the  front  wall  must  be  made  lower,  or  the 
floor  must  be  sunk:  the  latter  alternative  is  very  undesirable  as  conducing  to  dampness. 
The  construction  of  the  roof  and  the  upper  part  of  the  framing  is  shown  in  Fig.  622. 
The  bar  a  is  mortised  at  one  end  into  the  tall  upright  h,  which  is  secured  to  the  wall  by 


330  Carpentey — Construction. 

strong  liooks ;  at  the  other  end  it  is  mortised  into  the  front  top  plate  c,  and  throughoiat 
its  length  it  is  supported  on  the  ends  of  the  uprights  of  the  lower  part  of  the  frame  d,  all 
of  which  are  mortised  into  the  bottom  plate.  From  the  bar  a  rise  a  number  of  uprights 
e  supporting  the  outside  rafter/.  The  intermediate  rafters  are  partially  supported  by  a 
tie  bar  g  running  from  end  to  end.  They  all  abut  at  the  upper  end  against  the  wall- 
plate  h,  to  which  they  are  securely  nailed,  and  at  the  lower  end  they  fit  on  to  the  top 
wall-plate  c  as  shown.  The  2  outside  rafters  are  4  in.  by  2  in.  in  section,  but  the  smaller 
ones  are  only  4  in.  by  li  in. 

Summer-house. — The  following  remarks  are  intended  only  to  describe  the  materials 
adapted  for  building  summer-houses  and  the  manner  of  putting  them  together.  For 
designs,  the  reader  must  exercise  his  own  taste,  or  he  may  refer  to  an  interesting  series 
of  papers  on  rustic  carpentry  written  by  Arthur  Yorke  in  Amateur  Worli,  portions  of 
which  have  been  availed  of  here. 

The  wood  looks  best  if  left  with  the  bark  on,  in  which  case  it  should  be  cut  down  in 
winter  while  the  sap  is  out  of  it ;  if  to  be  peeled,  it  is  better  cut  when  the  sap  is  rising. 
The  most  suitable  and  durable  wood  for  this  purpose  is  larch,  after  which  come  silver 
fir,  common  fir,  and  spruce.  Poles  should  be  selected  from  trees  grown  in  close  planta- 
tions, these  being  more  regular  in  form  and  less  branched ;  smaller  wood  is  got  from 
the  branches  of  trees  growing  in  the  open.  Oak  "  bangles  "  (smaller  branches  very  con- 
torted) look  best  when  peeled,  and  do  well  in  grotesque  work.  Elm  branches  are  more 
durable  than  oak.  Apple  branches  possess  the  same  advantage,  with  equal  irregularity, 
and  often  cost  nothing.  Hazel  rods,  and  sticks  of  maple  and  wych-elm  are  well  adapted 
for  interior  work. 

Fig.  G23  shows  the  construction  of  a  summer-house  8  ft.  long,  4  ft.  wide,  and  6  ft. 
high  to  the  eaves.  The  collar  posts  a  are  set  2  ft.  deep  in  the  ground,  that  portion 
having  been  first  peeled  and  well  tarred.  The  cross  pieces  6  are  joined  to  the  posts  in 
the  manner  shown  at  c ;  when  the  rafter  fZ  is  added,  a  large  spike  nail  is  driven  through 
all  and  into  the  post,  but  smaller  nails  may  bo  used  temporarily  to  hold  the  cross  pieces 
until  the  rafter  is  on.  The  corner  posts  a  are  41-5  in.  in  diameter,  and  sawn  flat  at  the 
top.  Pieces  called  "  ledgers "  are  nailed  cross-wise  at  top  and  bottom,  immediately 
below  the  wall-plate  and  above  the  ground  line  respectively,  on  the  inside  of  the  house, 
their  juncture  with  the  corner  posts  being  as  shown  in  plan  at  e.  The  walls  /  are  formed 
of  split  poles,  the  splitting  being  best  done  by  a  circular  saw,  if  available ;  they  are  nailed 
at  top  and  bottom  to  the  ledgers,  with  their  sawn  faces  inwards,  their  upper  ends  sloping 
off  to  fit  against  the  wall-plate,  and  their  lower  reaching  2  or  3  in.  into  the  ground.  The 
walls  are  lined  inside,  the  lining  of  the  lower  half  being  formed  of  another  row  of  split 
poles,  arranged  with  their  sawn  sides  towards  the  first,  and  so  that  they  cover  the  spaces 
between  them.  The  upper  half  may  be  lined  with  smaller  half-stuff  placed  diagonally. 
From  the  top  of  the  pediment  of  the  roof,  a  ridge  piece  extends  backwards  18  in. ;  this 
keeps  the  finishing  point  of  the  thatch  some  distance  back,  and  enables  the  caves  to 
project  over  the  pediment.  The  end  of  the  rafters  are  sawn  as  at  g.  When  the  rafters 
are  fixed,  a  number  of  rough  rods  about  IJ  in.  thick  are  nailed  across  them  some  5  in. 
apart,  for  carrying  tiie  thatch.  A  1-in.  plank  14  in.  wide  and  fixed  at  16  or  17  in.  above 
tlie  floor  affords  a  good  seat.  The  subject  of  thatching  will  be  found  under  the  section 
on  Roofing.  The  under  side  of  the  thatch  is  all  the  better  in  appearance  for  being 
lined.  The  best  material  for  the  purpose  is  heather  (ling),  and  next  to  it  comes  furze. 
In  fixing  it,  a  layer  is  spread  at  the  bottom  of  the  roof  with  the  brush  ends  pointing 
downwards  to  the  wall-plate,  and  a  strip  of  wood  is  nailed  tightly  across  the  root  ends 
from  rafter  to  rafter ;  succeeding  courses  are  laid  in  the  same  manner,  each  overlapping 
the  preceding  and  hiding  the  wooden  strips.  Failing  heath  and  furze,  recourse  may  be 
had  to  moss,  fastened  to  the  thatch  by  small  twig  buckles.  Another  substitute  is  sheets 
of  elm  bark,  dried  flat  on  the  floor  of  a  shed  under  pressure,  and  secured  by  flat-headed 
nails,  moss  serving  to  fill  any  interstices.     Indeed  moss,  previously  dried,  is  admirable 


Carpentry — Construction. 


331 


for  stopping  all  chinks  and  cracks.  For  flooring,  the  best  possible  plan  is  to  drive  short 
pieces  (say  G  in.  long)  of  wooden  poles  into  the  ground  leaving  all  their  tops  level. 
Intervals  may  bo  filled  in  with  sand.  Concreting  and  asphalting  are  expensive, 
gravelling  is  productive  of  much  dust,  and  flooring  has  an  inappropriate  appearance. 


623. 


Fences. — This  term  may  be  made  to  include  hedges,  stone  walls,  and  iron  wire,  but  it 
will  be  restricted  now  to  structures  formed  of  wood. 

A  common  fence  in  America  is  the  "  zigzag  "  or  "  rail,"  Fig.  624,  in  which  stout 
rails  h  are  laid  about  7  deep  with  tlieir  ends  crossed  between  upright  stakes  a  driven 
into  the  ground.     The  rails  may  be  of  uneven  lengths,  instead  of  even  as  shown. 

Lattice-fencing,  Fig.  625,  consists  of  a  number  of  laths  a,  pegged  across  each  other 
and  supported  by  rails  h  carried  on  posts  c  fixed  at  intervals  of  8-10  ft.  The  lattice  may 
be  made  much  more  open,  and  will  then  consume  less  material. 

Common  wood  paling  is  shown  in  Fig.  626.  Stakes  a  are  driven  by  a  heavy  mallet 
12  in.  into  the  ground  at  5  or  6  ft.  asunder ;  when  the  ground  is  hard,  a  hole  may  be 
made  Isy  the  foot-pick  or  the  driver  ;  and  such  stakes  will  support  a  paling  3  ft.  3  in.  in 
height.  "While  2  rails  are  sufiicient  to  fence  cattle,  3  are  required  for  sheep.  The  rails 
should  be  nailed  on  the  face  of  the  stakes  next  the  field,  and  made  to  break  joint,  so  that 
the  ends  of  all  the  3  rails  shall  not  be  nailed  upon  the  same  stake ;  nor  should  the 
broad  ends  of  the  rails  be  nailed  together,  even  though  thinned  by  the  adee,  but  broad 
and  narrow  ends  together  as  at  h,  that  the  weight  and  strength  of  the  rails  may  be 
equalized.  To  make  the  paling  secure,  a  stake  should  be  driven  as  a  stay  in  a  sloping 
du-ection  behind  the  rails,  and  nailed  to  every  third  stake.  The  upper  rail  should  be 
nailed  near  the  top  of  the  stakes,  the  lowest  edge  of  the  lowest  one  6  in.  from  the  ground, 
and  the  upper  edge  of  the  middle  one  20  in.  above  the  ground. 


332 


Carpentry — Construction. 


Lapped  paling  of  cleft  oak  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  627.  The  pales  a  lap  over  each 
other,  and  are  nailed  to  rails  6,  tenoned  into  posts  c,  while  a  board  d  is  run  edgewise  along 
the  bottom. 

In  open  paling,  Fig.  628,  the  pales  a  are  nailed  flat  and  independently  to  the  rails  b, 
of  which  2  sufBce ;  these  latter  are  tenoned  at  their  ends  into  the  posts  c.  This  is  a 
much  cheaper  fence  than  the  preceding. 


624. 


625. 


The  only  important  diSerence  presented  by  the  so-called  timber-merchant's  fence, 
Fig.  629,  is  that  the  posts  a  are  provided  with  "  pockets  "  leading  to  the  mortices  into 
which  the  ends  of  the  rails  b  are  slipped ;  these  pockets  meet  the  mortices  in  such  a 
way  that  any  section  or  "  bay "  of  the  fence  can  be  bodily  removed  by  lifting  it 
sufficiently  to  free  the  mortice  and  pass  forwards  by  the  pockets. 

Fields  are  often  temporarily  fenced  by  hurdles.  Fig.  630.  In  setting  them  up,  the 
first  hurdle  is  raised  by  its  upper  rail,  and  the  ends  of  its  stakes  are  sunk  a  little  into  the 
ground  with  a  spade,  to  give  them  firm  hold.    The  next  is  placed  in  the  same  way, 


627. 


\c< 


1 

>'>    Ix.-.- 

--; 

-: 

-- 

a' 

■ 

- 

a 

-_ 

1- 

ij      ..-^ V 

628. 


Rl 


55sz^?5:?s^ 


'A 


^fc! 


both  being  held  in  position  by  an  assistant ;  one  end  of  a  stay  a  is  placed  between  the 
hurdles,  near  the  tops  of  their  stakes,  and  the  stay  and  hurdles  are  fastened  together  by 
the  peg  b  pressing  through  holes  in  both.  Another  peg  c  is  then  passed  through  the 
stakes  lower  down,  and  the  Imrdles  are  sloped  outwards  until  the  upper  rail  stands  3  ft. 
9  in.  above  the  ground.  A  short  stake  d  is  driven  by  a  mallet  into  the  ground  at  a 
point  where  the  stay  a  gives  the  hurdles  the  right  inclination,  and  a  peg  fastens  the  stake 
and  stay  together.  The  remaining  hurdles  are  fastened  in  a  similar  manner.  It  is 
perhaps  more  common  to  pitch  these  hurdles  upright  and  dispense  with  the  sloping  sfay 


Carpentry — Construction. 


333 


a,  replacing  it  by  a  stake  driven  vertically  into  the  ground  between  the  ends  of  the 
hurdles.  The  construction  of  the  hurdles  themselves  is  obvious  from  the  sketch.  The 
4  level  rails  e  are  let  into  slits  in  the  sides  of  the  stakes  /,  and  the  3  cross  bars  g  are 
nailed  to  the  level  rails  e. 

A  useful  form  of  close  fence  for  temporary  purposes  is  shown  in  Fig.  G31.  The  boards 
a  are  simply  slipped  down  one  upon  another  in  grooves  cut  vertically  in  the  uprights  h, 
which  are  let  into  the  ground.  By  this  means  the  use  of  nails  is  avoided,  and  the 
boards  are  but  little  the  worse  for  being  so  employed. 


629. 


C30. 


Gates.— A  wooden  gate,  the  only  kind  to  be  considered  here,  consists  of  a  frame- 
work, as  a,  b,  c,  d  in  Fig.  632,  hinged  or  hung  to  a  gate-post  e,  which  is  firmly  secured  in 
the  ground,  and  catching  on  a  latch  attached  to  another  gate-post  at  the  opposite  side  of 
the  opening.     This  framework  is  generally  filled  in  with  3  horizontal  bars  /.     To  pre- 


631. 


632. 


-6(7- 


^ 


</■ 


-n. 


!7^~' 


J^^,.^^ 


n 


vent  the  weight  of  the  gate  pulling  it  down  at  the  end  c,  a  diagonal  brace  g  is  added  ; 
for  uniformity  sake  this  is  sometimes  supplemented  by  a  second  brace  h.  The  upright 
bar  a  of  the  frame  is  termed  the  hanging  style,  while  c  is  the  falling  style ;  the  bars 
&,  d  and  the  rails  /  are  mortised  at  each  end  into  the  bars  a,  c. 

Another  form  of  field  gate  is  shown  in  Fig.  G33,  where  the  diagonal  stays  a,  h  meet  at 
the  centre  c.     The  top  and  bottom  hinges  are  fixed  as  shown  at  d,  e. 

Fig.  634  illustrates  a  much  heavier  and  more  substantial  form  of  gate.  The  hanging 
post  a  here  needs  struts  b  placed  underground  ;  the  falling  style  c  is  strengthened  by 
iron  bands  at  top  and  bottom. 


334 


Carpentry — Construction. 


A  garden  wicket  is  represented  in  Fig.  635.  The  frame  a,  h,  c,  d  and  the  diagonal  stay 
e  are  mortised  together.  Through  the  toj?  and  bottom  rails  a,  c  and  the  stay  e  bars  /  of 
wood  or  iron  are  passed.  Tlie  hingeiug  is  eliected  by  means  of  iron  bands  with  looped 
ends  secured  to  the  to2>  and  bottom  rails  and  resting  on  somewhat  similar  iron  loops  fixed 
in  the  post  g  ;  an  iron  rod  diopped  tUrough  all  the  loops  completes  the  hinge. 


634. 


Fig.  636  is  a  more  pretentious  garden  gate.  The  usual  frame  a,  h,  c,  d  supports  by  4 
arms  e  a  central  ring/  secured  by  pegged  tenons,  as  shown.  The  spaces  g,  h,  i,  Jc,  I  are, 
best  filled  up  by  some  lighter  work.  The  2  bottom  ones  k,  I  may  have  diagonal  panelling 
while  g,  h,  i  may  have  wootlen  bars  ;  or  the  whole  may  be  fitted  with  ornamental  iron 
castings. 

636. 


House  Bdilding. — There  are  4  important  matters  connected  with  house  building 
which  come  within  the  range  of  the  carpenter  and  joiner;  these  are  the  laying  of  floors, 
the  construction  of  the  wooden  framework  of  roofs,  and  the  making  and  fixing  of  doors 
and  window  frames. 

Floors. — The  chief  considerations  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  clioosing  the  material  for  a 
floor  are :  (1)  wearing  resistance,  (2)  comfort  to  the  feet,  (3)  retention  of  warmth,  (4) 
capability  of  being  laid  evenly  and  repaired  conveniently.  When  the  first  condition  is 
most  essential  and  the  second  is  unimportant,  as  in  public  places  where  there  is  great 
traffic,  some  form  of  masonry  is  best  adapted  ;  but  for  comfort,  on  the  score  of  elasticity 
un-der  foot  and  a  generally  heat-conserving  quality,  wood  is  unsurpassed,  especially  the 
ordinary  boarded  floor.  In  situations  subject  to  much  wear,  wood-block  flooring  is  better 
adapted.  The  blocks  are  generally  laid  to  the  "herring-bone"  pattern  upon  a  concrete 
bed,  and  can  be  equally  employed  for  upper  floors  on  rolled  joists  filled  in  with  concrete, 
making  a  remarkably  firm,  durable,  and  comfortable  floor,  not  too  resonant  or  noisy  for 


Carpentey — Construction. 


335 


large  rooms,  and  in  every  respect  more  sanitary  than  the  ordinary  boarded  floor.  Tho 
blocks,  being  of  a  brick  proportion,  can  bo  laid  as  parquetry,  or  in  squares  placed 
diagonally,  the  blocks  alternating  in  direction.  The  shrinkage  is  reduced  to  a  minimum, 
and  when  the  blocks  are  well  bedded  and  secured  to  tho  bed,  as  in  Lowe's  patent  com- 
position, no  more  durable  flooring  can  be  employed.  This  composition  is  said  to  prevent 
dry-rot.  A  more  decorative  sort  of  wood  flooring  is  parquetry.  The  solid  Swiss 
parqueterie  consisted  of  pieces  about  1  in.  thick,  grooved  and  tongued  together,  and 
secured  by  marine  glue.  Wood  veneers,  backed  by  kamptulicon  and  other  substances, 
have  been  similarly  used  for  effect.  Thin  parquet  laid  on  a  patent  composition  or  glue 
(Eberhard's)  is  a  kind  of  flooring  that  has  been  used  witli  much  success  even  on  stone 
foundations ;  and  stone  paved  floors  and  staircases  worn  hollow  have  been  treated  by 
this  process,  tlie  uneveuness  of  the  surface  being  made  up  by  the  glue,  which  becomes 
a  hard  yet  slightly  elastic  backing.  Some  parquet,  as  that  of  Turpin's,  is  only  -j^^  in. 
thick,  and  is  prepared  on  a  deal  back,  and  the  floor  is  said  to  bo  equal  in  wear  to  1-in. 
solid  parquetry.  The  plan  of  fixing  thin  plates  of  hard  ornamental  woods  in  geometrical 
patterns  upon  existing  hard  floors  is  one  that  will  commend  itself.  Of  all  floorings  there 
is  perhaps  hardly  any  so  appropriate,  so  comfortable,  or  so  artistic  as  parquetry,  and 
even  the  plain  hard  woods  like  teak  admit  of  being  used  docoratively.  The  custom  of 
carpeting  over  the  centre  of  the  room  only,  allowing  a  border  of  the  real  floor  to  be  seen, 
lends  itself  to  parquetry  borders.  Smaller  carpets  and  of  better  quality  or  design  would 
be  selected,  while  cleanliness  and  sanitary  conditions  would  be  the  result  of  the  change. 
There  are  many  manufacturers  who  can  supply  borders  at  the  low  price  of  Gd.  per  sq.  ft. 
A  solidly -backed  parquetry  floor,  supported  upon  joists  partially  filled  up  with  concrete, 
forms  an  almost  impassable  barrier  to  fire.  Even  wooden  joists,  well  protected  by  a  fire- 
resisting  plaster  ceiling,  or  the  interspaces  filled  up,  has  been  found  to  stay  tlie  ravages 
of  fire,  while  a  closely-jointed  block  or  parquet  floor,  laid  on  a  good  backing,  is  impervious 
to  air,  and  would  retard  the  progress  of  flames  above  or  below  it.  For  the  floors  of 
hospital  wards  no  floor  can  be  more  suitable  or  so  comfortable. 

Passing  now  to  a  consideration  of  the  most  usual  form  of  flooring,  that  by  parallel 
boarding,  the  first  feature  to  be  explained  is  the  arrangement  of  the  beams  and  joists 
which  are  to  support  the  boards.  It  may,  however,  be  well  to  premise,  that,  as  wood  is 
found  to  be  much  more  durable  when  exposed  to  the  air  than  when  built  in  brickwork 
at  the  ends,  an  effort  is  always  made  to  secure  that  condition,  and  the  other  ends  of  the 
beams  or  joists  are  most  commonly  supported  on  wall-plates  fitting  into  the  space 
occupied  by  a  course  of  bricks.    Fig.  637  shows  a  simple  method  of  securing  the  tie 


637. 


638. 


beam  a  to  the  wall-plate  h  lying  on  the  brickwork  c,  the  beam  a  being  notched  out  on 
the  under  side  to  admit  h.  In  Fig.  G38  this  joint  is  strengthened  by  the  addition  of  a 
key  or  cog  d  fitting  closely  into  grooves  in  a  and  h.  Figs.  630,  640  illustrate  the 
junction  of  the  poleplate  a  to  the  tie  beam  h,  both  with  and  without  the  intervention  of 
a  key  or  cog  c.     Other  methods  of  securing  the  joist  a  to  the  wall-plate  h  are  shown  in 


336 


Carpentky — Construction. 


Figs.  C41,  642,  643.  In  Fig.  644  the  joist  a,  instead  of  lying  flat  on  the  upper  surface 
of  the  wall-plate  b,  is  connected  by  a  mortice  and  tenon  joint,  the  under  side  of  the 
joist  being  mortised  as  at  c,  while  a  tenon  d  is  cut  into  the  wall-plate. 


639. 


640. 


The  special  uses  of  the  'several  kinds  of  joist  will  be  best  described  when  speaking 
of  the  sort  of  floor  in  which  they  are  employed ;  but  it  may  be  well  here  to  state  their 
respective  scantlings,  i.  e.  their  sectional  dimensions.     They  vary  of  course  with  the 


644. 


642. 


643. 


f^i 


length  of  the  bearing  (the  distance  between  the  supports  that  hold  them),  as  given  in 
the  first  column  of  figures : — 

Flooring  joists,  1  ft.  apart. 

ft.  in.      in.  in.       in.        in.      in. 

5  4  X  2i  4§  X  2  3i  X  3 

10  9  X  l|  7     X  2^ 

15  11  X  li  10    X  2  9     X  21 

20  11  X  3  10    X  4 

25  12  X  3  11     X  4 

Binding  joists,  6  ft.  apart. 

ft.  in.      in.        in.      in. 

5 7x3  9x2 

7ft.  Gin 9x3 

10 9x4  11  X  3 

12  ft.  6  in 11  X  4 

15 12  X  4 

20 13  X  6i 

25 15  ..  7| 


Carpentry — Construction. 


337 


Ceiling  joists,  1  ft.  apart. 

•ft.  in.      in.         in.    in. 

4 2h  X  n  2x2 

5 2i  X  2 

6 3x2 

7 3i  X  2  3  X  21 

8 4x2  3x2^ 

9 4|  x  2  4  X  2J 

10 ^  -x.  2^  4x3 

12 5x3 

14 6x3 

Girders,  10  ft.  apart. 

ft.  in.       in.  in.     in. 

10 11  X     5i  12  X  4 

15 13  X     6i  11  X  11 

20 15  X     7^  13  X  13 

25 17  X     8J  14  X  14 

30 20  X  10 

Flooring  boards  are  generally  cut  6|  in.  (7  in.  planed  up)  wide,  but  can  also  be  had 
4^  in.  and  5J  in.  wide ;  in  thickness  they  run  |  in,,  1  in.,  IJ  in.  and  1§  in.,  at  least  they 
are  called  after  these  measurements,  but  are  really  somewhat  less  owing  to  planing. 

The  simplest  kind  of  floor  is  that  termed  "  single-joisted,"  in  which  the  joists  are 
12  in.  apart,  resting  on  the  wall-plates,  and  carrying  the  boards  above,  while,  if  there  be 


645. 


646. 


a  ceiling,  the  ceiling  laths  are  nailed  on  below.  Fig.  645  shows  the  boards  a  as  they 
rest  on  the  joists  h.  When  ceiling  joists  are  used,  the  arrangement  is  as  shown  in 
Fig.  646 :  a,  flooring  boards ;  h,  joist ;  c,  wall-plate ;  d,  ceiling  joists.  The  scantling  of 
the  wall-plate  will  vary  with  the  length  of  the  bearing  of  the  joists,  as  follows  : — 

Up  to  10  ft 3    in.  X  3  in. 

10  to  20  ft 4Jin.  x3in. 

20  to  30  ft 7    in.  X  3  in. 


The  joists  should  have  at  least  4  in.  of  their  length  resting  on  the  wall-plate  and  wall, 
and  this  may  be  increased  up  to  9  in. 

When  the  joists  are  unusually  deep  (for  greater  strength),  or  far  apart  (for  economy 
sake),  there  is  a  danger  that  an  extra  weight  on  them  may  cause  them  to  turn  over  on 
one  side.    To  obviate  this  danger,  "strutting"  is  resorted  to.    In  its  simpler  form  this 

z 


338 


Caepentey — Construction. 


consists  of  sections  of  flat  thin  wood  placed  edgewise  between  the  joists,  as  seen  in 
Fig.  647,  where  the  joists  a  are  kept  vertical  by  the  struts  b.  Great  force  would  be 
required  to  crush  these  struts,  but  there  is  a  risk  of  their  ends  slipping.  This  is 
sometimes  remedied  by  attaching  them  at  one  end  to  triangular  fillets  c  nailed  to  the 


647. 


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joist.  The  struts  should  all  be  placed  in  the  same  line,  and  the  lines  may  be  2  or  3  ft. 
apart.  A  more  secure  way  of  strutting  is  that  known  as  the  "  herring-bone,"  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  648.  It  consists  of  strips  of  wood  a  of  small  scantling  (say  2i  in.  by 
1  in.,  or  3  in.  by  1§  in.),  crossing  each  other,  and  nailed  at  the  top  of  one  joist  h  and 
bottom  of  the  next,  maintaining  regular  lines  at  a  distance  of  about  4  ft. 

Whenever  a  space  has  to  be  left  in  a  floor,  to  provide  for  the  insertion  of  a  staircase 
or  a  flue,  the  construction  has  to  be  modified  by  the  introduction  of  a  "  trimmer  "  for  the 
support  of  one  end  of  those  joists  which  are  prevented  from  reaching  to  the  wall-plate  as 
before.    Fig.  649  shows  the  arrangement  where  the  hole  is  required  next  the  wall :  a  is 

649. 


a  wall,  supporting  the  2  joists  h,  while  the  3  joists  c  arc  cut  off  to  leave  the  sj^ace  d. 
The  trimmer  e  is  mortised  at  both  ends  into  the  joists  h,  and  carries  the  free  ends  of 
the  joists  c,  which  are  mortised  into  it.  As  the  extra  strain  from  the  3  joists  c  is 
thus  supported  by  the  2  joists  h,  it  is  necessary  that  these  latter  be  stronger  than  the 
others.  They  are  called  the  "  trimming"  joists,  and  it  is  usual  in  ordinary  flooring  to 
add  i  in.  to  their  thickness  (not  dejith)  for  every  joist  trimmed.  Fig.  650  illustrates  the 
system  adopted  when  the  hole  is  at  a  distance  from  the  wall,  requiring  the  intervention 
of  2  trimmers:  a  is  the  wall,  Z>,  ordinary  joists;  c,  trimmed  joists;  d,  trimmers; 
e,  trimming  joists  ;  /,  hole. 

The  preceding  paragraphs  refer  to  "  single  "  floors  ;  but  when  the  strain  to  be  borne 
is  great,  as  in  warehouses  and  similar  structures, "  double  "  floors  are  adopted,  as  well  as 
"double  framed"  floors.     In  the  double  floor,  Fig.  651,  a  "  binder"  or  "  binding  joist  " 


Caepentey — Construction. 


339 


is  introduced,  having  a  thickness  usually  half  as  great  again  as  that  of  the  joists  it 
supports,  bearing  about  6  in.  on  tho  -svall,  and  situated  at  intervals  of  5-6  ft.  apart, 
centre  to  centre.  In  Fig.  651,  a  are  the  ordinary  joists  resting  on  the  binders  t,  and 
supporting  the  flooring  boards  c  above,  -while  tho  ceiling  joists  d  are  attached  to  the 
under  side  of  tho  binders. 

The  "  double  framed  "  floor  differs  in  having  "  girders "  to  carry  the  binders  at 
intervals  of  about  10  ft.  centre  to  centre.    Fig.  652  represents  this  plan  :  a,  the  ordinary 


650. 


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X£. 


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joists,  carrying  the  floor-boards  6,  and  resting  on  the  binder  c,  supported  by  the  girder 
d  ;  e,  ceiling  joists.  Girders  should  always  be  placed  so  that  their  ends  rest  on  solid 
walls,  where  no  window  or  door  below  weakens  the  structure.  The  weight  of  the  girder 
is  distributed  as  much  as  possible  by  resting  its  ends  on  templates  of  stone  or  iron. 
These  templates  often  assume  a  box-like  form,  enclosing  the  sides  and  end  of  the  girder 
but  not  so  as  to  exclude  all  air. 

Floor-boards  may  be  laid  "  folding,"  in  "  straight  joint,"  or  "  dowelled,"  the  first  being 
the  commonest  method.  In  laying  boards  folding,  4  or  5  boards  are  put  in  place  without 
nailing,  and  the  outside  ones  are  then  nailed  so  as  to  have  slightly  less  space  between 
them  than  was  occupied  by  the  others  lying  loosely ;  the  others  are  then  forced  into 
position  by  putting  their  edges  together  and  thrusting  them  down.  Thus  in  Fig.  65.S, 
of  the  5  boards  a,  6,  c,  d,  e,  the  2  outside  ones  a,  e  would  be  first  nailed  and  then  the 
intervening  h,  c,  d  would  be  forced  into  the  space  left  for  them.  In  this  case,  the  ends  of 
the  boards  are  made  to  meet  where  they  will  fall  on  a  rafter,  and  as  nearly  as  possible 
in  the  centre  of  its  width,  as  at  /  on  the  rafters  g.  When  the  floor  is  laid  with  straight 
ioints,  as  in  Fig.  654,  each  board  is  put  down  and  nailed  separately,  being  thrust  up 

z  2 


S40 


CAErENTRY — Construction. 


close  to  the  one  preceding  it  by  means  of  the  flooring  clamp.  Thus  the  joints  a  of  the 
ends  of  the  boards  b  fall  on  the  rafters  c  in  straight  lines  with  intervals  between. 
When  the  flooring  is  "  dowelled,"  the  boards  are  laid  separately  and  straight  as  in 
Fig.  654,  the  only  diiference  being  that  their  edges  are  united  by  dowels  (small  pegs  of 
oak  or  beech)  driven  into  holes  bored  for  their  reception,  either  between  or  over  the 
joists.  Most  commonly,  flooring  boards  simply  have  their  edges  planed  smooth,  and  are 
forced  into  the  closest  possible  contact,  when  tliey  are  held  by  the  nails  that  fasten  them 
to  the  joists.     But  there  are  cases  when  a  more  perfect  tight-fitting  joint  is  needed. 


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653. 


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Fig.  655  shows  the  various  ways  of  joining  floor-boards  :  a,  plain  joint ;  h,  ploughed  and 
tongued ;  c,  rebated ;  d,  e,  with  a  tongue  of  wood  or  iron  inserted ;  /,  with  the  tongue 
resting  on  the  joist ;  g,  h,  splayed. 

When  a  floor  is  finished,  it  is  usual  to  hide  the  ends  of  the  boards  where  they  meet 
the  wall  by  nailing  a  skirting  board  round.  This  may  be  plain  or  ornamental.  It  rests 
on  the  floor  and  rises  close  against 

the  wall,  to  which  it  is  fastened  ^^^• 

by  occasional  nails  passing  into 
wooden  bricks,  called  "  grounds," 
inserted  in  the  wall  to  take  the 
nails.  In  superior  work,  floors 
are  "  deadened  "  or  "  deafened  " 
by  placing  a  bed  of  non-conduct- 
ing material  beneath  them.  To 
support  this  bed,  strips  of  wood 
are  nailed  to  the  flooring  joists  to 
carry  thin  "sounding"  boards, 
on  which  is  spread  a  thick  layer 
of  old  mortar  or  plaster,  known  as 
"puggiug."  This  is  shown  in 
Fig.  656 :  «,  joists ;  b,  flooring 
boards;  c,  strips  called  "  firring 
pieces,"  bearing  the  sounding 
boards  d  loaded  with  pugging  e. 

Boofs. — In  discussing  roofs,  attention  will  here  be  confined  to  the  timber  part  of  the 
structure,  leaving  the  covering  to  be  dealt  with  under  the  section  on  Eoofing ;  and  the 
descriptions  will  stop  short  at  those  kinds  of  roof  where  architectural  and  engineering 


Carpentky — Construction. 


341 


skill  and  appliances  arc  called  into  reqnisition.  Koofs  of  an  cvery-day  character 
may  be  divided  into  2  classes — "  lean-to  "  roofs  including  those  which  have  only  one 
slope,  a  gradual  fall  from  one  side  to  the  other ;  while  "  span "  roofs  have  2  slopes 
descending  from  an  apex  at  or  near  the  centre. 

The  simplest  kind  of  lean-to  roof,  adapted  only  for  covering  a  shed  of  short  span,  and 
with  a  very  light  roofing  material,  is  shown  in  Fig.  G57.  Here  the  back  wall  a  has  the 
upper  ends  of  the  rafters  b  simply  built  into  it,  at  distances  of  14-18  in.  apart  centre 
to  centre,  while  the  lower  ends  rest  upon  the  front  wall  c  and  overhang  it  sufficiently  to 
cast  the  rain-water  off  free  of  the  wall.  In  Fig.  658,  the  top  and  bottom  ends  of  the 
rafters  a  rest  upon  wall-plates  h  let  into  the  walls,  and  running  their  whole  length, 
while  the  extreme  lower  end  of  the  rafters  carry  a  guttering  c  for  conveying  away  the 
rain-water.  Other  forms  of  guttering  for  the  ends  of  rafters  are  shown  in  Figs.  659,  660. 
In  Fig.  659,  the  rafter  a  resting  on  the  wall  h,  has  a  triangular  block  of  wood  c  nailed  to  it 
outside  the  line  of  the  wall,  affording  support  to  a  zinc  or  iron  gutter  e,  having  one  edge 


660. 


lying  under  the  roofing  material.  At  any  point  in  the  length  of  the  gutter  a  hole  is  made 
for  the  insertion  of  a  vertical  pipe  d  for  conveying  the  water  away  down  the  outside  of  the 
wall.  In  Fig.  660,  the  rafter  a  is  recessed  at  h  for  the  reception  of  the  gutter,  a  pipe  c 
from  which  passes  down  the  front  of  the  wall  d.  Fig.  661  illustrates  a  wooden  gutter  a 
attached  by  nails  to  the  ends  of  the  rafters  b,  and  prov<ided  with  a  pipe  c,  bent  underneath 
so  that  it  may  run  down  close  to  the  wall  d. 


When  a  wider  span  is  needed  in  a  lean-to  roof,  a  tie-beam  has  to  be  introduced,  to 
counteract  the  outward  thrust  of  the  roof  which  would  tend  to  force  the  walls  asunder. 
Fig.  662  shows  the  arrangement  adopted.  The  rafter  a  rests  at  its  upper  end  on  the 
wall-plate  b  and  at  its  lower  end  on  the  tie-beam  c,  which  in  its  turn  is  supported  in  a 
horizontal  position  on  the  wall-plates  d,  e  in  the  back  and  front  walls  /,  g.    As  the  front 


342 


Carpentry — Coustruction. 


■wall  g  is  carried  up  aboVe  the  bottom  edge  of  the  roof,  forming  a  parapet  surmounted  by 
a  coping,  instead  of  lying  underneath  it  as  before,  another  form  of  gutter  is  demanded. 
This  as  seen  at  h,  consists  of  sheet  metal  running  up  underneath  the  roofing  material 
far  enough  to  form  a  trough.  Another  contrivance  for  guttering  along  a  parapet  wall  is 
shown  in  Fig.  663,  and  is  termed  a  "  bridged  "  gutter.  The  rafters  a,  butting  against 
the  wall-plate  b  carried  by  the  wall  c,  support  a  "  bridging-piece  "  d  of  small  scantling, 
on  which  lies  a  board  flooring  e  bearing  the  sheet  metal  (zinc  or  lead)  gutter  /. 


When  the  roof  is  required  to  possess  greater  strength  than  can  be  obtained  with  the 
use  of  a  simple  tie-beam,  the  coustruction  assumes  a  more  comjilicated  character,  as  seen 
in  Fig.  664.  Here  the  tie-beam  a  rests  as  before  on  the  wall-plates  h,  c,  but  at  the  back 
end  it  supports  a  king-i^ost  d,  from  which  the  strut  e  passes  to  sustain  the  "  principal " 
rafter  /,  whose  upper  end  butts  against  a  fillet  on  the  king-post  d  while  its  lower  end 
is  borne  by  the  tie-beam  a.  Running  parallel  with  the  walls,  and  carried  by  the 
" principal "  rafters /,  is  the"pm-lin"  g,  whose  duty  is  to  hold  up  the  "common" 
rafters  h  on  which  the  roofing  material  is  laid.  The  common  rafters  lie  at  intervals  of 
14  in.  centre  to  centre,  while  the  principal  rafters  are  generally  about  10  ft.  apart. 
The  upper  end  of  the  strut  e  (Fig.  664)  is  joined  to  the  under  side  of  the  principal 
rafter  /  by  a  tenon,  which  may  bo  either  simple  (a)  or  angular  (b),  Fig.  665.     In 


C66. 


665. 


Fig.  666  is  seen  a  way  of  joining  the  jDurlin  to  the  rafters  :  the  purlin  a  is  led  into 
grooves  in  the  faces  of  the  common  and  principal  rafters  h,  c  respectively  and  butts 
against  the  block  d  wedged  into  the  upper  face  of  the  principal  rafter  c.  The  feet  of 
the  struts  may  either  butt  against  the  sloping  shoulders  of  the  king-post  as  at  a  (Fig. 
667)  or  be  tenoned  in  as  at  b. 

Ordinary  span  roofs  with  various  modifications  are  illustrated  in  Fig.  668.     In  A 


Carpentry — Construction. 


343 


■which  is  the  simplest  form,  the  rafters  a  rest  at  foot  on  the  wall-plates  h,  to  which  they 
are  only  nailed,  while  at  their  upper  ends  they  either  butt  against  each  other  as  at  c,  or 
are  crossed  and  nailed  as  at  d.     Obviously  this  is  a  very  slender  structure,  and  quite 


unfitted  to  bear  any  considerable  weight 
of  roofing  material.  B,  C  represent  jsro- 
gressive  steps  in  strengthening  this  form 
of  roof,  by  the  introduction  of  one  or 
more  "  collar  beams,"  which  prevent  the 
collapse  of  the  sloping  rafters,  and  give 
their  name  to  this  modification  of  the 
span  roof.  In  B,  the  rafters  a,  measuring 
usually  about  65  in.  by  li  in.  and  carrying 
a  covering  of  1-in.  boarding  h,  butt  against 
the  ridge-pole  c  at  top,  and  are  cut  out  for 
the  reception  of  the  wall-plates  d  at 
bottom.  At  rather  more  than  i  of  the 
height  from  the  wall-plate  to  the  ridge- 
pole, the  rafters  are  tied  by  the  collar- 
beams  e,  having  the  same  dimensions  as 
the  rafters,   and  which  may  be  simply 

nailed  to  them  at  the  ends,  or  halved  in,  as  here  shown.  C  differs  from  B  only  in 
having  a  second  collar-beam/,  and  the  extra  support  of  a  purlin  g  let  into  the  rafters 
and  the  lower  collar-beam  e.    D  is  a  modification  of  B,  necessitated  by  the  introduction 


344 


Caepentry — Construction. 


of  a  ventilator  in  the  roof :  a  is  the  collar-beam  supporting  the  purlin  h  and  rafters  c  as 
well  as  the  uprights  d  of  the  ventilator.  In  E  a  new  feature  occurs  in  the  shape  of  a 
"  strut"  or  "brace"  supported  by  a  "  tie-beam."  Here  the  tie-beam  a  resting  on  the 
wall-plates  h  carries  at  its  ends  "  pole-plates  "  c  let  in,  and  which  in  their  turn  bear  the 
lower  ends  of  the  rafters  d,  butting  at  the  apex  against  the  ridge-pole  e.  To  reduce  the 
strain  in  the  middle  of  the  rafters,  the  struts  /  are  employed,  receiving  their  support 
from  the  ends  of  the  straining  sill  g  against  which  they  abut. 

When  a  strong  roof  of  say  20  ft.  span  is  required,  the  truss  principle  is  fully  carried 
out,  as  in  the  "  king-post "  roof,  Fig.  669.  Here  tie-beams  a  measuring  9  in.  by  4  in.  are 
placed  at  intervals  of  about  10  ft.  resting  on  the  walls  and  wall-plates  b.    From  the 


670. 


centre  of  each  tie-beam  rises  the  king-post  c,  measuring  5  in.  by  3  in. ;  abutting  against 
its  lower  shoulders  on  each  side  are  struts  d,  3J  in.  by  2^  in.,  reaching  to  the  middle  of  the 
principal  rafters  e,  6  in.  by  3  in.,  whose  feet  rest  on  the  tie-beam  a,  while  their  heads  fit 
under  the  upper  shoulders  of  the  king-post  c.  Just  outside  the  lino  of  the  wall-plate 
and  that  of  the  feet  of  the  principal  rafters,  the  tie-beams  a  have  pole-plates  /,  4  in.  sq., 


Caepentry — Construction. 


345 


let  into  their  upper  faces ;  and  running  m  idway  along  the  principal  rafters,  just  over 
the  point  where  they  are  sustained  by  the  struts  d,  are  purlins  rj,  8  in.  by  3  in.  The 
pole-plates/,  purlins  g,  and  ridge-pole  /*  (8  in.  by  I5  in.),  between  them  carry  the  common 
rafters  /,  oi  in.  by  2  in. 

The  king-post  roof,  from  the  manner  of  arranging  the  timbers,  precludes  any  use  being 
made  of  the  roof  space.  When  this  s^mce  is  a  desideratum,  the  queen-post  roof  ia  better 
suited,  two  examples  of  which  are  seen  in  Fig.  670,  the  form  A  being  adapted  to  a  high- 
pitched  roof,  while  B  is  accommodated  to  a  low  pitch.  In  A,  the  tie-beam  a,  9  in.  by 
4  in.,  resting  on  the  wall-plates  h,  5  in.  by  3  in.,  carries  a  straining  sill  c,  4  in.  sq., 
separating  the  feet  of  the  queen-posts  d,  4§  in.  by  4  in.,  which  stand  on  the  tie-beam  a,  and 
support  at  top  the  straining  beam  e,  7  in.  by  4  in.,  and  the  upper  ends  of  the  principal 
rafters/,  5i  in.  by  4  in.  Struts  g,  4  in.  by  3  in.,  run  from  the  lower  shoulders  of  the 
queen-posts  to  the  middle  of  the  principal  rafters,  whose  lower  ends  rest  on  the  tie-beam  a. 
The  common  rafters  h,  4  in.  by  2  in.,  abut  against  the  ridge-pole  i,  at  top,  and  are 
borne  by  the  tops  of  the  queen-posts  d,  the  purlin  k,  7J  in.  by  4  in.,  and  the  pole-plate /, 
4  in.  sq.  These  measurements  are  suited  to  a  roof  of  30  ft.  span.  The  space  m  is 
available  for  a  room.  In  the  form  B,  the  timbers  arc  differently  arranged  to  suit  the  low 
roof.  The  tie-beam  a  is  11  in.  by  6  in.,  the  queen-posts  h,  c  are  6  in.  sq.  and  6  in.  by 
4  in.  respectively,  the  straining  beam  (i  is  8  in.  by  6  in.,  the  principal  rafter  e  is  6  in. 
sq.,  the  struts  /,  g  are  6  in.  by  4  in.,  and  the  common  rafters  7t  are  4J  in.  by  2  in. 

Fig.  671  illustrates  two  ways  of  constructing  a  "  curb  "  or  "  mansard  "  roof,  which 
enables  a  capacious  and  well-lit  apartment  to  be  formed  in  the  roof.  In  A,  the  tie-beam 
a  measures  12  in.  by  4  in.,  the  struts  h  are  6  in.  by  4  in.,  the  upper  tie-beam  c  is  8  in.  by 
4  in.,  the  king-post  cZ  is  4  in.  sq.,  the  principal  rafters  e  are  6  in.  by  4  in.,  the  purlin /is 

671. 


5  in.  by  4  in.,  and  the  common  rafters  g  are  4  in.  by  2  in.  The  apartment  may  be  lit  by 
the  window  h  or  by  a  "  dormer  "  window.  The  arrangement  B  is  suited  to  a  roof  of 
wider  span,  and  is  strengthened  by  the  stout  king-post  a  and  by  2  struts  b  from  the  upper 
king-post  c. 

The  manner  of  joining  the  upper  ends  of  the  struts  to  the  upper  shoulders  of  the 
king-post  is  shown  in  Fig.  672 :  the  ridge-pole  drops  into  the  recess  a  in  the  top  of 
the  king-post  h,  and  the  struts  c  are  let  into  the  shoulders  of  b  either  by  a  simple  tenon 
d  or  an  angular  tenon  e. 

The  form  of  gutter  for  the  bottom  between  2  span  roofs  is  shown  in  Fig.  673.     The 


346 


Carpentry — Construction. 


tie-beam  a  carries  a  strip  of  quartering  b,  against  which  abut  the  lower  ends  of  the 
rafters  c ;  a  bridging-piece  d  supports  the  floor  of  the  gutter  e. 

Doors. — Ordinary  room  doors  are  of  2  kinds,  distinguished  as  "  ledged "  and 
"  panelled."  The  former  are  easier  to  make,  heavier,  and  stronger,  but  Lave  a  common- 
place appearance.     Every  kind  of  door  requires  a  wooden  frame  occupying  the  margin 


6V3. 


671. 


of  the  space  to  be  closed,  and  into  which  the  door  may  shut  as  closely  as  possible.     If  the 

doorway  be  situated  in  a  wooden  structure,  the  timbers  of  this  structure  will  be  arranged 

to  form  the  door-frame ;  in  other  case,  the  frame  must  be  made  and  secured  in  place 

ready  for  receiving  the   door.      The    essential 

parts  of  the  frame  are,   as  seen   in   Fig.   074, 

a  lintel  a,  2  jambs  h,  and  a  sill  o ;  the  bottom 

ends   of  the  jambs  are  mortised  into   the   sill. 

When  the  doorway  is  in  a  wooden  structure  the 

top  ends  of  the  jambs  may  also  be  mortised  into 

the    lintel;    but    when    the    frame   has    to    be 

built  into  a  brick  wall,  the  lintel  and  jambs  arc 

usually  housed  or  halved  into  each  otiier  and 

made  to  project  somewhat,  as  shown.     The  door 

represented  in  the  figure  is  a  kind  of  ledge  door, 

fitting  closely  into  the  space  enclosed  by  the 

frame  a,b,c;  the  inner  side  is  shown,  in  which 

the  latch  and  hinges  should  be  fastened.      On 

opposite  faces  of  the  jambs  and  on  the  under 

side  of  the  lintel  a  fillet  of  wood  is  nailed  in 

such   a   position  as  to  serve  as  a   stoj^  against 

which  the  door  may  shut,  leaving  its  outside 

face  flush  with  the  frame ;  and  when  hanging 

the  door,  care  should  be  taken  to  support  it  off 

the  sill  by  a  thin  strip  of  wood,  so  as  to  ensm-c 

its  moving  free  of  the  sill  when  opened  and  closed. 

according  to  the  weight  and  finish  of  the  door. 

Ledged  doors  of  several  kinds  are  shown  in  Fig.  G75.  The  simplest  and  most  easily 
made  is  A,  consisting  only  of  the  requisite  number  of  1-in.  to  2-in.  boards  a,  placed  quite 
close  together  (tongued  and  grooved  in  better  work)  and  held  by  the  ledges  h,  to  which 
they  are  fastened  by  clasp  nails.  In  B,  the  vertical  boards  a  are  secured  to  ledges  b  as 
before,  but  these  ledges  are  strengthened  by  the  diagonal  braces  c,  the  whole  forming  a 
ledged  and  braced  door.     0  is  a  framed  and  ledged  door,  in  which  tho  upright  boards 


Hinges  and  latches  are  chosen 


Carpentry — Construction. 


347 


a,  of  the  same  thickness  as  the  frame,  are  tongueJ  and  grooved  into  the  lintel  h, 
sill  c,  and  ledges  d,  while  the  lintel  and  sill  are  mortised  and  tenoned  into  the  jambs  e 
at  tlie  corners.     D  differs  from  C  mainly  in  the  introduction  of  the  braces  /. 


6T5. 


t   . 

^        1 

a 

^'        1 

r — " 

e 

__. 

a 

e 

a 

cL 

C 

JO 


1        h 

^ 

7 

^ 

a, 

/ 

C                tt           1*^1 

^ 

^ 

^ 

/ 

C 

The  construction  of  a  panelled  door  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  676.  a,  6  are  termed  long 
styles,  c,  d  are  short  styles,  e,/,  rj  are  the  rails,  and  7t,  /,  /;,  Z  are  the  panels.  The  pieces 
a,  6,  c,  rf,  e,  /,  g  constitute  the  framing,  and  are  joined  together  by  mortices  and  tenons  cut 
right  through  in  the  case  of  the  outside  long  styles,  and  not  fitting  too  tightly.  When 
the  parts  of  the  framing  have  been 
made  and  fitted,  their  inner  faces  are 
grooved  by  a  plough  plane  about  \  in. 


676. 


a 


^ 


d 


la 


deep  and  \  in.  wide,  to  receive  the 
correspondingly  bevelled  edges  of  the 
panels.  In  better  class  doors,  a  beading 
is  run  round  the  edges  of  the  panels  to 
hide  the  joint  and  improve  the  appear- 
ance; when  this  is  to  be  done,  it  is 
■well  not  to  fit  the  panels  at  all  tightly 
into  the  framing,  on  account  of  tlie  risk 
of  splitting  the  latter.  When  no  beading 
or  moulding  is  going  to  be  added,  more 
accurate  fitting  is  necessary  in  the 
panels.  When  the  panels  have  been 
fitted  to  the  grooves  in  the  framing, 
and  everything  is  properly  adjusted, 
the  pieces  c,  fZ,  e,  /,  q  are  put  together, 
glued  and  pegged  securely ;  next  the 
])anels  are  slid  in  sideways,  and  finally 
the  styles  a,  h  are  driven  on  to  the 
projecting  tenons,  previously  glued,  and 
wedged  from  the  outside  edges.  When  all  is  dry,  the  wedges  are  cut  off,  and  the 
edges  are  planed  smooth  to  fit  the  frame.  The  panels  may  bo  of  very  much  thinner 
wood  than  the  frame,  thus  securing  lightness  with  solidity  of  appearance,  and  sufficient 
strength.  Panelled  doors  are  always  hung  with  butt  hinges  let  into  little  recesses  on 
the  frame  side  of  the  "hanging"  style,  as  that  is  called  which  carries  the  hinges. 

A  sash  door  differs  from  an  ordinary  door  in  the  frame  being  occupied  wholly  or  in 


V 


348 


CaepentPvY — Construction. 


part  by  a  window  instead  of  wood.  Liglit  doors  for  cupboards,  &c.,  may  be  made  in  a 
simple  maimer  by  mortising  and  tenoning  the  styles  and  rails  together,  and  cutting  a 
rebate  in  their  inner  edge  all  round,  into  which  thin  boards  can  be  dropped  to  serve  as 
panels,  and  secured  by  small  brads,  with  a  bead  or  moulding  run  round  to  hide  the 
edges. 

Windoics. — Windows  may  be  divided  into  3  classes— (1)  casement  windows  (opening 
on  hinges  or  pivots),  (2)  sash  windows  (opening  by  sliding  up  and  down),  and  (3) 
styiights.  The  construction  and  arrangement  of  the  woodwork  of  windows— their 
frames — will  only  be  dealt  with  here,  leaving  the  various  methods  of  fixing  the  glass 
for  discussion  under  Glazing. 

When  a  window  is  to  be  inserted  in  a  wooden  structure,  provision  is  made  for  fitting 
it  to  a  portion  of  the  framing  of  the  building ;  but  when  the  walls  are  of  brick,  a  special 
frame  must  be  made  for  the  reception  of  the  window.     Fig.  677  shows  a  plan  of  the 

677. 


678. 


framing  for  a  casement  window  4  ft.  high  and  3  ft.  wide.  The  side  posts  a,  4  in.  by 
3  in.,  are  tenoned  into  the  lintels,  of  the  same  dimensions,  at  top  and  bottom,  and 
midway  between  them  is  the  centre  rail  b,  4  in.  by  2  in.  The  ends  of  the  bottom  lintel 
c  are  shown  projecting  into  the  walls  d,  and  those  of  the  upper  lintel  are  extended 
in  like  manner ;  e  is  the  interior  window  sill,  a  piece  of  1-in.  planed  board,  overhanging 
about  f  in. ;  /  is  the  exterior  sill,  consisting  of  a  piece  of  quartering  3  in.  sq.  sloped  on 
the  upperside  and  grooved  on  the  under  side,  and  nailed  on  beneath  the  lower  lintel  c. 
Fig.  678  shows  the  construction  of  the  glass  frame  in  its 
simplest  form.  The  uprights  a,  b  and  crossbars  c,  d  are 
"bevelled  around  their  outer  edge,  and  rebated  for  the 
reception  of  the  glass  on  their  inner  edge ;  the  crossbars 
are  mortised  into  the  uprights  at  the  corners,  and 
secured  by  pegs.  Obviously  the  frame  here  shown  is 
intended  to  carry  only  cue  pane  of  glass.  In  larger 
frames,  where  it  would  be  inconvenient  to  have  the  glass 
in  one  piece,  the  frame  space  must  be  divided  by  par- 
titions, tenoned  in  as  the  original  parts  of  the  frame, 
and  of  the  sectional  shape  indicated  at  e,  /  being  the 
glass  occupying  the  rebate.  The  glazed  frame  is  hinged 
or  pivoted  to  the  main  frame,  and  provided  with  a  hook 
or  rack  for  holding  it  open.  The  frames  shut  against 
stops  on  the  main  frame,  which  exclude  wet. 

In  sash  windows,  the  glazed  frames  (culled  "  sashes  ") 
are  made  as  before,  but  they  are  fixed  in  pairs,  each 

occupying  half  the  depth  of  the  window.  The  construction  of  the  outer  frame  admits 
of  tlie  sashes  passing  each  other,  by  which  the  opening  and  shutting  of  the  window  are 
performed.  When  only  one  of  the  two  sashes  is  movable,  the  window  is  called  ''  single 
hung " ;  when  both,  "  double  hung."  Each  gash  is  hung  independently,  and,  if 
movable,  supported  by  counterweights  or  ends  running  over  small  pulleys.  The  top 
sash  occupies  the  outer  position  and  the  bottom  sash  the  inner.     The  outer  frame,  in 


Caepentey — Construction. 


349 


679. 


680. 


•which  the  sash-frames  work,  must  always  bo  made  specially  and  fitted  into  the  space 

in  the  wall.     The  construction  of  the  outer  frame  is  shown  iu  Fig.  679.     The  sashes 

work  on  the  face  of  the      .Uey-picce  a,  separated  by  the  parting-piece  h,  so  that  Ihey 

may  pass  each  other  without  touching.     The  counterweights  c  are  similarly  separated 

by  the  strip  d ;  e  is  the  front  lining  and  / 

the  back,  joined  by  the  end  piece  (j;  h  ia 

the   top    sash    and    i   the    bottom.     The 

manner  of  cutting  the  bottom  bar  of  the 

upper  frame,  and  the  top  bar  of  the  lower 

one,  so  as  to  make  a  close  joint,  is  shown 

in  Fig.  680 :  a,  top  sash ;  h,  bottom  sash. 

The  bars  of  sash-frames  are  generally  more 

or  less  ornamentally  moulded,  and  a  bead 

is  run  round  the  outer  frame. 

A  skylight  is  a  sloping  window  fixed  in 
a  roof,  part  of  which  it  replaces ;  that  is  to 

say,  a  portion  of  the  ordinary  roofing  material,  of  any  desired  length,  and  of  a  width 
corresponding  to  the  space  between  2  or  more  rafters,  is  replaced  by  a  glazed  sash. 
In  adjusting  the  sash  to  the  space,  the  frame  may  be  recessed  to  admit  the  rafters,  or 
the  rafters  cut  off  to  admit  the  frame.  As  both  the  roof  and  the  skylight  present  a 
slanting  position,  most  of  the  cutting  is  on  the  bevel.  The  space  to  be  occupied  by  the 
skylight  frame  is  enclosed  by  joining  the  rafters  which  are  interfered  with  by  cross- 
pieces  of  stout  quartering.    The  whole  structure  is  well  illustrated  in  Fig.  681,  taken 

681. 


i 


from  a  practical  article  on  the  subject  in  Amateur  Worh  :  a  is  one  of  the  rafters  forming  a 
side  of  the  hole  in  the  roof;  6,  c,  pieces  of  quartering  constituting  the  top  and  bottom,  and 
secured  to  the  rafters  by  the  screws  d  whose  heads  are  countersunk;  e  is  one  side  of  a 
rectangular  box  made  of  1-in.  planed  deal,  about  9  in.  deep,  dovetailed  at  the  corners,  and 
sloping  as  shown.  This  box  sliould  fit  tightly  into  the  rectangular  space  made  for  it, 
and  be  secured  by  nails  or  screws  to  the  rafters  at  the  sides  and  the  crossbars  h,  c  at 
top  and  bottom.  The  top  edge  of  this  box  should  have  a  groove  ploughed  in  it  to 
carry  off  rain-water,  and  it  may  have  a  fillet  I  in.  high  nailed  all  round  the  outside,  to 
form  an  enclosure  for  the  sash  that  is  to  lie  on  the  top.  This  sash  /  is  made  in  tlie 
usual  way,  and,  if  not  to  be  opened,  is  screwed  down  securely  on  the  top  of  the  box, 
which  it  fits  exactly,  dropping  inside  the  fillet ;  but  if  it  is  intended  to  be  opened 
the  top  edge  only  must  be  secured,  and  that  by  hinges  joining  it  to  tlie  box.  The  sash  is 
raised  and  lowered  by  the  rod  g,  which  may  be  of  any  reasonable  length.  When  the  sash 
is  fixed  and  completed,  the  roofing  material  must  be  adjusted  to  it,  to  exclude  the 
weather.  But  before  laying  the  roofing  (slates,  tiles,  felt,  &c.)  up  to  the  skylight,  pieces 
of  sheet  lead  are  spread  all  round  it,  one  at  the  head  /t  being  turned  up  the  woodwork 


350  Caepentey — Construction. 

of  the  skylight  and  slipped  up  under  the  slates  Ic,  another  i  at  Ihe  foot  lying  over  the 
slates  fr,  and  one  on  each  side,  similarly  arranged  for  keeping  out  the  wet.  These 
strips  of  lead  are  nailed  down  in  place  before  the  roofing  is  secured  over  them. 
They  should  extend  about  G  to  9  in.  in  each  direction  on  the  roof,  besides  the  turn-up 
on  all  sides  of  the  skylight.  The  lead  must  be  bent  and  fitted  by  the  aid  of  a  piece 
of  planed  hard  wood,  on  which  a  hammer  can  be  used.  The  joints  may  be  soldered  if 
desired,  as  described  under  Soldering.  Angular  fillets  nailed  all  round  at  the  base 
of  the  skylight  reduce  the  sharpness  of  the  bend  in  tlie  sheet  lead,  and  hence  help  to 
preserve  it. 

CABINET-MAKING.— The  art  of  "  cabinet-making  "  is  usually  divided  into  two 
classes — ''  carcase  work,"  embracing  the  production  of  articles  of  chest-like  form,  such 
as  book-cases,  «fec.,  and  "  chair  work,"  comprising  not  only  chairs  and  their  substitutes 
but  also  tables.  In  point  of  fact,  it  is  merely  joinery  of  a  superior  description,  working 
with  finer  tools  on  more  costly  woods,  and  producing  more  sightly  effects.  The  subject 
may  be  conveniently  discussed  under  the  several  heads  of  woods,  tools,  and  veneering, 
concluding  with  a  few  examples  in  both  carcase  and  chair  work. 

Woods. — Most  woods  have  already  been  described  more  or  less  fully  under  Carpentry, 
especially  concerning  their  sources  and  qualities ;  repetition  will  be  avoided  by 
making  cross-references  to  particular  pages,  and  only  points  specially  interesting  to  the 
cabinet-maker  will  be  noted  here.  The  woods  in  ordinary  use  are  named  below  in 
alphabetic  order. 

Amboyna:  the  beautifully  mottled  wood  of  Pterospermum  indicum,  a  native  of  India. 

Apple :  inferior  in  all  respects  to  pear. 

Ash  ■■  see  p.  127. 

Beech:  see  p.  128.     Takes  a  walnut  stain  well. 

Beef  wood :  a  common  name  for  the  woods  of  the  Casuarinas,  described  on  p.  141. 

Birch  :  see  p.  128.  The  black  or  cherry  kind  is  most  esteemed,  and  is  largely  used 
for  plain  furniture.  It  is  harder  than  mahogany,  and  often  occurs  beautifully  figured 
(then  called  "  mahogany  birch  " ;  such  figured  pieces  are  cut  into  veneers,  but  only 
adapted  for  the  caul  and  hand-screw  process,  on  account  of  the  tendency  to  swell  and 
shrink  on  wetting. 

Box :  see  p.  129.     Twists  and  splits  in  working,  if  not  well  seasoned. 

Camphor  :  has  an  excellent  efi"ect  when  worked  into  small  articles. 

Canary :  the  wood  of  an  Indian  tree,  Persea  indica 

Cedar  :  see  p.  130. 

Cherry  :  much  used  by  cabinet-makers  and  musical  instrument  makers,  especially  in 
France. 

Ebony:  seep.  132.     Has  a  tendency  to  split  and  exfoliate.     Very  expensive. 

Holly:  a  light,  close-grained  wood,  of  small  size,  useful  in  small  articles  and  for 
inlaying. 

Kingwood :   a  scarce  wood  imported  in  sticks  5  ft.  long   from   Brazil ;    apparently 
related  to  rosewood. 
•     Lime  :  has  a  butter-like  hue,  and  is  easy  to  work. 

Locust-icood :  see  p.  136. 

Mahogany :  see  p.  136.  Cabinet-makers  distinguish  3  kinds — Spanish,  Cuban,  and 
Honduras,  esteemed  in  the  order  quoted.  Spanish  is  known  by  its  hard,  close  grain, 
and  variously  mottled  figure.  The  rarest  mottle  is  "  peacock,"  something  like  birds'- 
eye  maple.  Of  ordinary  kinds,  "  stop  "  mottle  is  most  admired,  a  light  and  dark  figure 
being  produced  by  waves  of  grain  breaking  up  and  running  into  each  other.  In  "  fiddle  " 
mottle,  the  waves  run  across  in  nearly  regular  lines.  In  the  figure  called  "  breek,"  "  curl," 
or  "  curb,"  the  light  and  dark  shades  slope  away  from  the  centre ;  veneers  of  this  are 
liable  to  contract  a  number  of  little  cracks  in  time.  The  Cuban  wood  is  less  handsome 
in  figure,  lustre,  and  colour,  and  therefore  employed  in  large  veneers  as  a  cheaper  substitute 


Cabinet-making — Woods :  Tools. 


351 


for  Spanish,  also  in  solid  work.  Honduras  (railed  Bay)  wood  has  little  artistic  Taluo, 
but  is  esteemed  for  the  solid  parts  of  work  intended  to  carry  veneer,  bein"-  strai<'ht- 
grained  and  free  from  warping  and  shrinking.  These  qualities  render  mahogany  a 
favourite  wood  in  cabinet-making,  another  great  advantage  being  its  immunity  from 
decay  and  worms. 

Maple :  see  p.  13S.     The  best  figured  birds'-eye  maple  is  cut  into  veneers. 

OaJc :  see  p.  140.  Oak  has  little  beauty  for  furniture-making  unless  it  is  judiciously 
cut  so  as  to  exhibit  the  "  champ  "  or  silver  grain  to  the  best  advantage  (see  p.  178) 
This  champ  is  better  marked  in  Eiga  than  in  English  oak,  and  the  former  is  also  a  more 
easily  worked  wood,  consequently  it  is  preferred  for  this  particular  purpose,  thouf^h  some- 
what less  strong  and  durable. 

Partridgeivood :  a  name  applied  to  the  wood  of  several  South  American  trees. 

Pear  :  see  p.  141.     Takes  a  black  stain  well,  and  often  replaces  ebony. 

Pine:  seep.  144.  The  American  pine,  commonly  called  "Weymouth  or  white  pine 
in  this  country,  is  best  'suited  for  cabinet-making  purposes,  and  forms  the  ground  for 
nearly  all  veneered  and  hidden  work. 

Plane:  see  p.  145. 

Bose:  see  p.  147.  The  best  comes  from  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  emits  an  agreeable 
odour.     It  is  hard,  heavy,  and  dark-coloured. 

Sandal :  chiefly  esteemed  for  its  fragrance. 

Satin  :  see  p.  147.    Used  infancy  articles.    Has  a  peculiar  lustre  and  fragrant  odour. 

Teak:  see  p.  149. 

Tidip  :  see  p.  150.     Used  for  inlaying  and  marqueterie  work. 

Walnut:  see  p.  150.  This  wood  is  very  popular  both  for  solid  work  and  veneerin"-. 
The  species  common  to  Europe  and  Asia  affords  the  best  wood ;  that  native  of  America 
gives  a  "  black  "  kind  used  as  a  cheaper  substitute.  Walnut  contrasts  well  with  lighter 
woods,  as  birds'-eyo  maple,  ash,  and  satinwood,  and  lends  itself  to  most  delicate  orna- 
mental work, 

Zebrarmod :  a  name  given  to  a  beautiful  furniture  wood  obtained  in  British  Guiana 
from  the  hyawaboUy  (Omphalohium  Lamberti). 

In  addition  there  are  many  excellent  cabinet-making  woods  produced  in  our  tropical 
colonies  about  which  little  or  nothing  is 
known  in  this  country. 

Tools. — These  are  mainly  the  same 
as  employed  in  Carpentry,  but  some 
special  forms  are  added.  These  will  be  de- 
scribed here,  including  chest  and  bench. 

Tool-chest.  A  convenient  chest  for 
holding  cabinet-making  tools  is  shown 
ia  Fig.  G82,  as  described  by  Cabe  in 
Design  and  Work.  It  is  3  ft.  1  in.,  by 
1  ft.  8  in.,  by  1  ft.  8  in.  inside  measure- 
ment, with  a  till  the  full  length  of  the 
inside,  9  in.  broad  and  lOJ  in.  deep. 
The  body  of  the  chest  is  made  of  -^-in. 
best  yellow  pine,  with  a  skirting  of  oak 
round  the  lid.  The  till  and  the  inside  of 
the  lid  are  veneered  with  rosewood  and 
walnut.  The  2  sides  are  squared  up  3  ft. 
3  in.  long  and  1  ft.  8  in.  broad,  and  the  2 

ends  1  ft.  10  in.  long  and  1  ft.  8  in.  broad.  They  are  previously  slipped  on  the  upper  edge 
— that  is,  a  thin  slip  of  plain  walnut,  say  f  in.  thick,  is  glued  on  what  is  to  be  the  upper 
edge  of  each  piece.    These  4  pieces  are  dovetailed  together,  the  dovetails  1^  in.  apart 


682. 


;;    ...       •-■.:•:■       ,j..........:.......y.^ 


352  Cabinet-making— Tools. 

and  all  going  quite   through  the   thickness  of  the  -wood.    Before  glueing  the   pieces 
together,  2  fillets  a  of  mahogany,  I  in.  broad  and  |-  in.  thick,  with  a  groove  in  the  centre, 
are  glued  and  screwed  to  the  inside  of  the  ends  at  a  distance  of  lOf  in.  from  the  upper 
edge;  thase  are  to  receive  a  sliding  board  11  in.  broad,  which  slides  underneath  the 
till,  which,  when  jnished  back,  covers  the  i^lanes  and  tools  in  the  space  h,  and,  when 
pulled  forward,  covers  the  tools  in  the  space  c.     This  board  may  well  be  left  out.     A 
partition  board  d  between  h  and  c  comes  nearly  up  to  the  sliding  board,  and  is  grooved 
into  the  2  ends.     A  second  partition  e  in  tlie  middle  of  the  space  &  is  4  in.  broad,  and  is 
also  let  into  the  ends.  These  2  23artitions  are  made  of  ^-in.  wood,  and  these  grooves  must 
be  made  in  the  ends  to  receive  them  before  the  body  is  knocked  together.     A  stain  of 
Venetian  red  and  ochre,  witli  a  little  glue  size,  is  made  somewhat  thin,  and  applied  hot 
to  the  wood  with  a  piece  of  cotton  rag ;  then,  after  standing  for  a  few  minutes,  as  much 
aa  will  come  off  is  rubbed  with  another  piece  of  rag,  stroking  always  with  the  grain.     In 
a  short  time  this  stain  will  dry,  when  it  is  sandpapered,  using  the  finest.     The  body  is 
next  put  together  with  thin  glue,  using  a  small  brush  for  the  dovetails,  and  taking  care 
that  no  glue  gets  on  to  the  inner  surface,  as  taking  it  off  afterwards  leaves  an  unsightly 
mark.     It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  in  dovetailing  a  box  such  as  this,  the  "  pins  "  are 
always   on  the  end   pieces ;  consequently  they  are  cut   first.     In  "  rappiug "  the  body 
together,  a  somewhat  heavy  hammer  is  used,  and  always  with  a  piece  of  wood  to  protect 
the  work  from  injury.    The  4  corners  are  glued  and  rapped  up  close.     The  box  has  to 
be  "squared."     A  rod  of  wood,  made  like  a  wedge  at  one  end,  and  applied  from  corner 
to  corner  diagonally  inside,  is  the  readiest  method  of  .squaring,  a  pencil  mark  being 
made  on  the  side  of  the  rod  just  where  the  side  and  end  meet  ;  then  the  rod  being  placed 
diagonally  from  the  other  2  corners,  the  pencil  mark  will  show  at  once  whether  the  box 
is  squared  or  not;  and,  if  not,  the  long  corner  must  be  pressed  or  pushed  to  bring  it  to 
the  square.    A  bottom  /  is  nailed  on  of  |-in.  wood,  with  the  grain  running  across — i.  e. 
from  back  to  front.     Then  a  band  g  of  wood,  2^  in.  broad  and  1  in.  thick,  is  nailed  over 
the  bottom,  and  flush  with  the  outside  of  the  box  all  round.     The  2  long  pieces  are 
nailed  on  first,  and  the  end  ones  are  fitted  between  them.     To  secure  these  bars  or  bands 
properly,  a  few  1^-in.  screws  should  be  passed  through  the  bottom  from  the  inside  into 
them.     The  box  is  then  planed  truly  on  the  outside  all  round,  finishing  with  a  hand- 
plane  and  sandpaper.     A  band  h  is   made  to  go  round  the  sides  at  the  bottom,  and 
another  i  at  the  top  or  upper  edge ;  that  at  the  bottom  is  .SJ  in.  broad  and  f  in.  thick, 
and  that  at  the  top  2^  in.  broad  and  f  in.  thick.     It  makes  the  best  job  to  dovetail  these 
bands  at  the  corners,  making  them  of  a  size  to  slip  exactly  on  to  the  body  of  the  chest. 
The  ujjper  edge  of  the  bottom  band,  and  tlie  lower  edge  of  the  upper,  are  moulded  either 
with  an  "  ogee  "  or  "  quarter  round."     When  the  bottom  band  is  in  a  position  for  nailing, 
it  covers  the  bottom  bars  and  the  edge  of  the  bottom,  coming  up  the  sides  of  the  box 
about  2  in.     The  upper  band  is  fixed  |  in.  below  the  edge  of  the  body ;  this  forms  a 
check  for  the  lid,  the  bottling  for  the  lid  being  made  to  check  down  on  this  band.     The 
lid  is  made  of  pine,  ^  in.  or  1  in.  thick ;  it  has  cross  ends,  2^  in.  broad,  mortised  on. 
These  prevent  the  lid  splitting  or  warping.     After  they  are  glued  and  cramped  on,  the 
lid  is  evenly  planed  and  squared  to  the  proper  size,  which  is  -J^  in.  larger  than  the  body 
of  the  box  on  front  and  ends,  and  J  in.  over  the  back.     The  lid  is  fitted  with  3  brass 
butt  hinges  3  in.  long.     The  lid,  being  temporarily  fitted,  is  taken  oflf,  and  a  skirting 
put  round  it— that  is,  on  front  and  ends.     This  skirting  is  li  in.  broad,  and  |  in.  thick, 
of  hard  wood— oak  or  black  birch.     To  make  a  first-rate  job  of  this  skirting  it  should  be 
grooved,  as  also  the  chest-lid  and  slip  feathers  inserted.     It  should  also  be  nailed  witli 
fine  wrought  brads.     After  it  is  firmly  fixed  and  dry,  it  is  rounded  on  the  outer  edge. 
The  extent  of  the  rounding  is  found  by  shutting  down  the  lid  and  drawing  all  round  at 
the  edge  of  the  band,  over  which  the  skirting  projects  about  -^^  in.     The  inside  of  the 
lid  may  be  panelled.     This  panelling  is  simply  a  flat  veneered  surface,  the  2  panels 
being  root  walnut,  and  the  borders  rosewood ;  the  veneering  must  be  done  before  the 


Cabinet-making — Tools.  353 

skirting  is  put  on.  The  2  panels  are  laid  first ;  when  dry,  the  cutting  gauge  is  set  to 
21  in.,  and  cnts  away  the  over  veneer  all  round,  whicli,  of  course,  gives  a  border  of  21  in. 
to  be  veneered  with  the  rosewood  ;  2^  in.  also  divides  the  2  panels  in  the  centre,  and  the 

8  corners  are  marked  off  with  compasses  set  to  1 J  in.,  and  cut  clean  out  with  a  gou<'e. 
All  the  edges  are  planed  with  the  iron  plane,  and  the  rosewood  border  is  planed  and 
jutted  all  round  in  the  form  of  "banding" — that  is,  with  the  gruin  running  across  and 
not  the  Icngthway  of  the  borders.  The  round  corners  are  fitted  in  in  2  pieces  mitred  in 
the  centre.  A  till  has  now  to  be  made.  The  body  or  carcase  of  this  is  entirely  of  i-in. 
wood.  It  has  2  drawers  in  the  length  at  the  bottom,  3  in.  deep  on  the  face;  3  in  the 
centre  in  the  length,  2i  in.  deep  on  the  face ;  and  over  these  is  a  tray,  covered  by  a  lid. 
The  face  of  this  tray  is  in  the  form  of  4  di-awers,  which  are  shams.     The  drawers  are 

9  in.  broad  from  front  to  back,  and  run  on  shelves  ^  in.  thick,  with  divisions  between 
of  the  same  thickness.  The  shelves  and  divisions,  as  also  the  edge  of  the  lifting  lid,  are 
slipped  with  rosewood  on  the  fore  edges,  and  the  drawers  being  veneered  with  root 
walnut,  the  whole  has  a  good  effect.  The  lifting  lid  is  panelled  with  veneer,  similar  to 
the  lid  of  the  chest,  the  rosewood  border  being  H  in.  broad.  It  is  hinged  with  3  brass 
butts,  IJ  in.  long,  to  the  back  of  the  till,  which  projects  upwards  the  thickness  of  the  lid, 
and  is  veneered  also  with  rosewood.  This  lid  may  be  made  of  bay  mahogany  or  good 
pine  ;  and  if  of  the  latter,  it  must  be  veneered  on  the  under  side  witli  plain  walnut  or 
mahogany,  to  counteract  that  on  the  top  and  prevent  warping.  The  carcase  (case)  of 
this  till  is  constructed  as  follows: — The  2  ends  are  cross-headed  on  the  upper  edge : 
these  are  li  in.  broad,  and  may  be  put  on  with  the  ploughs.  Tlien  the  bottom  and 
2  shelves  are  squared  up  to  the  length  of  inside  of  the  chest,  having  been  previously 
slipped  on  the  fore  edges  with  rosewood  i  in.  thick.  The  bottom  is  dovetailed  into  the 
2  ends,  while  the  2  shelves  are  mortised  or  let  into  the  ends  with  square  tenons,  which 
pass  quite  through,  and  are  wedged.  The  divisions  between  the  drawers  are  let  through, 
and  wedged  in  the  same  manner.  Tlie  front  of  the  tray,  which  lias  the  appearance  of 
4  drawers,  is  of  |-in.  mahogany,  veneered  with  root  walnut,  like  the  drawer  fronts,  and  an 
imitation  of  the  fore  edges  made  on  it  by  glueing  slips  of  rosewood,  ^  in.  broad,  to  represent 
the  fore  edges.  The  walnut  front  must,  of  course,  be  sandpapered  before  these  are  put 
on.  The  5  drawers  h  are  made  entirely  of  straight,  plain,  bay  mahogany,  J  in.  thick, 
excepting  the  fronts,  which  are  §  in.  The  knobs  I  are  of  rosewood,  f  in.  diameter.  The 
tray,  covered  by  the  hinged  lid,  is  so  deep  as  to  hold  the  brace  or  tools  of  the  like  bulk. 
The  left  end  may  be  occupied  with  3  shallow  trays,  one  over  the  other,  for  holding  the 
several  bits  belonging  to  the  brace,  and  are  very  handy,  as  the  bits  can  be  arranged  in 
order,  and  the  trays  may  be  lifted  out  to  the  bench,  when  a  number  of  the  bits  is  wanted. 
The  remainder  of  the  tray  is  lined  with  green  frieze,  and  holds  the  brace,  spirit-level, 
gauges,  squares,  and  other  of  the  finer  tools.  The  2  long  drawers  at  the  bottom  are  used 
for  chisels,  gouges,  spoke-shaves,  mitre-squares,  &c.,  while  the  3  upper  ones  are  for 
gimlets,  bradawls,  compasses,  pliers,  and  sundry  small  tools.  In  the  space  b,  in  the  body 
of  the  chest  and  under  the  till,  the  planes  are  arranged  as  shown.  In  front  of  them  is  a 
space  i  in.  broad  and  the  full  length  of  the  chest.  In  it  long  tools,  such  as  the  trammels, 
are  kept,  and  any  planes  that  the  back  space  will  not  admit,  such  as  raglets  or  grooving 
planes,  which  have  2  wedges.  It  is  also  useful  for  holding  drawings  of  large  dimensions, 
rolled  up,  where  they  are  safe  from  damage,  and  in  cases  of  removal  it  is  the  receptacle 
for  the  hand-saws  and  other  tools  which  usually  hang  upon  the  wall. 

Bench. — A  full-sized  cabinet-makers'  bench  is  generally  7  ft.  long  and  2]  ft.  wide, 
but  a  very  convenient  size  is  6  ft.  by  2  ft.  Such  a  bench  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  683. 
The  top  is  in  2  parts,  the  front  portion  a  being  15  in.  wide  and  of  2T-in.  red  or  yellow  pine, 
sound  and  straight;  the  back  portion  b  is  only  9  in.  wide  and  IJ  in.  thick.  Both  are 
supported  by  the  cross  rails  c  ;  and  the  back  part  has  a  fillet  d,  1  in.  thick,  screwed  to  it 
in  such  a  position  that  its  top  edge  is  flush  with  a.  The  rails  c,  5  in.  by  2  in.,  are  screwed 
to  the  top  ends  of  the  4  legs  of  good  red  pine,  the  2  back  ones  e  and  right  front  one/ 

2  A 


354 


Cabinet-making — Tools. 


measuring  4  in.  by  2  in.,  ■while  the  left  front  one  gr  is  6  in.  by  2  in.  The  back  legs  e 
diverge  at  foot  to  give  greater  steadiness  to  the  bench.  The  top  is  secured  to  the  rails  c 
by  screws  put  up  from  beneath.  At  bottom,  the  legs  are  joined  by  rails  h,  3  in.  by  2  in., 
dovetailed  into  them  and  held  by  screws ;  boards  i  are  nailed  to  their  under  side,  to  form 
a  capacious  tray  for  holding  tools.     The  bench  stops  k  are  let  into  holes  which  come 

C>3. 


clear  outside  the"rail  c.  The  bench  vice  I  has  its  outer  cheek  working  against  the  leg  g 
by  means  of  the  screw  m  passing  through  both.  At  the  bottom  is  a  "  runner  "  or  "  sword  " 
n,  consisting  of  a  strip  of  wood,  2  in.  by  h  in.,  mortised  into  the  foot  of  I  and  sliding  in  a 
corresponding  groove  in  g,  where  it  is  pegged  by  an  iron  pin  at  suitable  distances  for 
keeping  the  jaws  of  the  vice  parallel.  This  is  further  aided  by  the  supplementary 
side  screw  o.  The  holes  in  the  leg  /  and  central  bar  j^  hold  strong  pegs  for  support- 
ing the  ends  of  work  while  it  is  being  manipulated  in  the  vice.  The  space  between  the 
top  a  and  the  rail  r  may  be  made  into  a  shelf  only,  or  partially  occupied  by  a  drawer 
as  at  s. 

Planes. — Besides  the  ordinary  planes,  the  cabinet-maker  uses  a  "toothing"  plane. 
This  has  a  stock  similar  to  the  hard  wood  hand-plane,  but  the  iron,  instead  of  having  a 
cutting  edge,  presents  a  series  of  sharp  teeth  to  the  wood.  This  serrated  edge  is  formed 
by  long  narrow  grooves  on  the  face  of  the  iron  next  the  wedge,  and  when  the  iron  is 
ground  in  the  usual  manner  these  ridges  terminate  in  sharp  points.  In  setting-up  this 
iron  on  the  oil-stone,  only  the  ground  back  is  applied  to  the  stone.  The  position  of  the 
iron  in  the  stock  is  nearly  perpendicular,  so  that  it  is  simply  a  scratch  plane,  and  needs 
uo  cover  like  the  others.  Its  use  is  to  roughen  the  surfaces  of  pieces  to  be  glued  to- 
gether, for  while  it  takes  oif  the  ridges  left  by  the  half-long  or  panel  plane,  it  roughens 
the  surface  by  scratching,  thereby  adapting  it  better  to  hold  the  glue.  All  sm-faces  to 
be  veneered  upon,  as  well  as  the  veneer  itself,  are  scratched  with  this  plane. 

Dowel  plate. — The  dowel  plate  is  a  steel  plate  about  ^  in.  thick,  with  holes  from 
-^^  in.  to  I  in.,  and  centre-bits  are  fitted  and  marked  so  that  dowel  pins  made  in  the  holes 
will  fit  holes  made  by  the  corresponding  bits. 

Smoothing  implements. — The  "  scraper  "  is  a  bit  of  steel  plate  about  the  thickness  of 
a  hand-saw  blade,  5  in.  by  3  in.  ;  its  use  is  to  take  off  any  ridges  left  by  the  smoothing 
plane  in  planing  hard  wood,  producing  a  surface  perfectly  free  from  lumpiness ;  it  is 


Cabinet-making — Tools ;  Veneeriujr 


355 


ea-L 


used  before  the  sandpaper.  Sandpapering  is  done  with  the  paper  wrapped  round  a 
Ijicce  of  cork.  The  usual  size  for  large  flat  surfaces  is  5  in.  by  4  in.,  and  iibout  1  in. 
thick.  One  side  is  made  quite  flat,  and  on  this  the  jJaper  is  placed.  Pieces  of  cork  are 
used  for  all  kinds  of  sandpai^ering, — hollows,  rounds,  mouldings,  &c., — the  cork  being 
shajied  witli  the  rasp,  to  fit  the  part  to  be  prepared. 

Saioing  rest. — The  sawing  rest  or  "  bench  boy  "  used  by  cabinet-makers  differs  from 
that  emploj^ed  by  carpenters  (p.  2G1)  in  being  shorter  and  broader,  say  10  in.  by  G  in.,  of 
|-in.  pine,  the  fillets  being  of  mahogany,  li  in.  sq.,  let  into  grooves,  glued,  and  screwed. 

Moulding  hoard. — This  contrivance  for  holding  strips  of  wood  while  under  the 
moulding  plane  somewhat  resembles  the  shooting  board  (Fig.  2G8,  p.  191).  It  consists 
of  a  plank  a  of  Ij-in.  Bay  mahogany,  G  ft.  long  and  G  in.  wide,  having  attached  on  its 
upper  surface  another  board  b  of  the  same  length  but  only  3  in.  wide,  thus  forming  a 
step  (see  Fig.  68-1).  The  upper  board  b  is  free  to  move  laterally  on  the  lower  one  by 
means  of  slots  c  2  in.  long,  through 
which  screws  d  pass  into  the  lower 
board  a.  Thus  the  width  of  the  step 
is  regulated.  To  suit  mouldings  of 
various  sizes  it  is  well  to  have  3 
guide  boards  h,  I  in.,  J  in.,  and  £  in. 
thick,  all  slotted  to  fit  the  same 
screws.  At  each  end  is  fixed  a  bench 
stop  e,  exactly  like  that  shown  in 
Fig.  683,  p.  354. 

Mitring  and  Slwoting  board. — Here  again  the  article  used  by  carpenters  (Fig.  260, 
p.  188)  is  replaced  by  a  shorter  form  more  suited  to  light  work.  It  is  made  by  screw- 
ing together  2  pieces  of  Bay  mahogany  30  in.  long,  6  in.  wide,  and  1  in.  thick,  one 
overlapping  the  other  2  in.  sideways,  so  as  to  form  a  step  4  in.  wide.  This  consti- 
tutes the  shooting  board.  The  mitring  is  effected  by  a  triangular  i^iece  screwed  to  the 
top  board,  about  the  centre,  with  its  apex  touching  the  margin  of  the  step,  so  that  its 
sides  form  exactly  angles  of  45°  with  the  step. 

Vice. — A  wooden  vice  with  jaws  G  in.  wide  is  very  useful  for  holding  small  work, 
■either  on  the  bench  or  in  the  bench  vice. 

Veneering. — This  name  is  applied  to  the  practice  of  laying  very  thin  sheets 
(called  veneers)  of  a  more  valuable  wood  upon  the  surface  of  a  less  valuable  one,  in 
order  to  gain  superior  effects  at  reduced  cost. 

The  method  of  cutting  veneers,  as  conducted  by  the  Grand  Rapids  Veneer  Co.,  is 
thus  described.  In  the  first  place  the  log  is  drawn  up  an  inclined  plane  by  means  of 
tackle,  and  brought  under  a  drag  saw  on  a  platform  at  the  top,  where  it  is  cut  to  the 
length  required  in  order  to  fit  the  cutting  machine.  On  one  side  of  this  platform,  which 
is  outside  the  factory  building,  is  a  row  of  steam  boxes,  in  one  of  whicli  the  log  is  placed, 
and  allowed  to  remain  about  12  hours,  emerging  in  a  very  soft  and  pliable  state.  This 
is  necessary  to  prevent  chipping  and  breaking  while  going  through  the  cutting  process, 
and  also  to  render  it  more  easy  to  cut.  It  is  lifted  from  this  place  by  a  powerful  crane, 
and  after  the  bark  has  been  peeled  off,  ijlaced  upon  the  cutter.  A  veneer  cutter 
resembles  a  gigantic  turning  lathe,  with  a  knife  ground  to  a  razor-like  edge  running  the 
whole  length  of  the  log  to  be  cut.  It  is  very  massive,  the  knife  being  backed  with  an 
enormous  iron  beam,  and  the  other  portions  are  fixed  in  an  equally  solid  manner ;  for 
the  slightest  tremor  or  yielding  in  any  part  would  tear  the  veneer  and  render  it  useless. 
The  machine  used  by  this  company  weighs  10  tons.  The  chuck  consists  of  a  large  iron 
shaft,  which  is  hammered  into  place  by  a  heavy  swinging  maul.  The  log  having  been 
placed  in  position,  the  cutter  is  set  in  motion.  The  log  revolves  against  the  knife,  and 
the  veneer  is  pared  off  in  a  continuous  sheet.  So  smoothly  and  easily  does  the  machine 
work  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  conceive  of  the  enormous  power  that  is  exerted.   The 

2  A  2 


56  Cabinet-making — Veneerinor 


o" 


feed  is  supplied  by  means  of  a  revolving  screw,  Avliieh  may  be  ganged  to  produce  a 
veneer  of  any  thickness  from  that  of  a  sheet  of  tissue  paper  to  f  in. 

Of  course  there  is  a  limit  to  the  diameter  which  the  machine  can  cut ;  and  after  it 
has  done  its  work,  a  piece  7  in.  in  diameter  is  left.  In  plain  native  woods  this  can  be 
easily  put  to  other  uses  ;  but  in  French  walnut  binds  it  is  too  valuable  to, be  lost.  In 
such  cases,  therefore,  the  knot  is  fastened  to  a  stay  log  on  whose  centre  it  revolves,  and 
thus  very  little,  and  that  the  least  valuable  part,  of  the  costly  material  is  wasted.  The 
ash  burls,  which  the  company  are  now  cutting,  are  brought  in  from  the  surrounding 
country,  and  they  avoid  the  necessity  of  a  stay  log  by  having  a  sufficient  part  of  tho 
trunk  on  wliich  the  burl  grew  left  to  serve  for  this  puri^ose.  As  the  sheets  of  veneer 
come  off  the  cutter,  they  are  taken  to  a  saw  which  divides  them  into  the  required  widths, 
and  are  then  put  through  the  drying  machine  to  remove  the  moisture  with  which  the 
steam  bath  that  they  have  received  has  saturated  them.  Thesubjeet  of  drying  has  been 
one  of  the  most  serious  problems  with  which  those  in  the  veneer  business  have  had  to 
deal.  A  dryer  is  used  by  this  company,  who  claim  that  it  Is  both  thorough  and  rapid  in 
its  operation.  It  consists  of  2  series  of  steam-heated  rollers,  enclosed  in  an  iron  box, 
between  which  the  sheets  of  veneer  pass  as  through  a  planer,  emerging  in  a  thoroughly 
dry  state  and  pressed  perfectly  flat.  The  drying  is  still  further  expedited  by  a  blast  of 
hot  air  forced  into  the  iron  bos  referred  to  by  a  fan  blower.  After  going  through  this 
process,  the  veneers  are  taken  to  the  second  floor,  and  such  of  them  as  are  intended  to  be 
sold  in  this  state  are  packed  away,  while  the  remainder  is  made  into  3-ply  panels  to  be 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  bedsteads,  for  looking-glass  backs,  &c.  These  3-ply  panels 
are  made  by  passing  the  veneers  through  a  glue  machine,  and  then  placing  them  in  a 
pre^s.  Great  strength  is  secured  in  these  panels  by  having  the  grain  of  the  middle  layer 
of  veneer  run  at  right  angles  with  that  of  the  2  outer  layers. 

Generally  speaking,  straight-grained  and  moderately  soft  woods  are  sliced  otF  a  log 
by  a  weighted  knife  with  a  drawing  ciit,  the  log,  or  burl,  being  10  ft.  long,  and  the 
veneers  varying  from  i  in.  to  -};  in.  in  thickness,  the  width  corresponding,  of  course, 
to  the  diameter  of  the  log.  A  knife  machine  which  gives  a  half  rotary  movement  to  a 
semi-cylindrical  turned  log,  allowing  a  veneer  to  be  cut  following  the  log's  diameter, 
produces  wide  veneers  from  logs  of  small  diameters.  But  such  woods  as  ebony  and 
lignum  vita3  cannot  be  cut  with  a  knife,  while  finely  figured  and  consequently  close- 
grained  mahogany,  and  some  rosewood,  are  difiicult  to  cut.  The  saw,  therefore,  has  its 
place.  Such  saws  must  be  very  thin,  and  so  finely  adjusted  that  hardly  the  slightest 
variation  will  occur  in  the  thickness  of  the  veneers  turned  out.  While  a  nicely  arranged 
circular  saw  will  turn  oiit  boards  varying  -^^  in.^  which  would  be  imperceptible,  such  a 
lack  of  uniformity  in  thin  sheets  would  prove  a  damaging  imperfection.  Before  being 
cut,  the  veneer  material  must  be  carefully  steamed,  the  same  as  in  bending.  A  tight 
box  12  ft.  long,  and  4  ft.  deep  and  wide  is  used,  and  exhaust  steam  is  utilized.  An  ordi- 
nary wood  like  black  walnut,  which  has  an  open  grain,  will  steam  sufficiently  in  6  hours, 
but  the  close-grained  South  American  woods  require  3G  hours.  Mahogany  will  steam 
sufficiently  in  24  hours.  Mahogany,  tulip,  and  rosewood,  being  hard  to  cut,  require  more 
and  careful  steaming,  and  a  knife  in  the  best  condition.  The  veneers  wrinkle  when 
laid  together,  but  straighten  out  readily  when  glued  jjroperly  to  a  body.  Veneers  will 
dry  in  the  air  in  about  12  hours,  but  are  not  kiln  dried,  although  the  latter  method 
is  used  for  lumber  out  of  which  veneers  are  to  be  made. 

The  softest  woods  shoidd  be  chosen  for  veneering  upon.  Perhaps  the  best  for  tho 
purpose  are  12  ft.  in  length,  of  perfectly  straight  grain,  and  without  a  knot;  of  course  no 
one  ever  veneers  over  a  knot.  Hard  wood  can  be  veneered — boxwood  with  ivory,  for 
instance  ;  but  wood  that  will  warp  and  twist,  such  as  cross-grained  mahogany,  must  be 
avoided.  The  veneer,  and  the  wood  on  which  it  is  to  be  laid,  must  both  be  carefully 
prepared,  the  former  by  taking  out  all  marks  of  the  saw  on  both  sides  with  a  fine  tooth- 
ing plane,  the  latter  with  a  coarser  toothing  plane.     If  the  veneer  happens  to  be  broken 


Cabinet-making— Veneering.  357 

in  dniiig  this,  it  may  be  repaired  at  once  with  a  bit  of  stiff  paper  pined  upon  it  on  the 
upper  side.  The  veneer  should  be  cut  rather  hirger  than  the  surface  to  bo  covered  ;  if 
much  twisted,  it  may  be  dami)ed  and  placed  under  a  board  and  weight  over-ni"-ht.  This 
saves  much  trouble  ;  but  with  veneers  that  are  cheap  it  is  not  worth  while  tnkiii"-  much 
trouble  about  refractory  pieces.  When  French  walnut  burr  is  buckled  or  cockled,  as  not 
unfrequently  happens,  it  is  treated  on  both  sides  with  very  thin  hot  size,  and,  when  quite 
dry,  placed  between  hot  plates  of  zinc,  or  hot  wooden  cauls.  This  is  done  with  the  whole 
veneer,  and  it  is  cut  afterwards.  Tlie  cutting  is  not  easy,  owing  to  the  tendency  of  the 
veneer  to  split.  It  should  be  placed  on  a  flat  board,  and  marked  to  a  size  a  little  larn'er 
than  necessary;  the  veneer  is  then  cut  lengthwise  by  a  steel  point  or  marker  a"-ainst  a 
8traight-edge,  cuts  across  the  grain  being  done  with  a  fine  dovetail  saw.  Very  plain 
wood  can  be  cut  with  a  chisel  or  shoemakers'  knife.  Walnut  burrs  are  best  cut  with 
scissors. 

There  are  2  ways  of  fixing  the  veneer,  known  as  "  hammering  "  and  "  cauling,"  alike 
in  that  they  are  both  methods  of  applying  pressure,  but  differing  in  that  the  former  is 
accompanied  by  damp  heat,  the  latter  by  dry. 

In  either  case,  the  wood  to  bo  veneered  must  now  be  sized  with  thin  glue;  the 
ordinary  glue-pot  will  supply  this  by  dipping  the  brush  first  into  the  glue,  then  into  the 
boiling  water  in  the  outer  vessel.  This  size  must  be  allowed  to  dry  before  the  veneer  is 
laid.  Suppose  now  that  veneering  by  the  hammer  process  is  about  to  commence.  The 
glue  is  in  good  condition  and  boiling  hot ;  the  bench  is  cleared  ;  a  basin  of  hot  water 
with  the  veneering  hammer  and  a  sponge  in  it  is  at  hand,  together  with  a  cloth  or  two, 
and  everything  in  such  position  that  one  will  not  interfere  with  or  be  in  the  way  of  another. 
Then  :— 

(1)  Damp  with  hot  water  that  side  of  the  veneer  which  is  not  to  be  glued,  and  glue 
the  other  side  ;  (2)  go  over  as  quickly  as  possible  the  wood  itself,  previously  toothed  and 
sized :  (3)  bring  the  veneer  rapidly  to  it,  pressing  it  down  with  the  outspread  hands,  and 
taking  care  that  the  edges  of  the  veneer  overlap  a  little  all  round ;  (4)  grasp  the  veneer- 
ing hammer  close  to  the  pane  (shaking  off  the  hot  water  from  it)  and  the  handle  iiointing 
away  from  you  ;  wriggle  it  about,  j^rcssing  it  down  stoutly,  and  squeezing  the  glue  from 
the  centre  out  at  the  edges.  If  it  is  a  la""ge  piece  of  stuff'  which  is  to  be  veneered,  the 
assistance  of  a  hot  iron  will  be  wanted  to  make  the  glue  liquid  again  after  it  has  set ;  but 
do  not  let  it  dry  the  wood  underneath  it,  or  it  will  burn  the  glue  and  scorch  the  veneer, 
and  ruin  the  work.  (5)  Having  got  out  all  the  glue  possible,  search  the  suifuce  for 
blisters,  which  will  at  once  be  betrayed  by  the  sound  they  give  when  tajiped  with  the 
handle  of  the  hammer  ;  the  hot  iron  (or  the  inner  vessel  of  the  glue-i^ot  itself,  which 
often  answers  tlie  purpose)  must  be  applied,  and  the  process  with  the  hammer  repeated. 
When  the  hammer  is  not  in  the  hand,  it  should  be  in  the  hot  water.  The  whole  may 
now  be  sponged  over  with  hot  water,  and  wiped  as  dry  as  can  be.  And  observe,  through- 
out the  above  process  never  have  any  sIojd  and  wet  about  the  work  that  you  can  avoid. 
Whenever  you  use  the  sponge,  squeeze  it  well  first.  Damp  and  heat  are  wanted,  not 
wet  and  heat.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  have  the  sponge  in  the  left  hand  nearly  all  the 
time,  ready  to  take  up  any  moisture  or  squeezed-out  glue  from  the  front  of  the 
hammer. 

The  veneering  "  hammer  "  resembles  an  ordinary  hammer  in  little  but  its  shape,  the 
manner  of  using  it  being  altogether  diflereut.  The  form  of  the  "  hammer  "  too  presents 
some  variety.  In  Fig.  685,  A  is  what  may  be  termed  the  "  shop  "  style  of  veneering 
hammer-head,  while  B,  C  are  such  as  may  be  made  by  the  operator  himself.  The  form 
A  can  be  purchased  at  a  dealer's  and  fitted  with  a  wooden  shaft.  The  form  B  is  made 
in  the  following  manner :  a  handle  a,  12  in.  long  and  1  in.  thick,  is  inserted  in  a  hole 
bored  in  the  centre  of  a  piece  of  hard  wood  b,  G  in.  sq.  and  1  in.  thick,  in  the  bottom 
edge  of  which  a  slit  about  1  in.  deep  is  cut  with  a  thick  saw,  and  into  tiiis  slit  is  fitted 
a  piece  of  iron  or  steel  plate  c,  6  in,  long  and  2  iu.  wide,  secured  by  a  couple  of  rivets. 


358 


Cabinet-making — Yeneerin  g. 


685. 


This  done,  the  corners  of  the  top  and  bottom  edges  of  the  wood  h,  and  tlie  edge  of  the 

plate  c  are  nicely  rounded  and  smoothed.     The  construction  of  C  is  evident  from  the 

illustration ;  a  is  the  handle ;  h,  the  head.     The  hammer,  of  whichever  shape,  is  employed 

as  a  squeezer  for  pressing  out  superfluous  glue ;  it  is  therefore  held  by  one  hand  grasping 

the  handle  and  the  other  pressing  on  the  licad,  and  is  moved  forward  with  a  zigzag 

motion,   each   end    of   the    head    advancing 

alternately  in  short  sliding  steps. 

It  may  sometimes  happen  that  when  the 

veneer  is  laid  a  fault  may  be  noticed  which 

renders  it  necessary  to  remove  and  relay  tho 

veneer.      This    is    difficult    to    do    without 

damaging  the  veneer.      The  best  plan  is  to 

first    thoroughly    clean    the   surface    by   hot 

damp  sponging  ;  then  dry  and  wann  it  by  a 

fire,  and  while  hot  rub  in  linseed  oil ;   hold 

to  the  fire  again  till  the  oil  has  disappeared, 

and  repeat  the  oiling  and  warming  till  the 

glue  beneath  is  so  weakened  that  the  veneer 

can  be  gently  stripped  oif.    Both  old  glued 

surfaces  are  thoroughly  cleansed  and  roughed 

by  the  toothing  j)lane  before  relaying  is  at- 
tempted.    The  projecting  edges  of  the  veneer 

can  be  taken  off  by  a  sharp  chisel  or  plane 

when  the  whole  is  quite  dry  and  firm,  which 

end   is  attained  by  placing  the  work  under 

weights  supported  on   an  even  surface,   and 

leaving   it  in  a  warm  room.     The   difficulty 

with  hammer  veneering  is  that  the  glue  is 

not    kept    always   sufficiently    hot    and   that 

therefore   it  does   not  get  properly  squeezed   (J 

out   at  the  edges,  and  sometimes  so  much 

hot  water  has  to  be  used  in  the  operation  that 

the  veneer  swells  and  shi-inks  to  a  degree 

that  spoils  the  look  of  the  work.     StiU,  with 

care,  it   is  quite  feasible  to  lay  flat  veneers 

up  to  5  ft.  long  and  18  in.  wide  with  the  hammer  in  a  satisfactory  manner.     The  working 

of  tho  hamnTer  should  always  be   from  the   centre   outwards.     The  sponge  and  hot 

water,  or  the  heated  flat-iron,  is  applied  when  the  glue  sets,  or  an   air  bubble   gets^ 

entrapped  so  as  to  form  a  "blister."     To  veneer  a  convex  surface,  it  is  only  necessary  to 

wet  the  veneer  on  one  side,  when  it  will  curl  up  so  as  to  fit  a  convex  object  ;  it  should 

be  held  in  place  by  binding  round  with  some  soft  string. 

In  veneering  with  a  caul,  the  process  is  identical  with  that  already  described  as  far 
as  the  glueing;  the  diiierenco  commences  in  the  mode  of  applying  pressure  to  ensure 
adhesion  between  the  body  and  the  veneer.  Cauls  are  made  either  of  well-seasoned  pmo 
or  of  rolled  zinc  plate,  with  a  surface  exactly  the  converse  of  the  veneer  to  be  pressed. 
Hence  cauling,  while  superior  to  hammering,  and  in  some  cases  indispensable,  is  much  more 
expensive,  as,  except  in  the  case  of  small  fiat  work,  a  new  caul  is  required  for  every  new 
outline  presented  by  the  various  veneered  articles.  The  substance  of  the  caul,  especially 
in  the  case  of  wood,  should  be  tliin  enough  to  bend  slightly  under  great  pressure ;  and 
it  should  fit  somewhat  more  closely  at  the  centre  than  at  the  edges,  so  that,^  when 
pressure  is  applied,  it  will  pass  progressively  from  the  centre  outwards.  The  object  ot 
the  card  is  to  remelt  the  glue  which  has  been  spread  on  the  body  and  the  veneer,  for 
which  purpose  it  is  strongly  heated  before  application  ;  pressure  is  then  applied  in 


Q 


Mj. 


Cabinet-making- 


-Venecring. 


359 


various  ways  to  expel  the  superfluous  glue  and  increase  the  intimacy  of  contact.  Smnll 
cauls  of  1-iu.  pine  for  flat  work  may  be  pressed  by  means  of  wooden  hand-screws,  applieil 
at  short  intervals,  commencing  always  in  the  centre.  The  caul  should  bo  planed  true 
and  smooth  on  both  sides,  toothed,  and  saturated  with  linseed  oil,  which  last  not 
only  augments  the  heat,  but  prevents  escaping  glue  from  adhering  to  the  caul.  This 
adhesion  of  the  glue  to  the  caul,  which  would  damage  the  work,  is  also  avoided  by 
soaping  the  caul,  and  by  covering  the  veneer  with  a  sheet  of  clean  paper. 

When  the  veneered  surface  is  so  large  that  it  cannot  conveniently  be  pressed  by 
means  of  hand-screws,  the  work  is  placed  in  a  veneering  frame,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
686.  It  consists  of  2  upright  bars  a,  3J  in.  sq.,  with  2  rails  b,  3|  in.  by  3  in.,  let  into 
them,  and  having  between  the  2 
rails  b  a  clear  space  of  about  10  in., 
in  which  works  the  movable  bar  c, 
3  in.  by  2^  in.,  its  position  being 
regulated  by  the  3  iron  screws  d, 
|-1  in.  in  diameter.  The  bar  c  is 
made  with  a  slight  curve  on  the 
under  side,  so  that  its  pressure  may 
be  exerted  first  on  the  centre  of 
the  work.  The  middle  screw  is 
tightened  up  first,  and  followed  by 
the  others.  This  middle  screw  has 
a  nut  under  a  collar  let  into  the 
upper  side  of  c,  so  as  to  lift  it  when 
necessary,  while  the  side  screws 
simply  press  on  little  iron  plates  e. 
The  frame  will  admit  work  about 
2  ft.   wide;    a  number   are  used 

together  in  a  row  according  to  the  length  of  the  work.  Where  steam  is  available, 
advantage  is  taken  of  it  to  heat  a  couple  of  iron  plates  arranged  together  so  as  to  form 
a  shallow  tray,  and  with  their  opposing  faces  quite  true  ;  the  work  is  placed  between 
them  and  pressure  is  applied  by  iron  screws. 

Wooden  cauls  are  far  inferior  to  those  made  of  smooth  sheet  zinc  J-f  in.  thick; 
these  are  more  easily  and  quickly  heated,  and  never  adhere  to  the  glue  which  comes 
into  contact  with  their  surfaces.  For  work  of  large  size  it  is  most  convenient  to  use 
the  sheet  zinc  in  several  pieces  placed  closely  edge  to  edge. 

So  far,  the  veneering  of  flat  surfaces  only  has  been  dealt  with.  For  small  corners 
and  places  where  no  clamp  will  hold,  it  will  be  found  very  advantageous  to  employ 
needle  points  such  as  are  used  by  upholsterers  for  securing  gilt  mountings ;  these  can 
be  drawn  out  when  the  work  is  dry,  and  the  small  punctures  remaining  in  the  veneer 
will  be  efiectually  hidden  by  the  polish  subsequently  applied.  For  simple  rounded 
(convex)  work,  an  effective  and  easy  plan  is  to  encircle  the  work  with  pieces  of  string  or 
wire  tied  at  intervals,  commencing  in  the  middle,  and  placing  slips  of  wood  between  the 
string  and  the  veneer  to  prevent  the  latter  being  cut  into.  A  useful  contrivance  as  an 
accessory  to  the  hammer  process  for  round  work  (Fig.  687)  is  made  by  attaching  the 
2  ends  of  a  piece  of  stout  canvas  a  by  means  of  tacks  b  to  the  sides  of  a  hard  board  c, 
rather  narrower  and  longer  than  the  work,  and  provided  with  screws  cl.  The  work 
is  put  into  the  receptacle  with  the  veneered  side  towards  the  canvas,  which  latter  is 
brought  to  bear  tightly  against  it  by  turning  the  screws  d  till  they  hold  firmly  against 
the  back  of  the  work.  When  the  work  is  thus  fixed,  the  canvas  is  soaked  with  hot 
water,  and  warmed,  the  screws  being  meanwhile  tightened  a  little.  As  the  glue  com- 
mences to  exude,  the  veneering  hammer  is  passed  over  the  canvas  covering  the 
veneer,  and  the  pressure  is  carried  to  a  maximum  degree,  when  the  whole  is  put  aside 


3G0 


Cabinet-making- 


-Veneering. 


for  24  hours  to  set.     For  the  various  forms  of  moulding  and  complicated  outlines,  it 

is  necessary  to  make  a  wooden  caul  having  exactly  the  converse  form  of  the  surface 

to  be  veneered  ;  this  is  saturated  with  linseed  oil,  soaped,  or  covered  with  No.  12  sheet 

zinc  shaped  to  it  and  held  by  tacks  at  the  edges.     The  veneer  may  be  made  to  assume 

an  ogee  form  by  wetting  one  half  its  width  on  one  side,  and  the  remaining  half  on 

the  other.     When  the  work  admits  of 

it,  2  pieces  may  be  veneered  at  once  6S7- 

by  heating  the  caul  on  both  sides.     An 

effort  should  always  be  made  to  utilize 

the  figure  of  the   veneer  to  the  best 

advantage,  as  will  be   ascertained  by 

trying  the  effect  of  different  positions. 

When    a  surface   is   too   large   to   be 

veneered   at   one   operation   in  a  con-     j ir 

venient  manner,  it  must  be  done  piece- 
meal, taking  care  that  the  consecutive 

])ieces  match  well  in  figure.     In  doing     t  ^ 

work  piecemeal,  the  uncovered  surface 
becomes  coated  with  the  glue  squeezed 
out  of  the  covered  portion ;  this  es- 
caping glue  should  be  cleared  away  as 

fast  as  it  appears,  and  even  then  there  is  a  risk  of  its  forming  a  thin  glaze  on  the 
wood,  so  that  it  is  the  safest  plan  to  scrape  it  and  pass  the  toothing  plane  over  it  again 
before  veneering. 

In  veneering  on  a  highly  resinous  wood,  such  as  pitch  pine,  there  is  a  risk  of  the  heat 
employed  in  laying  the  veneer  drawing  some  of  the  resin  through  and  spoiling  the 
work.  To  prevent  this,  the  surface  may  be  superficially  charred  previous  to  laying  the 
veneer,  by  spreading  over  it  a  compound  of  beeswax  and  turpentine,  in  such  propor- 
tions as  to  produce  a  thin  and  not  pasty  mass,  and  igniting  it  at  one  end.  By  blowin"- 
gently,  the  flame  may  be  encouraged  all  over  the  surface,  charring  it  slightly  and 
especially  attacking  the  resinous  veins.  The  loose  charcoal  is  brushed  away  as  soon  as 
formed,  leaving  a  firm  yet  charred  surface.  This  is  gone  over  with  the  toothing  plane 
iu  a  transverse  direction,  and  then  well  worked  over  with  thin  glue  before  laying  the 
veneers. 

The  veneering  of  a  bed  panel  whose  length  requires  2  veneers  is  thus  described 
by  Edgar.  Take  the  2  veneers,  pair  them,  cut  them  to  the  sizes  required,  and  gently  diy 
them  between  2  boards  until  they  are  perfectly  flat.  Then  proceed  to  carefully  tooth  them 
on  the  side  to  be  glued,  and  if  they  are  roughly  sawn,  tooth  the  ridges  of  the  outside  ; 
by  so  doing  you  will  get  a  thorouglily  flat  surface  when  judiciously  cleaned  off.  Should 
you  have  a  caul  press  at  your  convenience,  gently  rub  some  glue  over  that  jmrt  of  the 
broad  end  of  the  feather  that  contains  most  end  grain,  placing  a  piece  of  old  copy- 
book or  other  paper  over  the  same ;  this  will  prevent  it  from  adhering  to  anything 
by  which  it  is  laid,  and  also  aid  in  strengthening  the  end  grain  parts  together.  When 
tlioroughly  dry,  joint  it  to  make  your  full  length,  and  be  careful  that  your  joint  is 
slightly  hollow.  Those  end-grain  parts  that  you  recently  papered,  are  sure  to  expand 
by  the  steam  driven  out  with  the  glue  by  the  heated  appliances  necessary  to  lay  them. 
When  the  same  class  of  panel  is  to  be  laid  by  hand  with  the  veneering  hammer,  care- 
fully dry  and  tooth  your  veneer  as  before  mentioned,  fix  }'our  panel  firmly  to  the  bench, 
and  proceed  to  lay  one  half;  have  the  glue  well  boiled,  thin,  and  flowing  clear  and  free 
from  strings,  and  unrendered  bits  ;  glue  the  feather  on  the  side  to  be  laid,  place  it  on  your 
panel,  and  with  a  tack  or  two  to  keep  it  in  position,  glue  all  over  the  outside  of  the 
veneer.  Now  move  a  warm  flat  iron,  not  so  hot  as  to  scorch  the  glue,  over  the  amount 
of  surface  you  consider  capable  of  laying  in  the  one  half.    On  no  account  use  water. 


Cabinet-making — Veneering.  361 

study  to  ■work  from  tlic  centre  to  cither  end  of  tlic  piece  you  arc  laying.  Havinp;  got 
all  down,  clean  all  glue  oif,  putting  the  same  in  your  pot  for  further  use.  Now  with  a 
hot  sponge,  rinsed  out  of  water  in  glue  kettle,  thoroughly  clean  your  tools  for  the  next 
operation.  After  a  few  hours,  proceed  to  make  your  joint  with  the  other  half,  carefully 
observing  your  joint  is  slightly  hollow.  As  heretofore,  with  the  panel  firmly  fixed  to 
the  bench,  the  glue  and  iron  liot,  proceed  to  lay  6  or  8  in.  near  the  joint,  working  your 
veneer  hammer  as  much  as  possible  across  your  veneer  linable  with  the  joint.  Having 
got  your  joint  good,  glue  a  piece  of  paper  over  the  same  to  keep  all  air  out,  and  proceed 
to  lay  the  remainder,  in  no  case  using  water  till  all  is  laid ;  scrape  all  glue  off  into  glue- 
pot,  and  with  hot  sponge  clean  tools  as  before.  Should  the  end  grain  blister,  wait  till 
all  is  laid,  then  with  a  fine  needle  point  make  2  or  3  punctures  for  air  to  escape.  Now 
with  a  small  piece  of  hot  wood,  a  bit  of  paper  between,  and  a  little  pressure,  you  will 
easily  master  the  blistered  part.  In  making  a  star  panel,  or  so  many  feathers  graduating 
from  a  centre,  it  answers  well  to  lay  every  alternate  veneer,  such  as  1,  3,  5,  and  7,  in 
an  8-sectiou  panel. 

To  lay  veneers  on  jianel  of  foot  end  of  bedstead,  shoot  the  joints  and  lay  alternate 
pieces,  leaving  them  till  quite  dry.  When  dry,  shoot  the  remaining  pieces  in.  This 
will  make  good  joints,  and  the  curls  will  not  shrink  when  dry.  The  curls  can  only  be 
laid  by  hammer,  and  must  not  be  jointed  dry. 

The  difficult  process  of  butt-jointing  curls  of  Spanish  or  Cuban  mahogany  is  thus 
described  by  Cowan  : — 

There  are  3  or  4  ways  of  butt-jointing  curls;  but  the  only  sure  and  certain  way 

is  by  crossing  the  joint  with  a  piece  of  inch  deal.     First  flatten  about  7  in.  of  the 

veneer  from  the  butt  with  hot  wood  cauls  or  zinc  plates ;  when  gripped,  dry  the  rest 

of  the  veneer  carefully,  it  is  so  liable  to  crack  and  buckle  with  the  fire ;    when  set 

and  cool,  joint  both  on  shooting  board,  keeping  them  in  their  natural  position  if  5'ou 

wish  them  well  matched,  but  before  shooting  damp  1  in.  of  the  wood  from  the  end  on 

both  sides,  and  give  them  10  minutes  to  swell,  else   your  joint,  when  made,  will  be 

close  in  the  middle  and  off  at  the  ends.      When  shot  to  a  joint,  try,  as  directed  in 

straight  jointing,  then  take  down  on  flat  board,  take  a  piece  of  soft  wood  2  in.  wide, 

warm  (not  hot),  and  glue  on  to  the  joint    with   pressure,  in  half   an  hour  you  can 

loose  it  and  turn  it  over  and  see  if  your  joint  is  perfection,  if  so  you  may  proceed 

with  the  laying.     This  time  you  must   warm   your  ground,  and  in  the  middle  only, 

and  glue  sharp  a  belt  2  in.  wide  corresponding  to  the  piece  of  deal  glued  on  the 

veneer,  fix  quick  with  2  hand-screws  previously  set  to  the  size,  so  that  there  be  no 

bungling  at  the  critical  moment.      Now  you  may  more  leisurely  proceed  to  lay  the 

tail  ends.     Have  2  cauls  in  readiness,  the  size  (all  cauls  ought  to  be  larger  than  the 

veneer,  as  the  heat  leaves  the  edges  first,  and  if  the  glue  gets  set  at  the  edges,  it 

will  not  move  freely  from  the  centre;  the  result  is  lumpy,  bad  work),  and  hot  as  fire  can 

make  them — as   before,   have   your  hand-screws   set  to   the   size;   get  help,  and  the 

quicker  you  get  them  on  (one  at  a  time)  the  better  the  work.     Begin  at  the  centre, 

and  work  out  to  the   ends;    before  cauling,  raise   the    veneer    and  glue  the  ground 

well ;  see  that  the  glue-brush  reaches  the  central  glueing.    Now  all  being  screwed  up,  see 

there  is  no  slackness  in  any  one  of  the  hand-screws,  for  much  depends  on  the  uniformity 

of  the  pressure.     Leave  to  cool  for  2  hours.    When  the  screws  are  taken  oflT,  leave  the 

work  face  down,  on  a  wood  floor  for  2  days.     At  the  expiration  of  that  time  you  may 

remove  the  piece  of  deal  from  oif  the  joint  by  planing,  and  not  by  heat  or  water ;  when 

the  planing  gets  near  to  the  veneer,  use  the  toothed  plane.     As  curls  frequently  pull 

hollow  on  the  face,  it  is  desirable  to  damp  the  ground  on  both  sides,  and  before  quite  dry, 

size  the  face  side,  and  this  ought  to  be  done  so  that  the  damping  and  the  sizing  are  not 

quite  dry  at  the  time  of  laying.    To  ensure  good  work,  veneering  should  be  2  or  3  weeks 

in  a  dry  warm  place  previous  to  cleaning  off.    The  neglect  of  this  mars  all  previous 

painstaking.     {Amateur  Work.) 


362  Cabinet-making — VeneerinGr. 


a- 


Cleaning  off  consists  in  planing,  scraping,  and  sandpapering  the  veneers  ready  for  var- 
nishing or  polishing.  When  the  veneer  is  not  excessively  thin,  it  is  j^laued  with  a  hard- 
wood hand-plane  set  very  fine.  If  too  thin  to  admit  of  this,  it  is  gone  over  with  a  steel 
scraper,  having  a  blade  about  4J  in,  long  by  3  in.  wide,  and  as  thick  as  a  saw.  The  4  edges 
of  the  scraper  are  ground  and  set  in  the  following  manner.  First  they  are  treated  on  a 
grindstone,  to  make  the  edge  quite  square  in  its  width,  but  a  little  bevelled  (convex)  in 
its  length.  The  burr  produced  by  this  operation  is  removed  by  rubbing  the  edges  and 
sides  on  an  oUstone.  This  done,  a  slight  barb  is  given  to  each  edge  by  means  of  a 
sharpener  consisting  of  a  hard  polished  steel  rod,  4  in.  long  and  J  in.  thick,  set  in  an 
awl  handle,  and  applied  at  an  angle  to  the  edge  of  the  scraper  with  heavy  outward 
strokes,  the  scraper  being  meanwhile  held  against  a  bench  by  the  other  hand.  Each 
edge  is  sharpened  in  the  same  way,  and  will  bear  5  or  6  repetitions  of  the  process 
before  regrinding  becomes  necessary.  The  scraper  is  applied  to  the  work  with  draw- 
ing strokes,  being  held  by  the  fingers  and  thumbs  of  both  hands.  When  the  planing 
and  scraping  are  complete,  the  work  is  finished  by  using  Nos.  IJ,  1,  and  0  sandpaper 
successively. 

Inlaying. — Inlaying  is  a  term  applied  to  work  in  which  certain  figures  which  have 
been  cut  out  of  one  kind  of  material  are  filled  up  with  another.  Such  work  is  known  as 
marquetry,  Boule  work,  or  Reisner  work.  The  simplest  method  of  producing  inlaid  work 
in  wood,  is  to  take  2  thin  boards,  of  wood,  or  veneers,  and  glue  them  together  with  paper 
between,  so  that  they  may  be  easily  separated  again.  Tlion,  having  drawn  the  required 
figures  on  them,  cut  along  the  lines  with  a  very  fine,  hair-like  saw.  This  process  is 
known  as  counterpai-t  sawing,  and  by  it  the  pieces  removed  from  one  piece  of  wood,  so 
exactly  correspond  with  the  perforations  in  the  other  piece,  that  when  the  two  are 
separated  and  interchanged,  the  one  material  forms  the  ground  and  the  other  the  inlay 
or  pattern.  If  the  saw  be  fine  and  the  wood  very  dry  when  cut,  but  afterwards  slightly 
damped  when  glued  in  its  place,  the  joint  is  visible  only  on  very  close  inspection,  and 
then  merely  as  a  fine  line.  After  being  cut,  the  boards  or  veneers  are  separated  (which 
is  easily  done  by  splitting  the  pajjer  between  them),  and  then  glued  in  their  places  on 
the  work  which  they  are  to  ornament. 

A  new  method  of  inlaying  is  as  follows : — A  veneer  of  the  same  wood  as  that  of 
which  the  design  to  be  inlaid  consists — say  sycamore — is  glued  entirely  over  the  surface 
of  any  hard  wood,  such  as  American  walnut,  and  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly.  The 
design  is  then  cut  out  of  a  zinc  plate  about  J^  in.  in  thickness,  and  placed  upon  the 
veneer.  The  whole  is  now  subjected  to  the  action  of  steam,  and  made  to  travel  between 
2  powerful  cast-iron  rollers  S  in.  in  diameter  by  2  ft.  long,  2  above  and  2  below,  which 
may  be  brought  within  any  distance  of  each  other  by  screws.  The  enormous  pressure 
to  which  the  zinc  plate  is  subjected  forces  it  completely  into  the  veneer,  and  the  veneer 
into  the  solid  wood  beneath  it,  while  the  zinc  curls  up  out  of  the  matrix  it  has  thus 
formed  and  comes  away  easily.  All  that  now  remains  to  be  done  is  to  plane  down  the 
veneer  left  untouched  by  the  zinc  until  a  thin  shaving  is  taken  off  the  portion  forced 
into  the  walnut,  when  the  surface  being  perfectly  smooth,  the  operation  will  be  com- 
pleted. It  might  be  supposed  that  the  result  of  this  forcible  compression  of  the  woods 
would  leave  a  ragged  edge,  but  this  is  not  the  case,  the  joint  being  so  singularly  perfect 
as  to  be  inappreciable  to  the  touch  ;  indeed,  the  inlaid  wood  fits  more  accurately  than  by 
the  process  of  fitting,  matching,  and  filling  up  with  glue,  as  is  practised  in  the  ordinary 
mode  of  inlaying. 

Imitation  Inlaying. — Suppose  an  oak  panel  with  a  design  inlaid  with  walnut  is 
wanted.  Grain  the  panel  wholly  in  oil.  This  is  not  a  bad  ground  for  walnut.  When 
the  oak  is  dry,  grain  tlie  whole  of  the  panel  in  distemper.  Have  a  paper  with  the 
design  drawn  thereon,  the  back  of  which  has  been  rubbed  with  whiting,  place  it  on  the 
panel,  and  with  a  pointed  stick  trace  the  design.  Then  with  a  brush  and  quick  varnish 
trace  the  whole  of  the  design.     When  the  varnish  is  dry,  with  a  sponge  and  water 


Caeinet-making — Examples. 


363 


remove  the  distemper,  -where  the  varnisli  has  not  touched.  This,  if  well  executed^ 
presents  a  most  beautiful  imitation  of  inlaid  wood. 

Examples. — It  will  be  useful  to  conclude  this  section  with  diagrams  and  descriptions 
of  a  few  representative  articles  in  cabinet-making. 

Couch. — The  style  of  frame  illustrated  in  Fig.  GSS  is  known  as  German.  Tlie  main 
points  to  be  observed  in  constructing  a  couch  are  (1)  let  the  height  of  the  scroll  be  a  con- 
venient one  to  give  the  head  repose,  (2)  let  the  "  roll  over  "  be  so  arranged  that  a  "  break 

G38. 


back  "  result  is  avoided,  and  (3)  have  the  vacuum,  that  used  to  be  occupied  by  the  sofa 
pillow,  filled  up.  As  the  head  or  shoulders  frequently  seek  rest  in  the  comer  of  the 
couch,  let  no  obtrusive  "  show  wood  "  work  come  in  contact  with  tliem.  Stuffing  along 
the  top  of  the  back  is  the  easiest  way  to  secure  comfort,  but  a  moulded  back  may  with 
care  be  equally  successful.  In  the  annexed  illustrations  the  attempt  is  made  to  preserve 
the  fashionable  squareness  without  sacrificing  the  comfort  of  the  "  German  cabriole" 
style.  Tlie  manner  of  executing  this  design  may  be  thus  epitomized.  Having  selected 
suitable  wood,  and  carefully  made  the  moulds  from  the  scale  given,  get  out  the  long  side 
rails,  mortise  the  feet,  and  tenon  the  long  rails ;  after  laying  moulding  slips  on  same, 
glue  and  frame  the  feet  on  to  the  end  of  the  long  rails ;  then  lay  slips  on  end  rails,  cut 
off  to  length,  and  cross  frame  to  2  end  rails.  The  slip  for  the  elliptic  end  must  next  be 
laid,  after  which  dowel  the  end  to  the  2  end  feet.  Tiiis  will  complete  the  groundwork 
of  the  structure  and  pave  the  way  for  building  up  the  scrolls  and  back.  Use  2-in.  stuff 
for  the  front  and  IJ-in.  for  the  back  scroll,  and  after  hiying  glueing  on  the  front  scroll, 
place  the  scroll  on  the'end  of  the  seat,  and  fix  them  with  loose  dowels,  then  mark  ofl'for  the 
cross  rails  of  the  scroll  (the  position  of  which  is  indicated  in  drawing),  glue  the  scrolls  on 
the  cross  rails,  and  then  dow-el  and  glue  them  on  to  the  seat  of  the  couch.  The  next  por- 
tion is  the  back ;  the  "  stump,"  demanding  first  attention,  can  be  dowelled  or  mortised  into 
lX)sition  at  once ;  the  length  of  top  rail  is  thus  definitely  arrived  at,  and  it  simply  remains 
to  get  out  and  fix  it,  as  also  the  stuffing  rail  below.  Iron  or  wooden  battens  should  be 
fixed  across  the  seat,  and  the  couch  frame  is  complete. 

Chairs. — To  make  a  comfortable  chair  some  respect  must  be  paid  to  the  measure- 
ments of  the  human  body  in  a  sitting  posture.  Thus  in  a  man  5  ft.  9  in.  high,  the 
distance  from  heel  to  beneath  knee-joint  will  bo  18  in. ;  from  knee-joint  to  bottom  of 
back,  21  in.  ;  from  bottom  of  back  to  shoulder-blades,  22-23  in. ;  thence  to  back  of  poll 
6-7  in.  These  indicate  the  dimensions  desirable  in  the  legs,  seat,  and  back  of  the  than-, 
the  legs  being  somewhat  shortened  in  the  case  of  easy  chairs. 

Fig.  G89  well  illustrates  the  construction  of  a  strong  comfortable  dining-room  chair. 
The  requisite  suitable  wood  having  been  procured  it  is  dealt  with  as  follows  : — Having 
first  of  all  got  out  the  back  and  2  back  feet,  mortise  and  tenon  them,  putting  tliem 
together  loose.  This  will  give  the  pitch  or  angle  of  the  complete  back,  and  allow  of 
"  fits  "  being  made  for  the  top  and  splat ;  then  mortise  and  tenon  both  the  latter  again. 


36-i 


Cabinet-making — Examples. 


689. 


fit  up  the  wliole  of  the  back  loose,  and  if  the  jouits  are  close  and  satisfactory,  nothing 

now  prevents  the  glueing  up  of  this  part  of  the  chair.   The  nest  portion  to  proceed  with 

is  the  front ;  either  mark  off  the  front  rail  with  a  square  and  straight-edge,  or  make  a 

fit,  which  is  more  convenient.     The  square  end  or  templet  shown  can  then  be  used  for 

mortising   and   tenoning   the   front, 

and  the  front  end  of  side  rails.     It 

will  be  noticed  that  the  back  tenons 

are  not   square  ;   they  "  spring  in " 

slightly  towards  the  chair.     This  is 

necessary  in  such  a  shaped  seat  for 

case  in  cramping,  because  if  made 

square,  when  the  chair  was  cramped 

up  the  tenons  would  break  up.    It 

is  only  iu  marking  these  tenons  that 

the  angle  end  of  the  templet  proves 

useful,  the  square  end  being  used  for 

all  the  other  joints  in  the  chair.    The 

close  braces  shown  in  the  drawing 

are  merely  fitted  and  screwed  into 

position.     They  are  introduced  more 

for  the  sake  of  appearance  than  for 

■utility,  for  a  well-made  chair  should 

not  need  such  aids  to  strength.     In 

this  shape  of  chair,  mortising  and 

tenoning    are    secured    throughout, 

whilst  a  comfortable  line  adapted  to 

the  body  is  also  obtained.      This  is 

one  advantage  of  having  the   back 

feet  to  "  run  out,"  or  go  to  the  top  of 

the  chair,  because  it  makes  the  mor- 
tising of  the  top  possible,  whereas  in 

put-on  tops  recourse  must  belhad  to 
dowels,  which  are  always  more  or  less 
unreliable.  Tiie  imj^ort  mce  of  well- 
seasoned  wood  need  scarcely  be 
urged ;  more  especially  let  the  wood 
be  dry  upon  which  the  tenons  are 
made,  for  this  reason,  if  the  mortised 
wood  should  be  a  little  fresh  it  will 
shrink  to  the  former,  and  thus  make 
the  tenons  hold  the  tighter. 

Fig.  690  representfj  a  show-wood 
gentlemen's  easy  chair,  whose  construction  may  be  summarized  as  follows: — Having 
cut  all  the  wood  to  the  required  dimensions,  proceed  to  mortise  and  tenon  the 
back  feet,  top,  and  splat  to  the  back,  putting  them  together  loose  to  test  the  fitting. 
AVhen  the  back  is  built  up,  get  out  the  beech  rails  and  lay  the  moulding  slips; 
make  the  mortices  and  tenons  and  put  iu  the  side  rails,  front  and  cross-frame  seat 
to  the  back.  Shape  the  arms  to  sleeve-board  pattern,  wider  in  front  than  at  back. 
Glue  and  screw  the  moulding  piece  underneath  them ;  and  then  loosely  mortise 
and  tenon  the  small  end  of  the  arm  into  the  back,  doing  the  same  with  the  turned 
stump,  which  latter  should  be  lapped  over  the  side  rail  of  the  seat  to  give  perfect 
strength,  as  if  only  dowellcd  or  mortised  on  the  top  it  is  apt  to  g-t  loose.  The  under 
bracket  may  next  be  marked  off  and  shaped,  then  secured  to  both  back  and  arm,  and  all 


Cabinet-making — Examples. 


'6Q5 


glued  up  completely.  Eebate  pieces  are  screwed  in  at  the  sides  of  the  back,  but  are  not 
needed  at  the  top  and  splat,  as  suliiciuut  wood  remains  for  the  ui)holsterer  to  tack  to. 
In  this  class  of  chair  it  is  difficult  to  secure  perfect  head  rest  without  carrying  the  back 
so  high  as  to  let  the  stuffing  come  under  the  poll ;  but  a  stuff  over  back  may  be  made  by 
putting  beech  rails  into  the  back 

coo. 
-23'-- 


r* 


and  haying  the  rise  flat  on  top. 

Fig.  691  shows  a  ladies'  easy 
chair  to  match  the  last  men- 
tioned, and  made  in  the  same 
way,  the  dimensions  and  design 
only  differing.  Some  makers  are 
in  favour  of  dowelling  rather 
than  mortising  and  tenoning,  as 
taking  away  less  wood;  but 
unless  the  dowels  are  dry,  the 
fitting  is  perfect,  and  the  glue 
is  good,  "  rickets "  will  soon 
follow.  A  simple  protection  for 
a  dowel  joint  is  to  plaster  a 
piece  of  strong  canvas  over. 
Still  dowels  may  give  way,  while 
a  tenon  with  a  pin  through  it 
cannot. 

In  the  divan  chair  illustrated 
in  Fig.  692,  the  frame  is  set  out 
to  allow  for  what  is  known  as 
double  stuffing,  or  spring  edges 
to  seat.  The  making  of  such  a 
frame  is  a  simple  matter,  and 
may  be  briefly  described  as  fol- 
lows:— First  make  a  mould  for 
the  back,  taking  care  that  it 
is  a  nice  graceful  lino  ;  no  other 
mould  will  be  required  for  the 
job,  as  the  rest  of  the  pieces 
are  perfectly  straight.  Get  out 
stuff  to  the  thickness  indicated, 
and  then  fit  up  the  back,  square 
the  top  and  bottom,  as  shown ; 
leave  4J  in.  between  tlie  top  of 

the  seat  and  the  stuffing  rail  to  allow  for  the  double  stuffing  mentioned  above.  If 
the  chair  is  to  be  upholstered  in  the  ordinary  way,  with  the  usual  thickness  of 
rolls,  only  2  ii.  need  be  allowed  between  tJiese  rails.  Having  thus  got  the  back  up, 
glue  and  frame  up  the  front,  and  then  cross-frame  the  chair  together  from  back  to 
front.  In  fitting  the  spindle  stump  which  supports  the  arm,  the  best  i)lan  is  to  first  fit 
the  arm  on  the  stump,  a  pin  having  been  left  on  the  latter,  which  may  be  allowed  to 
come  right  through  the  arm,  and  can  tlius  be  wedged  in  the  top  when  finally  fixed. 
Before  fixing,  however,  mortise  and  lap  over  the  square  lower  portion  of  the  stump  on 
to  the  side  rails ;  when  properly  adjusted,  the  arms  can  be  glued  up,  and  the  chair 
frame  is  complete.  It  is  as  well  to  place  an  iron  batten  under  the  seat  to  give  extra 
strength.  An  excellent  plan  to  finish  off  a  frame  of  this  kind  is  to  glue  over  the  joints  a 
strong  piece  of  canvas;  thus  protected,  tlie  "rickets"  are  almost  impossible,  even  if  the 
stuff  is  a  little  "fresh."     Either  dowels,  or  mortising  and  tenoning,  may  be  employed 


S66 


CABINET-MAKING — Examples. 


in  the  raannfactnre.  The  sizes  given  will  answer  equally  well  for  a  similar  chair  with 
'•  stuffed-in  "  arms.  If,  however,  the  latter  are  required  to  be  full  in  the  stuffing,  an 
extra  2  in.  should  be  allowed  in  width  of  seat.  For  a  ladies'  chair  to  go  with  this,  the 
same  moulds  and  proportions  will 
do,  if  made  2  in.  less  all  ways  (ex- 
cept in  height  of  legs,  which  may  be 
about  the  same).  As  a  rule,  ladies' 
■chairs  are  better  without  arms,  in 
consequence  of  the  extensive  cha- 
racter of  the  dresses  sometimes 
adopted.  Arms  are  possible  and 
comforting,  if  made  12  or  1-1  in. 
long,  to  catch  the  elbows.  If  an 
extra  amount  of  ease  is  required  in 
tiny  of  the  foregoing  chairs,  they 
should  be  made  with  a  seat  sloping 
from  front  to  back;  1  in.  longer  in 
the  front  legs,  and  J  iu.  shorter  in 
•the  back,  will  give  a  desirable  angle 
■of  comfort.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  the  joints  in  the  side  rails  will 
require  adjusting  in  order  to  suit  this 
angle. 

The  gossip  chair  represented  in 
Fig.  693  is  measured  for  single 
stuffing.  The  seat  has  an  oval  form, 
and  the  arms  and  back  are  adapted 
to  almost  closely  encircle  the  sitter. 
No  support  is  provided  for  the  head. 
First  make  the  moulds,  then  get 
out  the  beech  rails  and  frame  the 
seat  up.  In  this  shape  of  seat  it  is 
difficult  to  mortise  and  tenon,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  cross  grain  that  would 
be  involved ;  recourse  must  there- 


Sectwrv  of  Bo/Jo 


692. 


fore  be  bad  to  dowels,  and  if  they  are  judiciously  placed,  great  strength  will  bo  secured. 
Having  squared  the  legs  and  fitted  the  4  parts  to  them  with  dowels,  the  seat  can  be  glued 


Cabinet-making — Examples. 


367 


Tip  in  the  foUowiug:  way  : — First  glue  up  and  knock  together  a  short  and  long  rail  with 
2  legs,  and  then  the  other  2  rails  can  be  similarly  treated ;  tlic  2  corners  will  then 
more  easily  come  together  to  the  remaining  legs.  After  glueing  and  knocking  up,  the 
seat  must  be  cramped  in  order  to  perfectly  close  the  joints.  Two  methods  are  adopted 
in  the  trade,  the  first  of  which  is  a  long  cramp  from  side  to  side,  with  another  from  end 

693. 


to  end  of  seat;  this  is  a  simple  way  and  answers  very  well  for  a  single  article.  But  if 
a  number  of  such  chairs  have  to  be  made,  the  "  collar  method  "  is  more  convenient.  A 
collar  is  a  piece  of  beech  arranged  so  as  to  lap  over  seat  rail,  top  and  bottom,  with  an 
iron  pin  through  the  overlapping  parts  and  seat  rail.  The  swivel  action  thus  allows  the 
collar  to  be  brought  round  so  as  to  find  a  bearing  on  the  seat  rail ;  and  when  another 
collar  is  fixed  to  the  adjoining  rail  in  the  same  way,  and  the  ends  of  the  2  collars  are 
cramped  up,  the  joints  are  brought  together  most  effectively  without  any  straining 
of  the  dowels.  One  jDiu-hole  in  the  middle  of  each  rail  will  give  the  needful 
angle  for  the  leverage  of  the  collars.  The  next  stage  in  the  work  is  to  get  out  rims, 
viz.  the  2  show-wood  mouldings  and  the  beech  capping  for  the  top.  After  placing 
stumps  on  the  seat,  lapped  througli  as  indicated,  the  rims  must  be  fitted  up  to  the  stump 
and  the  banister  underneath  fitted  loose.  The  spindles,  rims,  and  centre  bracket,  havinf^ 
been  carefully  adjusted,  can  now  be  glued  up  together;  and  after  placing  the  small 
supporting  bracket  on,  the  seat  may  be  glued  and  cramped  up  to  the  stumjis  already  in 
position.  The  foundation  of  the  chair  being  perfectly  sound,  the  joints  clean,  and  the 
work  free  from  rickets,  the  2  scroll  pieces  can  be  dowellcd  on  to  the  top  of  beech  rim, 
and  the  adjustment  of  the  top  stuffing  rail  between  the  scrolls  is  then  a  simple  task. 
Two  or  three  dowels  running  through  the  upper  beech  rim  and  show-wood  moulding 
will  permanently  bind  them  together.  This  style  of  chair  will  come  out  effectively 
without  the  addition  of  the  upper  scroll  pieces  and  stuffing  rail,  leaving  merely  a 
stufled  pad  all  round ;  or,  instead  of  spindles  and  show-wood  stumjjs  and  mouldings,  it 
may  be  made  entirely  of  beech  and  "  stufi'ed  in  "  all  over. 

Fig.  694  is  a  combination  of  an  all  stuff  over  and  a  show-wood  gossip  chair.  The 
arras  can  be  made  just  plain  "sweeps,"  without  the  turning  as  shown;  but  the  latter 
gives  an  ornamental  and  novel  appearance  not  otherwise  obtainable.  A  piece  left  on 
these  side  arms  when  the  stuff  is  cut  out  makes  it  a  simpler  matter  for  the  turner  to  find 
his  centre.  Get  out  moulds,  then  the  rails,  legs,  &c.,  and  lay  the  slips ;  then  let  a 
carver  do  the  mouldings  ;  after  this  frame  the  back  feet  on  to  the  back  rail,  and  the 
front  legs  on  to  the  front  rail :  the  2  latter,  as  may  be  observed,  being  square  joints. 
Now  find  the  angle  of  the  side.  This  may  be  done  in  the  following  manner.  The  line, 
of  the  outside  of  the  side  rail  will  be  found  to  be  2J  in.  out  of  square ;  this  givesa  2J  -in 


868 


Cabinet-making — Examples. 


angle,  to  whicli  "the  bevel"  may  be  set,  by  simply  measuring  2|  in.  from  a  straight 
line  17  in.  long  (length  of  aide  rail),  and  setting  the  "  bevel  "  to  angle-line  thus  obtained. 
Having  adjusted  the  angle,  the  seat  may  be  cross-framed  together.  This  pattern  of  seat 
can  be  readily  mortised  and  tenoned  together,  as  shown,  if  desired,  although  dowels  are 
usually  applied  in  making  such  chairs  in  the  trade.     Dowelling  being  the  quicker 


694. 


It — 


method,  it  is  invariably  adopted  where  price  is  an  object.  The  back  is  made  of  beech, 
no  show-wood  being  required  in  it.  It  can  be  got  out  and  framed  up  independently  of 
the  other  portions,  there  being  the  3  joints  in  the  back  indicated.  Before  fitting  the 
back  to  the  arms  and  seat,  get  out  the  support  or  banister  shown  under  the  back ;  place 
it  on  the  seat :  then  dowel  and  glue  the  back  and  banister  on  to  the  seat.  The  angle 
or  pitch  of  the  back  would  be  de- 
termined by  applying  the  mould 
of  the  arm  and  the  slope  desired 
for  ease.  The  arms  having  been 
already  got  out,  turned,  and  carved, 
the  fitting  of  the  seat  to  the  back 
is  a  simple  matter.  Some  care  is 
necessary  in  placing  the  dowels, 
fixing  the  side  arms  to  the  back  ; 
the  position  shown  in  the  sketch 
is,  perhaps,  the  most  reliable. 

Fig.  695  illustrates  the  wooden 
frame  necessary  for  an  adult  easy 
chair  in  needle-work.     The  con- 
struction is  extremely  simple.    The 
first  step  is  to  strike  out  a  good 
set  of  moulds,  taking  care  to  secure 
a  nice  easy  line ;  then  get  out  wood 
for  the  sides,  allowing  for  the  re- 
bate as  shown  by  the  dotted  line.     It  is  then  wise  to  let  the  carver  do  as  much  of  his 
work  to  the  sides  as  he  can.     After  obtaining  the  pieces  from  him,  dowel,  glue,  and 
cramp  up  the  back,  feet,  and  sides.     The  cross  rails  can  now  be  got  out  to  the  size 
indicated,  let  into  the  sides  at  the  points  shown,  and  the  chair  framed  up.    The  front 


Cabinet-making — Examples. 


3G9 


" =^  ^ 

Cb 

^                      -^ . n\ 

/m 

feet  of  these  chairs  are  usually  dowcUed  on,  and,  if  well  done, 'they  arc  fairly  durable. 
A  strong  pin  left  on  the  leg,  square  or  round,  as  the  case  may  be,  is  another  mctliod. 
Having  added  the  front  legs,  let  the  carver  Unish  the  incising ;  clean  off,  and  the  chair 
is  made. 

Bookcase  (^FoIding). — Fig.  GOG  illustrates  the  construction  of  a  folding  portable  book- 
case, which  may  be  carved  and  ornamented  to  any  degree.  The  2  ends  a  are  4  ft.  Ion"- 
over  all  and  1  ft.  wide,  either  of 

plain     board,     or    panelled     as  696. 

shown ;  uprights  h,  SJ  in.  wide 
and  1  in.  thick,  are  fastened  to 
the  front,  and  similar  ones  c,  2J 
in.  by  5  in.  to  the  back.  Cross 
pieces  are  dovetailed  into  the 
bottoms,  of  the  same  width  as 
the  uprights,  and  similar  onos 
are  mortised  into  the  tops,  tlius 
forming  shallow  boxes.  The  top 
board  of  the  bookcase  is  hinged 
at  one  end  underneath  one  cross 
piece,  and  folds  down  parallel  to 
that  end  piece,  allowing  suffi- 
cient space  behind  it  to  contain 

one  of  the  shelves.  The  bottom  board  forming  the  lowest  shelf  is  hinged  to  the  cross 
piece  at  the  bottom  of  the  other  end  piece,  with  suflScient  space  to  admit  the  second 
shelf  behind  it.  As  the  bookcase  is  3  ft.  6  in.  wide,  the  back  may  consist  of  4  boards 
hinged  together  as  at  d,  and  folding  neatly  up.  The  space  e  will  hold  the  ornamental 
baluster  railing  fitted  to  the  top,  and  which  is  held  in  j^lace  when  the  bookcase  is  up  by 
shallow  tenons  mortised  into  the  uprights  b.  Tlie  shelves  are  held  up  by  shallow  tenons. 
The  back  is  made  of  5-in.  wood ;  the  ends  and  shelves  are  1  in. 

Chest  of  Drawers. — The  following  detailed  and  illustrated  description  of  the  con- 
struction of  a  chest  of  drawers  has  been  modified  from  one  which  appeared  some  time 
since  in  Amateur  Mechanics.  The  example  here  given  consists  of  a  base,  surbase,  and 
top  carcase  or  body.  In  the  usual  method  of  structure,  a  large  part  of  the  work  is 
veneered,  the  whole  front  included.  The  gables  and  top  are  solid,  usually  bay  mahogany, 
f  in.  thick,  the  top  being  clamped  on  the  imder  side  with  pine  to  1|  in.  thick,  and 
veneered  round  the  edges  to  cover  the  whole.  The  breadth  across  the  front  is  4  ft.  1  in., 
and  the  depth  from  front  to  back,  20  in.  at  the  body  or  upper  carcase.  The  base,  which 
may  be  called  the  foundation  course,  is  5  in.  high,  having  4  ball  feet  under  it ;  these 
raise  it  3  in.  from  the  floor.  Over  this  base  is  the  surbase,  made  to  contain  a  large 
drawer,  12  in.  deep  on  the  face,  and  having  the  mouldings  mitred  on  the  face  of  it.  The 
fronts  of  these  bases  have  semicircular  blocks  on  the  ends,  that  on  the  base  being 
6  in.  broad,  and  that  on  the  surbase  5  in.  broad ;  the  ends  of  the  drawer  are  fitted 
exactly  between  these  2  latter.  The  surbase  is  screwed  to  the  base,  and  the  latter  pro- 
jects beyond  the  former  5  in.  all  round.  The  surbase  is  surmounted  bya"tliumb" 
mouldiag,  |  in.  thick,  and  over  this  is  placed  the  body  or  top  carcase.  This  contains  5 
drawers;  their  depths  on  the  face,  starting  from  the  bottom,  being  9J  in.,  83  in.,  Ik  in., 
65  in.,  and  the  uppermost,  that  with  the  carving,  5  in.  The  top  over  this  last  drawer 
is  1|  in.  thick,  the  total  height  being  5  ft.  4  in.  The  base  is  made  of  |-in.  pine,  and  is 
veneered  all  round.  The  surbase  has  solid  gables  J  in.  thick,  and  the  semicircular 
front  blocks  veneered.  The  top  carcase  has  a  "  ground  "  up  each  side  at  the  ends  of  tlie 
drawers.  This,  including  the  thickness  of  the  gables,  is  3§  in.  broad  and  2  in.  thick. 
The  faces  of  these  grounds  are  veneered.  At  the  top  of  the  grounds  are  semicircular 
blocks,  6  io.  long,  at  the  end  of  the  top  drawer,  and  the  top  over  all  projects  all  round 

2  B 


370  Cabinet-making — Examples. 

1  in.  It  is  fixed  on  by  mortice  and  tenon,  the  tenons  being  cut  on  the  ends  of  the 
gables.  It  has  also  circular  blocks  in  front.  The  fore  edges  of  the  shelves  between 
the  drawers  are  l  in.  thick  finished.  The  shelves  arc  dovetailed  into  the  thick  grounds 
in  front,  raggled  into  the  gables,  and  made  fast  by  blockings  glued  in  underneath.  The 
various  moving  drawers  have  fronts  made  of  1-iu.  pine,  sides  and  backs  |  in.,  and  bottoms 
•|  in.  The  fronts  are  covered  with  showy  veneer;  the  most  showy,  but  not  the  most 
durable,  being  those  known  as  curls.  These  are  short  cuts  of  the  log,  having  a  strong 
feathery-like  appearance  diverging  from  the  centre.  They  are  usually  about  2  ft. 
long,  and  the  practice  is  to  take  2,  cut  from  each  other,  to  make  a  drawer  front,  they 
being  marked,  when  sawing,  for  this  purpose.  The  drawer  front  has  consequently  a 
butt  joint  in  the  centre,  the  spreading  ends  of  Ihe  pieces  being  carefully  jointed,  so 
that  the  same  figure  or  marks  in  the  veneer  will  appear  going  both  ways  from  this 
centre  joint.  These  veneers  are  very  showy,  but  they  are  very  apt,  after  a  time,  to 
get  full  of  cracks,  and  with  ago  they  become  very  dark  in  colour.  The  drawer  fronts 
are  surrounded  by.  a  "  cope  "  bead,  i  in.  thick,  and  projecting  from  the  face  of  the 
veneer  half  that  thiclcness. 

In  the  construction  of  the  chest  of  drawers,  Fig.  697,  the  first  woik  is  making  the 
base.  This  is  4  ft.  3J  in.  long,  1  ft.  lOJ  in.  broad,  and  5  in.  deep,  made  of  J-in.  pine. 
The  method  of  procedure  is  as  follows : — Make  a  front  a  5  in.  broad,  a  back  h  4  in.  broad ; 
plane  both  sides,  and  to  an  equal  thickness  througliout ;  square  botli  ends  to  a  length 
of  4  ft.  3  in. ;  plane  and  square  up  2  end  pieces  c  in  tlie  same  way,  5  in.  broad,  22J  in. 
long  when  squared  up.  The  front  and  back  are  dovetailed  into  tho  ends,  keeping  the 
back  flush  on  the  upper  side.  The  ends  have  a  lip  ^  in.  thick,  or,  in  other  words,  they 
are  not  dovetailed  through,  but  made  exactly  as  is  done  with  a  drawer  front ;  conse- 
quently, when  the  base  is  put  together,  it  is  4  ft.  3J  in.  long.  This  dovetailing  is 
shown  at  d,  where  one  of  the  circular  blocks  e  is  removed.  It  is,  of  course,  covered  up 
when  these  blocks  are  glued  in  their  iilaces.  The  object  of  not  dovetailing  through  is 
to  avoid  having  end  wood  on  the  surface  at  any  23'irt  to  be  covered  with  veneer- 
This  rule  holds  good  in  all  veneered  surfaces — namely,  avoid  having  end  wood  and 
side  wood  in  the  same  veneering  surface,  as  tlicy  do  not  shrink  alike  :  in  fact,  end  wood 
does  not  shrink  at  all;  consequently  in  a  short  time  any  such  portion  covered  liy  veneer 
is  detected,  as  it  stands  above  the  surrounding  surface.  There  are  cases  in  which 
this  cannot  be  avoided,  but  in  most  cases  it  can  be  guarded  against. 

The  base  being  dovetailed  and  glued  together  is  to  be  "  filled  in."  This  filling  in 
consists  of  pieces  /  of  |-in.  wood  fitted  inside  the  base  at  the  front  and  ends,  and  flush 
w^ith  the  upper  edges.  The  front  piece  is  2J  in.  broad,  and  is  fitted  in  neatly  between 
the  ends.  The  end  pieces,  which  are  broad  enough  if  IJ  in.,  are  fitted  in  between  the 
back  of  the  base  and  the  edge  of  the  front  piece,  glued  in  and  pressed  close  with  hand- 
screws.  Then  the  base  is  turned  over,  and  the  angle  formed  by  the  base  and  the 
filling  in  is  filled  at  intervals  of  5  in.  or  6  in.  with  blockings  3  in.  long.  A  portion  of 
the  base  blocked  in  this  way  is  shown  at  g.  The  glueing  siu'faces  of  these  blockings 
are  about  1^  in.  broad.  In  planing  them,  these  2  sides  must  be  at  right  angles,  and 
roughened  with  the  toothing  plane.  "When  the  glue  has  set  quite  hard,  the  base  is 
planed  straight  and  level  with  a  half-long  plane,  the  ends  being  made  square  with  the 
front,  and  these  toothed  ready  for  veneering. 

The  surbase,  which  rests  upon  the  base  just  described,  is  12  in.  high,  and  consists  of 

2  gables,  either  of  solid  mahogany  or  pine  veneered.  In  either  case,  the  grain  of  the 
wood  runs  vertically.  These  gables  should  be  |-  in.  thick,  but,  if  of  solid  mahogany, 
they  are  seldom  made  more  than  |  in.,  in  which  case  they  are  clamped  on  the  inside 
with  pine  to  make  up  the  thickness.  The  breadth  of  tho  gables  is  li  in.  less  than  the 
base  below,  not  including  tho  blocks,  and  in  the  back  edges  a  check  is  made  to  receive 
a  5-in.  back  lining. 

The  nest  oixTation  is  to  make  2  frames  of  J-in.  pine,  to  form  a  top  and  bottom  to 


CABINET-MAKING—Examples. 


371 


697. 


^>,.-.---' 


2  B  2 


372  Cabinet-making — Examples. 

these  gables ;  they  are  of  a  length  to  make  the  surbase  1  in.  shorter  than  tlie  base 
beneath,  so  that  the  base  projects  all  round  §  in.  beyond  the  surbase — that  is,  when  the 
drawer  front  is  in  its  place.  The  breadth  of  the  frames  is  the  distance  from  the  front 
of  the  gables  to  the  check  for  the  back  lining.  Each  frame  consists  of  a  front  and  back 
rail,  3  in.  broad,  and  2  cross  rails  5  in.  broad,  let  into  the  former  by  mortice  and  tenon. 
The  ends  of  the  front  and  back  rails  being  dovetailed  into  the  gables,  tlie  cross  rails 
lit  inside  these,  and  are  then  made  more  secure  by  having  blockings  of  wood  glued  in 
the  angles. 

Two  semicircular  blocks  are  made  of  several  layers  of  pine  glued  together  as 
described  for  the  base  blocks.  They  are  5  in.  broad  on  the  back,  the  semicircle  being 
drawn  with  compasses  set  to  2J  in.  The  block  is  3^  in.  thick,  however,  the  additional 
inch  being  to  allow  for  the  thickness  of  drawer  front,  so  that  when  this  front  is  in 
its  place  the  blocks  show  but  2J  in.  projecting.  These  blocks  are  veneered,  dried,  planed 
and  scraped,  then  carefully  fitted  to  the  face  of  the  surbase  and  glued  down.  The 
veneer  on  the  block  where  it  joins  the  edge  of  the  gable  must  be  a  good  joint  and  both 
flush,  as  the  veneer,  being  thin,  it  will  not  allow  of  much  reducing  when  cleaning  ofif. 

When  this  surbase  is  made,  it  should  fit  on  to  the  lower  base  and  show  a 
margin  of  J  in.  along  the  ends  and  round  the  blocks,  and  IJ  in.  along  the  central 
portion  or  drawer  space.  The  upper  side  of  the  surbase  is  caj^ped  with  a 
moulding,  usually  a  "  thumb."  This  moulding  h  is  a  section  of  an  ellipse.  For 
the  chest  of  drawers  it  is  made  of  |-in.  mahogany,  and  in  order  to  economize  that 
wood  the  necessary  breadth  is  made  up  with  pine,  the  two  being  glued  together 
I^reviously  to  running  the  thumb.  The  breadth  of  mahogany  required  is  1§  in.  backed 
by  2  in.  of  pine.  *  shows  the  upper  side  of  the  surbase  with  the  line  of  junction  of 
pine  and  mahogany,  also  the  manner  of  mitring  at  the  inner  corner  of  the  circular 
blocks.  lu  ordinary  chests  of  drawers  the  portions  of  thumb  moulding  covering  the 
blocks  are  composed  of  a  piece  of  f -in.  mahogany  turned  in  the  lathe,  and  afterwards 
cut  in  halves,  which  do  for  both  blocks.  The  portion  of  moulding  along  the  front  is 
mitred  at  the  corners  to  these  semicircular  pieces,  and  the  end  pieces  are  butt-jointed 
behind  them. 

In  a  first-class  chest  of  drawers,  however,  they  arc  done  differently.  A  piece  of 
mahogany  is  cut  large  enough  to  make  both  pieces  for  the  end  mouldings  and  the 
circular  portion  over  the  blocks  in  one.  h  shows  the  method  of  cutting  the  one  out 
of  the  other  usually  pursued.  The  thumb  in  this  case  is  worked  by  hand,  and  the 
pieces  do  not  require  backing  with  pine.  These  mouldings  are  toothed  on  the  under 
side,  and  glued  on  to  the  base,  a  few  screws  being  put  in  after  the  hand-screws  are 
removed.  This  base  receives  a  |-in.  back  lining,  but  it  is  not  put  on  until  a  drawer  is 
made  and  fitted  in.  The  drawer  front  is  of  j^ine,  "  slipped  "  with  a  piece  of  Bay  maho- 
gany on  the  upper  edge.  This  slipping  is  a  process  that  has  to  be  noticed.  A  piece 
of  mahogany  is  cut  about  1  in.  broad  and  5  in.  or  -J  in.  thick,  as  free  from  warping  and 
bending  as  possible-  It  is  truly  planed  on  one  side,  and  toothed.  The  edge  of  the 
drawer  front  is  also  planed  perfectly  straight  with  half-long  plane,  and  toothed.  Then, 
with  the  drawer  front  in  the  bench  lug,  the  slip  of  mahogany  is  wetted  with  a  sponge,  and 
turning  its  toothed  side  up,  and  on  a  level  with  the  edge  of  the  pine  front,  both  receive 
a  coating  of  glue  quickly  applied.  The  slip  is  turned  over  on  the  edge  of  the  front 
and  rubbed  firmly  backwards  and  forwards  lengthways,  2  persons  being  necessary  for 
the  operation.  The  sliding  motion  is  gradually  lessened  till  it  stops  with  the  slip  in 
its  proper  place,  when  a  few  smart  rubs  with  a  veneering  hammer  complete  the 
operation.  In  most  cases  a  slip  thus  laid  will  be  found  to  adhere  perfectly  in  its  whole 
length.  When  the  front  is  dry,  it  is  planed  up  and  fitted  exactly  in  its  place ;  care 
must  be  taken  to  have  the  heart  side  of  the  plank  turned  to  the  front  for  veneering 
upon.  This  drawer  front  is  12  in.  broad,  and  when  in  its  place  rests  upon  the  2 
l-iQ.  fore  edges  forming  the  frame  of  the  surbase.     The  drawer  sides  pass  between 


Cabinet-making — Examples.  373 

these  fore  edges,  and  are  consequently  only  10|  In.  broad,  the  extra  breadth  of  front 
projecting  ^  in.  downwards,  and  the  same  upwards  of  the  sides,  as  in  I,  which  shows 
the  drawer  side  as  dovetailed  into  the  front.  The  drawer  sides  are  J  in.  thick,  often 
made  of  jsine,  sometimes  of  American  ash,  but  the  best  wood  of  all  is  cedar,  as  the 
strong  but  not  unpleasant  odour  emitted  is  a  sure  preventive  of  moth.  A  grouvc  run 
in  |-iii.  wood  m  for  a  drawer  bottom  makes  the  side  very  weak.  A  very  great  improve- 
ment is  the  fillet  clamped  to  the  inside  of  the  drawer  side  n,  and  the  groove  run  in  it. 

The  carcase  consists  of  2  gables  o  of  solid  mahogany,  usually  |  in.,  but  they  ought  to 
be  at  least  f  in.  thick.  The  breadth  to  make  these  gables  is  5  in.  less  than  the  breadtli 
of  the  upper  side  of  the  surbase — that  is,  i  in.  -within  the  thumb  moulding.  The 
length  of  the  gables  is  sufficient  to  admit  5  drawers  of  the  following  breadths — 
namely,  9J,  SJ,  7|,  65,  and  5  in.,  with  ^-in.  fore  edges  or  shelves  p  between,  and  1  in. 
additional  to  cut  into  pins  or  tenons  to  enter  the  top,  which  should  show  straight  pins 
not  dovetailed. 

The  2  gables  are  planed  up  on  both  sides,  "  thicknessed,"  made  to  the  breadth, 
squared  on  the  bottom  ends,  and  marked  off  on  the  insides  for  grooves  to  receive  the 
shelves.  The  rabbet  plane  used  is  J-|  in.,  and  the  depth  of  groove  is  J  in.  A  guide 
for  the  plane  is  made  by  "  stitching "  with  tacks  a  thin  lath  of  wood  to  the  gable 
alongside  the  groove  to  be  run.  These  gi'ooves  being  run,  the  bottom  ends  are  dove- 
tailed— not  through — to  receive  a  |-in.  carcase  bottom,  and  the  top  ends  are  squared 
and  cut  into  pins  as  already  mentioned.  Two  grounds  have  now  to  be  built  to  clamp 
on  the  inside  of  the  gables.  These  are  of  pine,  faced  on  the  inner  edges  witli  mahogany, 
as  indicated  by  the  lines  shown  vertically  in  q.  The  method  of  building  these  grounds 
is  to  clamp  2  pieces  of  |-in.  or  1-in.  wood  together  for  the  thickness,  as  this  stands 
better  than  one  piece.  Next  a  piece  of  -i-in.  Bay  mahogany  is  planed  up  and  toothed 
on  both  sides.  The  edges  of  the  ground  pieces  are  also  planed  straight  and  toothed. 
The  mahogany  is  heated  on  both  sides,  and,  glue  being  applied  to  both  pieces  of  pine, 
the  mahogany  is  placed  between  them  and  several  hand-screws  are  applied.  When 
this  is  hard,  it  is  planed  up  and  sawn  through  the  centre  of  the  mahogany,  making  a 
pair  of  grounds  with  mahogany  slips  about  |  in.  thick  when  finished. 

The  grounds  are  planed  to  such  a  breadth  that  when  glued  to  the  gables  the 
total  breadth  of  face  is  3J  in.  g  is  a  cross  section  of  this  arrangement  of  pieces ;  1  is 
a  portion  of  the  gable,  say  f  in.  thick  ;  2,  the  two  thicknesses  of  pine,  2|  in.  broad  and 
2  in.  thick;  and  3,  the  clamp  or  slip  of  mahogany,  |  in.  thick.  After  these  grounds 
are  fixed  to  the  gables  they  are  squared  with  the  gables  on  the  face,  and  the  inner  edge 
is  squared  with  the  face.  Then  they  are  drawn  for  dovetails  to  receive  the  shelves 
in  a  line  with  the  grooves  in  the  gables.  The  dovetail  is  all  on  the  under  side  of  the 
shelves,  and  enters  into  the  ground  about  f  in.  As  these  shelves  must  be  quite  level 
in  their  whole  breadth  to  allow  the  drawers  to  run  smoothly,  great  care  must  be  taken 
to  cut  the  dovetails  in  the  grounds  with  exactitude.  Otherwise  the  shelf  when  entering 
the  dovetail  vail  be  bent  up  or  down,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  it  is  hardly  possible  to 
make  a  good  fit  of  the  drawers  in  such  a  carcase. 

The  shelves  are  not  of  one  thickness,  or  one  board  throughout  their  breadth,  but 
are  known  as  "  clamped  "  shelves.  About  3  in.  of  the  front  portion  is  ^-1\.  wood,  the 
remainder  being  |-in.  wood  clamped  at  the  ends  with  pieces  of  {r-in.  wood,  which  makes 
them  up  to  |  in.  The  two  are  joined  with  matched  ploughs,  glued,  and  clamped  ;  they 
are  carefully  made  of  a  tnickness  to  fit  the  grooves  in  the  gables  ;  but,  previously  to 
this,  the  front  edge  has  to  receive  a  facing  of  mahogany.  The  general  practice  is 
to  "  band  "  them — that  is,  to  put  on  scrap  pieces  of  rich  veneer,  with  the  grain  running 
across  the  thickness  of  the  fore  edge.  This  has  a  showy  effect,  but  it  is  false  and 
ridiculous,  as  a  shelf  of  solid  wood  put  in  in  this  way  would  be  an  impossibility.  The 
result  of  such  work  is  also  bad,  as  pieces  of  this  "  banding "  get  easily  chipped  oft" 
with  the  pulling  out  of  the  drawers.      Tlie  proper  way  is  to  "  slip  "  them  with  good 


374  Cabinet-making — Examples. 

mahogany,  at  least  I  in.  thick,  with  the  grain  of  the  mahogany  running  in  the  same 
direction  as  the  shelf.  This  -will  last  for  an  age  without  chipping.  When  the  shelves 
are  slipped  and  got  to  the  proper  thickness,  the  corners  are  cut  out  to  admit  the 
grounds,  and  the  dovetails  worked  to  fit  the  latter.  The  shelves  should  be  iitted 
pretty  tight  into  the  gi-ounds,  and  when  driven  home  the  mahogany  slip  should 
project  beyond  the  face  of  the  ground  the  thickness  of  a  veneer  (J^  in.),  so  that  when 
the  grounds  are  veneered  the  whole  will  be  flush.  The  carcase  bottom — that  is,  the 
lowest  shelf  that  rests  upon  the  surbase — has  1  dovetail  into  the  end  of  the  ground. 
This  will  be  readily  understood  by  reference  to  r,  which  shows  a  portion  of  the  under 
side  of  the  carcase.  The  back  edges  of  gables  are  checked  to  receive  a  back  lining, 
which  is  nailed  to  the  back  edge  of  the  carcase,  as  shown  on  the  right  in  r. 

The  gables,  carcase  bottom,  and  shelves  being  ready,  the  carcase  is  put  together 
by  glueing  and  rapping  up  the  carcase  bottom  first,  then  the  top  sLelf,  and  after  this 
the  intermediate  ones.  A  cramp  is  necessary  to  draw  these  shelves  home,  care  being 
taken  that  they  all  project  beyond  the  face  of  grounds  only  the  thickness  of  veneer 
as  above  mentioned.  All  the  shelves  have  now  to  be  "  blocked  "  on  the  inside — that 
is,  3-cornered  blockings  of  wood,  with  their  glueing  faces  at  right  angles,  are  glued 
in  against  the  shelves  and  gables.  Before  these  are  glued  in,  the  carcase  must  be 
tested  to  see  that  it  is  square,  and  that  all  the  shelves  are  quite  at  the  bottom  of  the 
grooves  in  the  gables.  After  this  is  made  sure,  the  blockings,  4  in.  long,  3  to  each 
shelf,  are  rubbed  in  with  hot  glue,  the  first  one  going  forward  pretty  near  the  back  of 
the  ground.    "When  these  are  hard  the  carcase  will  be  perfectly  rigid  and  strong. 

It  is  usual  to  fit  the  drawer  fronts  and  make  the  drawers  before  making  a  top. 
The  upper  blocks  are  of  the  same  breadth  as  the  grounds,  semicircular  on  the  face,  but 
1  in.  thicker  than  the  half  circle,  to  allow  for  the  drawer  front  between  them,  as  this 
front  projects  1  in.  over  those  beneath  it.  These  blocks  are  veneered  in  one  length  in 
a  canvas  bag,  as  described  for  the  base  blocks.  When  glued  on  the  grounds,  their 
lower  ends  are  on  a  level  with  the  upper  side  of  the  top  shelf.  The  upper  ends  are 
faced  with  mahogany. 

The  top  of  the  carcase  is  li  in.  thick,  being  a  board  of  |-in.  mahogany,  made  up  or 
clamped  on  the  under  side  with  pine  1  in.  thick.  A  piece  of  pine  5  in.  broad  is  glued 
along  the  front ;  the  ends  are  made  up  with  end  cuts  of  pine  6  in.  or  7  in.  long.  As  the 
grain  of  all  the  clamping  must  run  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  of  the  mahogany,  a 
narrow  clamp  is  fitted  between  the  end  ones  at  the  back  to  nail  tbe  back  lining  to. 
These  clamps  are  put  on  with  large  hand-screws  ;  when  hard,  the  top  is  planed  to  thick- 
ness and  squared  at  the  ends.  The  front  edge  of  the  top  is  veneered  before  the  2 
semicircular  blocks  are  rubbed  on.  This  veneering  of  the  edge  of  the  top  is  usually 
"  banding,"  but  it  should  be  done  by  slipping,  as  described  when  treating  the  base. 

The  carcase  has  now  to  be  fitted  with  drawers.  The  drawer  fronts  are  of  pine  |-  in. 
thick,  fitted  into  the  various  openings  in  the  carcase  perfectly  close  all  round,  and  with 
the  heart  side  of  each  front  outward  for  veneering  upon. 

The  toji  drawer,  that  between  the  2  semicircular  blocks  immediately  under  the  top, 
is  slipped  on  its  upper  edge  with  a  piece  of  ^-in.  Bay  mahogany  previously  to  fitting  it 
in,  the  same  as  already  mentioned  for  the  12-in.  drawer  in  the  surbase. 

The  other  drawers  are  not  slipped^in  this  way  ;  after  they  are  veneered  and  cleaned 
off  they  receive  a  -j-in.  mahogany  beading  all  round.  This  is  called  a  "  cope  bead," 
and  the  manner  of  putting  it  on  will  be  described.  When  all  the  drawer  fronts  are 
fitted  in,  they  should  be  each  marked  on  the  face  in  pencil  with  a  /\  or  similar  figure 
pointing  upwards,  so  that  there  be  no  mistakes  afterwards  in  the  fitting. 

The  drawer  sides  for  a  first-class  job  are  of  cedar  f  in.  thick.  The  grooves  for  the 
bottoms  should  not  be  run  in  this  |-iu.  side  for  a  good  job,  but  in  a  clamp  glued  to  the 
Bide,  as  shown  in  n.  The  drawer  backs  may  be  of  |-in.  pine,  and  the  bottoms  of  l-in. 
pine,  but  this  thickness  would  be  too  weak  without  a  centre  mounter. 


Cabinet-making— Examples.  375 

This  mounter  is  a  bar  of  wood  3  in.  broad  and  f  in.  thick,  passing  across  the  centre 
of  the  drawer  from  front  to  back,  and  dividing  the  bottom  into  halves.  It  has  gi-ooves 
in  its  edges  to  receive  the  bottom,  a  pair  of  i-iu.  match  ploughs  being  used — one  to  make 
a  groove  in  the  mounter,  and  the  other  a  feather  on  the  edge  of  the  bottom,  the  whole 
being  flush  on  the  upper  or  inside.  A  -J-in.  bead  is  run  on  the  mounter  on  this 
inside  to  abut  against  tlie  drawer  bottoms.  Tliis  is  called  breaking  the  joint,  and 
makes  a  neat  finish  inside  the  drawer,  s  shows  this  mounter  and  bottoms,  the  manner 
of  grooving  in,  and  the  upper  or  inner  side  with  the  beaded  joint. 

The  drawer  fronts  have  a  groove,  corresponding  to  those  in  the  sides,  to  receive  the 
bottoms.  The  backs  are  so  much'uarrower,  and  the  bottoms  nailed  to  them  by  li-in. 
brads.  The  direction  of  the  grain  of  these  bottoms  runs  length  way  of  the  drawers; 
consequently  the  end  wood  of  the  bottoms  enters  the  grooves  in  sides  and  mounters. 

The  di-awers  are  dovetailed,  and  put  together  in  the  usual  manner.  The  bottoms 
are  put  in  and  filleted — that  is,  fillets  are  rubbed  in  with  glue  in  the  junction  of 
the  sides  and  bottoms,  and  afterwards  planed  off  flush  with  the  edges  and  sides,  a  few 
short  ones  being  glued  along  the  front  in  the  same  way.  Of  these  latter,  one  at  each 
and  is  of  mahogany,  or  other  hard  wood,  these  being  to  act  against  "  stops "  nailed 
to  the  shelves  in  the  carcase,  to  stop  the  drawers  at  their  proper  places. 

It  may  bo  mentioned  that  fillets  for  drawer  bottoms  are  in  many  cases  omitted,  and 
in  good  jobs,  too,  particularly  when  the  bottoms  are  of  American  ash,  which  wood  is 
very  liable  to  shrink  or  expand  with  dry  or  damp  situations,  and  the  bottoms  are  left 
unfilleted  to  allow  of  this  movement.  But  if  the  wood  is  as  well  seasoned  as  it  should 
be,  little  or  no  change  in  the  breadth  of  the  bottoms  will  take  place,  and  a  drawer  is 
infinitely  better  filleted. 

When  fitting  the  drawers  in  the  carcase,  no  more  should  be  taken  oif  the  breadth  of 
the  drawer  sides  than  will  just  admit  them  between  the  shelves,  as  when  too  much  is 
planed  off  at  first  they  can  never  bo  a  satisfactory  job.  The  proper  method  is  to  plane 
the  under  side  of  the  drawers — which  is  the  edges  of  the  sides  and  fillets,  and  also 
the  short  fillets  along  the  front — all  even  and  flush,  using  a  straight-edge  to  get  these 
2  edges  in  relation  to  each  other  to  be  out  of  winding.  Then  set  a  gauge  to  the  breadth 
of  the  drawer  front,  and  gauge  the  breadth  of  the  sides  from  the  bottom.  When  the 
sides  are  planed  down  to  this  mark,  they  should  enter  the  opening  between  the 
shelves,  though  somewhat  tightly.  Next  the  2  sides  or  ends  of  the  drawers  are  planed 
down  till  the  end  wood  of  the  front  and  back  are  touched  at  the  dovetails.  The 
drawers  should  enter  the  carcase  lengthway  as  well  as  breadtlnvay.  Tliey  are  all 
pushed  in  in  this  way,  till  the  fronts  are  nearly  flush  with  the  face  of  the  carcase ; 
the  fronts  are  drawn  all  round  with  a  draw-point,  and  planed  down  on  the  bench  to 
this  mark.  The  method  is  to  place  2  pieces  of  board  across  the  bench,  letting  them 
project  over  the  front  7  or  8  in.,  and  fastening  them  at  the  back  with  hand-screws. 
The  drawer  is  hung  on  tiie  ends  of  the  boards,  with  its  fore  end  fixed  in  the  bench 
lug,  and  in  this  position  is  planed  and  toothed.  When  planing,  the  front  must  be 
perfectly  level  across  the  ends.  It  will  do  no  harm  if  a  little  round  at  the  centre ; 
the  veneer  has  a  tendency  to  draw  the  face  hollow  after  a  time. 

As  a  rule,  the  base  is  veneered  on  what  is  termed  the  "  banding"  system — that  is, 
the  grain  of  the  veneer  runs  up  and  down,  not  the  lengthway  of  the  base.  This  is  a 
false  principle  in  construction,  because  a  base  made  of  solid  wood,  with  the  grain 
upright,  would  be  simply  ridiculous.  The  method  is  resorted  to  for  2  reasons :  It  is 
easier  done ;  and  it  is  a  means  of  using  up  small  pieces  of  broken  veneer,  as  any  may 
be  used  if  long  enough  to  cover  the  breadth  of  the  base. 

Two  blocks  have  now  to  be  made  for  this  base,  similar  to  the  one  shown  detached 
at  e.  They  are  6  in.  broad,  3  in.  thick,  semicircular  on  the  ends,  and  are  better  built  of 
several  layers  of  wood,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  as  they  do  not  split  or  change  their 
shape    so    readily  as  when   made    in  one  piece ;    3  pieces,  long   enough  to  make 


376  Cabinet-making — Examples. 

hotb  blocks,  are  glued  together,  drawn  on  the  ends  with  compasses,  and  careMly 
phxncd  down  to  a  semicircle,  after  which  they  are  toothed  for  veneering.  Before 
veneering,  these  blocks  should  be  sized  with  a  coat  of  very  thin  hot  glue  applied  all 
over  the  surface  to  be  veneered  upon.  When  this  is  quite  dry  it  is  again  lightly 
toothed.  The  best  method  to  veneer  these  blocks  is  with  a  canvas  bag  and  screws  (see 
Fig.  687,  p.  3G0).  This  method  is  only  suitable  when  the  rest  of  the  base  is  veneered 
on  the  banding  principle ;  for  the  grain  of  the  veneer  runs  up  and  down  on  the  block, 
so  it  must  run  in  the  same  direction  on  the  rest  of  the  base.  To  veneer  the  base  with 
banding,  strip  the  edges  of  each  piece  with  the  plane  on  the  shooting  board ;  then  lay 
one  piece  at  a  time  with  the  veneering  hammer.  The  first  piece  being  laid,  the  second 
is  fitted  against  it  and  rubbed  down,  pressing  against  the  piece  previously  laid,  to- 
ensure  a  close  joint. 

When  the  veneer  is  dry,  which  will  be  in  about  24  hours,  the  front  only  is  to  be 
planed,  scraped,  and  sandpapered,  the  over  wood  at  the  edges  being  previously  pared 
ofi'  with  a  sharp  chisel.  When  the  veneered  piece  for  blocks  is  cut  in  two,  a  portion 
of  the  veneer  at  the  inner  edge  is  planed  and  papered.  The  veneer  on  the  front  of 
the  base  is  cut  to  exactly  the  breadth  of  the  back  of  the  block,  so  that  the  veneer  on 
the  block  and  that  on  the  end  of  the  base  will  coincide,  forming  one  surfiice,  and,  at 
the  same  time,  a  close  joint.  The  blocks  thus  fitted  are  glued  on,  using  hand-screws 
to  ensure  close  contact.  When  the  glue  is  hard,  the  upper  edges  of  the  base  and  blocks 
are  planed  quite  level,  and  the  end  wood  of  the  blocks  receives  a  coat  of  glue  size 
before  veneering.  A  piece  of  veneer  3  in.  broad  is  laid  along  the  front,  and  2  additional 
pieces  over  the  ends  of  blocks.  The  strips  of  veneer  along  the  ends  of  the  base  are 
2  in.  broad.  When  the  glueing  of  these  is  hard,  the  whole  base  is  cleaned  off,  scraped, 
and  sandpapered.  After  which,  provision  is  made  for  attaching  4  turned  feet  by 
fitting  2  3-cornered  pieces  in  the  back  corners  or  under  side  of  base,  and  clamping 
2  pieces  inside  the  front,  immediately  behind  the  circular  blocks.  The  ball  feet  have 
tenons  turned  on  them,  which  fit  into  holes  bored  in  the  base. 

Following  is  the  metiiod  of  veneering  the  base  of  drawers  by  having  the  grain  of 
the  veneer  running  in  the  same  direction  as  the  grain  of  the  groundwork.  The  body 
or  groundwork  of  the  base  is  made  exactly  as  described,  and  the  2  blocks  are  made 
and  sized  for  veneering.  The  face  of  the  base  is  covered  witli  veneer,  except  at  the 
2  ends  where  the  blocks  are  to  be  stuck  on.  This  veneer  should  be  laid  with  a  caul. 
When  properly  hard,  it  is  planed  and  finished  up  with  sandpaper ;  then  the  2  blocks 
are  fitted  exactly  in  their  places  against  the  ends  of  the  front  veneer,  and  glued  down 
without  being  previously  veneered,  as  in  last  example. 

The  task  of  veneering  tiie  blocks  and  base  ends  with  1  piece  of  veneer  is  shown 
in  t.  A  yellow  pine  caul  is  made  the  length  of  the  base  end,  not  including  the  semi- 
circular blocks ;  then  a  piece  of  No.  12  zinc  is  procured,  long  enough  to  reach  from 
the  small  block  of  wood  at  the  inner  edge  of  the  circular  block,  round  the  block 
itself,  along  the  base  end,  and  round  the  ends  of  the  caul,  as  indicated  by  the  double 
line  in  the  cut.  The  caul  should  be  6  in.  broad,  and  the  zinc  fixed  on  with  tacks 
along  the  edges. 

A  piece  of  veneer  has  now  to  be  cut  long  enough  to  go  round  the  block  and  along 
the  base  end,  with  a  little  margin  both  in  length  and  breadth.  The  portion  that 
goes  round  the  block  must  be  well  toothed,  and  scraped  on  the  outside,  before  putting 
on.  This  is  to  thin  it  somewhat,  as  it  has  to  be  bent  round  the  block.  The  next  step 
is  to  glue  a  thin  piece  of  cotton  cloth  on  the  scraped  side  of  the  veneer.  This  is  to 
prevent  it  splitting  across  the  grain  of  the  wood  while  bending.  A  cut  is  made  with 
a  dovetail  saw,  close  to  the  inner  edge  of  the  block,  about  J  in.  deep  in  the  face  of  the 
base.    The  end  of  the  veneer  is  squared  and  fitted  into  this  cut. 

It  will  be  seen,  by  reference  to  t,  that  a  cramp  and  5  hand-screws  are  brought  into 
use.     There  are  really  10  hand-screws,  another  5  being  i:)laced  exactly  opposite  those 


Cabinet-making — Examples.  377 

shown  in  tlio  drawinp^.  All  being  in  readiness,  the  zinc  canl  is  well  heated,  and  a 
copious  supply  of  glue  applied  to  the  groundwork  to  be  veneered,  and  a  thin  cout  to 
the  veneer.    The  end  of  the  latter  is  iitted  into  the  saw  cut  above  mentioned. 

The  hot  caul  is  applied  by  placing  the  end  with  the  block  close  to  the  circular 
block,  and  applying  2  hand-screws.  Then  the  zinc  with  the  veneer  is  bent  gently  round 
the  block,  and  when  laid  along  the  base  end  several  hand-screws  are  applied,  and  lastly 
the  cramp,  using  a  small  block  of  wood  at  the  back  to  keep  the  paw  clear  of  the  canl 
end.  The  exposed  portion  of  the  zinc  round  the  block,  which  cools  very  quickly,  must 
be  heated  with  a  smoothing  iron  and  more  pressure  applied  to  the  cramp,  when  the  glue 
should  run  out  at  the  edges.  The  hand-screws  are  then  tightened  up,  when,  if  the 
whole  thing  has  been  managed  properly,  the  veneer  will  bo  lying  perfectly  close.  This 
caul  should  stay  on  for  at  least  10  or  12  hours,  when  the  same  operation  may  be  per- 
formed with  the  other  end  of  the  base. 

This  method  of  veneering  is  much  more  difficult  than  the  slip-shod  method  of 
banding  with  scraps  of  veneer,  but  it  is  a  much  more  tradesmanlike  manner  of 
doing  it.  In  short,  it  is  tiie  method  of  making  a  first-class  piece  of  furniture,  if  veneer- 
ing of  any  sort  can  be  called  first-class  work.  "When  the  glueing  of  the  base  is  properly 
hard,  the  over-wood  at  the  edges  is  cleaned  oft',  the  upper  side  is  planed  level,  and 
veneered  as  before  described. 

The  veneers  for  the  drawer  fronts  are  bought  in  sets  of  5  or  6.  They  are  cut  from 
each  other,  and  are  all  of  one  figure,  being  numbered  by  tlie  sawyers  ;  care  being  taken 
to  place  them  on  the  fronts  all  in  the  same  way,  the  various  markings  will  appear 
almost  alike  in  the  whole  fronts. 

The  sets  of  veneers  may  be  so  narrow  that  they  will  not  entirely  cover  the  12-iu. 
drawer  in  the  surbase,  in  which  case  a  piece  has  to  be  added  to  the  breadth  ;  the  joint 
thus  made  is  easily  concealed  beneath  one  of  the  mouldings  to  be  planted  on  the  face. 

If  the  veneers  are  of  the  feathery  curl  sort,  2  pieces  to  each  front,  the  butt  joint  must 
be  exactly  in  the  centre  of  each,  passing  through  the  centre  of  the  keyhole.  In  order  to 
make  this  joint  properly,  the  whole  of  the  veneers  are  placed  together  exactly  as  they 
were  when  cut  at  the  mill,  and  held  together  by  2  pieces  of  board  and  2  hand-screws. 
The  ends  to  be  jointed  are  squared  across,  and  cut  with  a  dovetail  saw  all  together,  and 
afterwards  planed  with  the  iron  plane.  Then,  being  taken  separately,  each  pair  is 
carefully  fitted  to  each  other.  This  done,  they  are  laid  on  a  flat  board  with  the  joint 
placed  close,  and  a  few  tacks  driven  in  at  the  edges.  A  piece  of  thin  calico,  about  2  in. 
broad,  is  now  glued  along  the  joint.  When  this  is  dry,  the  veneers  may  be  laid  as  one 
piece.  Cauls  of  zinc,  J  in.  thick,  are  best  for  this  job,  but  very  good  work  may  be  done 
with  well-oiled  pine  cauls. 

If  wooden  cauls  are  used  to  these  fronts,  they  should  remain  in  the  screws  not  over 
2  hours,  as  any  glue  adhering  to  the  caul  makes  it  difficult  to  remove,  and  some  of  the 
veneer  is  apt  to  peel  off  in  the  removal. 

It  is  usual  to  veneer  2  of  these  drawers  at  a  time,  the  caul  being  heated  on  both  sides. 
The  hand-screws  require  to  be  pretty  large,  with  long  jaws.  They  should  be  free  from 
hard  glue  on  the  jaws,  as  it  makes  an  unsightly  mark  on  the  inside  of  drawer  fronts. 

Help  must  be  obtained  to  heat  the  caul  while  glue  is  applied  copiously  to  the  drawer 
fronts.  The  veneers  must  be  previously  toothed  on  the  glueing  side,  and  marked  as  they 
are  to  be  laid.  When  laid  upon  the  glued  front,  they  are  rubbed  all  over  with  the 
hands,  and  should  project  over  the  front  f  in.  or  so  all  round.  At  the  places  fo  be  after- 
wards bored  for  the  knobs,  2  tacks  are  driven  through  the  veneer  into  the  front  to 
prevent  them  slipping  under  the  hot  caul  while  the  hand-screws  are  being  applied. 
These  latter  should  be  set  to  about  the  size  before  glueing,  so  that  no  time  may  be  lost 
afterwards;  G  large  hand-screws  for  the  front  or  inside,  and  G  smaller  for  the  back,  are 
necessary  to  lay  veneers  on  2  fronts.  Those  inside  the  drawers  should  go  quite  to  the 
bottom,  so  that  the  jaws  require  to  be  at  least  8  in.  long,    u  gives  a  clear  idea  of  this 


878  Cabinet-making — Examples. 

part  of  the  ■work.  It  shows  the  2  fronts  vrith  the  caul  and  veneers  between,  and  the 
hand-screws  as  applied.  In  applying  the  hand-screws  to  work  of  this  kind,  it  is  to  be 
■observed  that  the  whole  length  of  the  jaws  must  bear  equally  on  the  breadth  of  surface 
jiressed  betwx'en  tliem,  as  if  they  press  only  at  the  points,  or  at  the  heel,  they  are  com- 
paratively ineffective. 

When  the  veneers  have  dried  for  about  24  hours  they  may  be  cleaned  off.  They  are 
always  planed  first  with  a  high-pitched  hand-ijlane,  set  very  close,  then  scraped  and 
sandpapered.  The  drawer  in  the  surbase  and  that  at  tlie  top  are  neatly  fitted  into  their 
jjlaces.  They  should  pull  easily  backwards  and  forwards  and  yet  appear  quite  close 
both  in  length  and  breadth.  The  accuracy  with  which  they  are  fitted  -when  finished  is 
a  mark  of  excellence  in  the  workmanship. 

The  4  intermediate  drawers  receive  cope  bead:^.  After  the  fronts  are  jjlaned  and  sand- 
papered they  are  pushed  in  about  J  in.  be3'ond  the  face  of  the  carcase,  when  a  small  gauge 
is  made  to  gauge  the  thickness  to  check  for  the  beads.  This  gauge  is  a  small  block  of 
hard  wood  with  a  steel  point  in  it  fully  -J  in.  from  the  edge.  This  gauge  is  passed  all 
round  each  aperture  in  the  carcase,  the  steel  point  making  a  mark  on  the  drawer  front 
the  depth  of  the  check  to  receive  the  beads.  The  checks  are  worked  out  with  fillester 
and  guillaume  planes.  That  on  the  upper  edge  is  made  the  whole  thickness  of  the 
front,  so  that  all  the  pine  may  be  covered  with  the  bead  which  now  serves  as  a  slip. 
The  under  edge  and  the  2  ends  are  not  checked  more  than  |  in.  from  the  face.  The 
ends  are  sawn  down  with  a  dovetail  saw,  and  worked  to  the  gauge  marks  with  an  iron 
guillaume.  The  cope  bead  is  bought  iu  boards  ^^  in.  thick ;  the  strips  are  cut  off  with 
a  cutting  gauge,  and  must  be  broad  enough  to  project  about  J  in.  over  the  veneered 
front.  When  putting  them  en  they  are  wetted  on  the  ujoper  side  with  a  sponge,  then 
the  glue  is  applied  to  the  dry  side,  and  also  to  the  check,  when  the  slip  is  placed  in 
position  and  rubbed  backwards  and  forwards,  2  persons  being  necessary  in  the  operation. 
AVhen  set  in  its  place  it  should  have  a  few  rubs  with  a  veneering  hammer.  To  ascertain 
if  it  is  "lying,"  the  glue  is  scraped  gently  off  along  the  drawer  front  with  a  chisel. 
When  some  parts  are  found  not  close  it  is  usual  to  drive  in  fine  brads,  but  this  is  a  sign 
of  defective  workmanshij),  as  no  brads  are  allowed  except  in  putting  on  the  end  beads. 
When  a  drawer  front  is  slijiised  top  and  bottom  in  this  way  the  glue  must  be  very  carefully 
■washed  off  with  a  sponge  and  hot  water,  a  chisel  being  used  to  scrape  it  along  the 
junction  of  the  front  with  the  slip.  When  these  slips  are  quite  dry,  the  ends  are  cut  off 
and  planed  flush  with  the  drawer  sides.  Then  the  slips  are  stripped  with  the  half-long 
plane  on  the  sides,  so  that  a  thickness  of  fully  a  in.  is  left,  the  drawer  lying  on  the 
bench  during  the  operation.  The  drawer  is  then  tried  in  its  place  in  the  carcase.  It 
should  fit  perfectly  close  against  the  .shelves  above  and  below,  at  the  same  time  not 
tightly,  the  drawer  front  being  iu  flush  with  the  face  of  the  carcase.  Wiien  the  4  drawers 
are  fitted  in  tliis  way,  the  next  thing  is  to  run  the  beads.  This  is  done  with  the  cope- 
bead  i^lane.  This  is  a  small  plane  (t;)  with  a  hollow  along  tlie  centre  of  the  sole  the 
size  of  the  bead  to  be  run.  The  central  portion  is  filled  in  with  boxwood,  in  which  the 
hollow  is  run.  The  drawer  is  now  hung  upon  2  boards  on  the  bench,  front  up  as  before. 
The  projecting  edges  of  the  slips  are  planed  with  a  half-long  till  they  stand  above  the 
front  J-  in. ;  then  they  are  rounded  with  the  cope-bead  plane,  which  is  run  till  the  sole 
of  the  plane  touches  the  drawer  front.  This,  of  course,  leaves  the  bead  all  of  one  height 
in  its  whole  length.  When  the  2  beads  are  thus  run,  the  drawer  front  is  carefully 
l^apered,  the  beads  included,  using  for  the  latter  a  small  hollow  cork,  something  like  the 
.sole  of  the  plane  shown.  After  all  flic  drawers  are  thus  treated,  the  end  beads  are  put 
on.  A  piece  of  the  cope-bead  stuff  is  thinned  to  fully  i  in.,  the  edge  made  straight,  and 
rounded  with  the  coi^e-bead  plane;  then  a  strip  is  cut  off  with  a  cutting  gauge  of  the 
required  breadth,  which  should  be  |  in.  This  is  cut  into  lengths  to  fit  in  between  the 
long  beads  by  mitring  the  one  to  the  other  and  stripping  to  the  exact  breadth,  so  that 
the  same  height  above  the  veneered  front  is  obtained.    When  it  lies  close  in  the  cheek, 


Cabinet-making— Examples.  379 

and  also  close  at  the  mitres,  it  receives  a  little  glue,  and  is  nailed  on  with  ^-in.  fine 
brads,  3  or  4  to  each.  These  are  punched  below  the  flush,  and  tlio  end  beads  are 
carefully  stripped  ;  again  the  drawer  is  fitted  into  the  carcase,  and  should  fit  quite 
close  at  the  ends  also.  When  in  flush,  it  will  look  like  a  plain  panel  with  a  bead 
all  round. 

Now  the  whole  6  drawers  are  in  their  places.  If  they  feel  too  tight  they  should  be 
gently  stripped  where  tightest.  This  will  be  readily  ascertained  by  going  to  the  back 
of  the  carcase  and  looking  through  between  the  drawers  and  shelves  or  grounds.  The 
fitting  of  these  drawers,  done  as  they  ouglit  to  be,  is  considered  a  very  nice  job  in  the 
trade,  but  it  is  seldom  that  this  is  accomplished.  The  drawers,  while  they  show 
perfectly  close  all  round  the  fronts,  ought  at  the  same  time  to  pull  out  and  push  in  with 
the  utmost  ease  and  freedom.  This  will  only  be  the  case  when  the  carcase  is  jjcrfect  in 
construction,  in  which  case  the  various  shelves  dividing  the  drawers  are  truly  parallel 
with  each  other,  and  of  the  same  width  of  aperture  from  front  to  back.  The  shelves 
must  also  be  truly  at  right  angles  with  the  upright  grounds — in  other  words,  the 
carcase  must  be  truly  squared.  Without  these  conditions  the  moving  drawers,  however 
W'cll  they  in  themselves  may  be  made,  can  never  be  satisfactorily  fitted  into  an  ill-made 
carcase.  When  the  drawers  have  received  their  final  stripping,  they  are  carefully 
sandpapered  on  all  parts  that  come  in  contact  with  the  carcase  when  jnoving ;  the  cope 
beads  also  receive  a  final  finish  with  sandpaper. 

Now  they  are  ready  for  the  guides  and  stops.  The  guides  are  fillets  of  i^ine  running 
from  the  back  to  the  grounds  at  the  ends  of  the  drawers  to  guide  them ;  tliey  are  18  in. 
by  Ih  in.  by  1  in.  The  stops  are  pieces  of  hard  wood,  such  as  ash  or  oak,  2  in.  square  and 
J  in.  thick,  and  shaped  like  ic,  having  3  holes  for  f-in.  wrought  brads ;  12  guides  and 
10  stops  are  required  for  the  job,  as  the  large  drawer  in  the  surbase  requires  no  stoj),  the 
front  stopping  itself  against  the  fore  edges.  The  stops  are  put  on  before  ^he  guides.  To 
do  this  a  gauge  is  used  with  a  groove  in  the  head,  close  to  the  shank  or  stalk,  to  admit 
the  projecting  bead  on  the  drawer  front.  The  drawer  is  turned  bottom  up,  and  with  this 
gauge  a  line  is  drawn  from  the  front  over  the  mahogany  blocking  glued  to  the  bottom 
behind  the  front,  the  gauge  being  set  a  little  bit  less  than  the  width  of  the  front  and 
blocking.  The  piece  thus  marked  ofi"  is  carefully  pared  to  the  gauge  line.  This  being 
done  with  all  4  drawers,  the  slielves  are  also  gauged  from  the  front  edge  with  the  same 
setting  of  gauge,  and  the  stops  glued  and  nailed  on  at  the  gauge  lines.  They  will  thus 
stop  the  drawers  exactly  flush  with  the  face  of  the  carcase,  the  beads  only  projecting. 
The  top  drawer  (that  between  the  circular  blocks)  stands  out  1  in.  beyond  the  face  of 
the  carcase — consequently  for  this  drawer  the  stops  are  1  in.  nearer  the  front  of  the 
shelf. 

All  the  drawers  being  now  in  their  places,  provide  mouldings  and  carvings.  When 
mouldings  or  other  projections  are  stuck  on  flat  surfaces,  the  surfaces  are  French- 
polished  before  "  planting "  the  moulding ;  the  mouldings  are  also  well  coated  witlx 
polish.  This  method  is  adopted  because  the  fewer  obstructions  to  the  polishing-rubber 
the  better  the  result.  Another  advantage  is,  the  glue  will  not  stick  to  a  polished 
aurface,  so  any  superfluous  glue,  smeared  about  in  putting  on  the  mouldings,  is  easily 
cleaned  off.  In  the  present  job,  the  exact  place  of  the  mouldings  is  marked  lightly  with 
a  drawpoint  both  outside  and  inside ;  the  space  between  the  markings  is  cleaned  of 
polish,  and  toothed.  The  mouldings  are  carefully  mitred  to  length  on  a  mitre  board, 
and  before  glueing  they  are  heated  at  the  fire,  the  glue  being  applied  to  the  drawer  front. 
If  the  mouldings  are  straight  on  the  glueing  side  they  will  ouly  require  to  be  held  firmly 
down  with  the  hands  for  a  minute  or  two.  If  inclined  to  warp,  pieces  of  pine,  12  in. 
long,  are  placed  across  them,  and  hand-screws  applied  to  the  ends.  The  drawer  in  the 
surbase  receives  a  moulding  1|  in.  broad  and  -|  in.  thick.  There  are  various  forms  of 
mouldings  used.  The  moulding  is  mitred  on  the  dr.iwer  front,  the  double  mitres  towards 
the  oentre  having  a  break  of  f  in.     The  2  end  portions  form  a  square  of  8  in. — con- 


380 


Cabinet-making — Examples. 


693. 


sequently  a  margin  of  2  in.  is  left  outside  of  this  portion  of  tlie  moulding,  and  2|  in, 
along  the  centre.  The  2  knobs  are  placed  exactly  in  the  centre  of  these  squares.  These 
mouldings  are  fixed  on  the  face  of  the  drawer  with  glue  alone,  the  surface  for  nearly 
the  breadth  of  the  moulding  being  scraped  and  toothed,  as  also  the  back  of  the  moulding. 
When  the  mouldings  are  "  planted  "  and  hard,  all  the  mitres  are  carefully  dressed  oil 
and  papered.  Next  put  on  the  guides.  All  the  drawers  being  stopped  in  their  proper 
places,  as  above  described,  the  guides,  IS  in.  long,  are  bored  for  3  or  4  nails.  A  little 
glue  is  applied  to  each  guide,  care  being  taken  that  no  glue  is  allowed  to  spread  and 
come  in  contact  with  the  drawer  sides  ;  the  guides  are  rubbed  in  from  the  back,  pressing 
against  the  drawer  sides;  they  are  pushed  forward  to  touch  the  back  of  the  ground. 
Aftei  they  stand  for  J  hour  or  so  all 'the  drawers  are  taken  out,  and  the  guides  nailed 
with  Ig-in.  wrought  nails.  Screws  are  better,  but  are  hardly  ever  put  in.  After  this  the 
surbase  and  body  or  upper  carcase  receive  the  back  lining.  This  may  consist  of  5  |-in. 
narrow  yellow  pine  boards.  A  first-class  back  would  be  framed  and  panelled.  The 
surbase  back  consists  of  1  board  only,  running  horizontally,  while  the  carcase  back  in 
narrow  wood  runs  vertically.  A  fillet  is  glued  to  the  under  side  of  the  top  to  receive  the 
upper  ends  of  the  back  lining.  They  are  nailed  witli  IJ-in.  cut  nails.  The  cedar  end& 
of  drawers  being  of  reddish-brown  colour,  the  pine  wood,  that  is  the  inside  of  front,  back 
and  bottom,  is  stained  the  same  hue.  This  stain  consists  of  Venetian  red  and  yellow  ochre, 
equal  parts,  with  a  little  thin  glue 
and  water.  It  is  made  to  boil,  and 
is  applied  hot  to  the  wood  with  a  rag ; 
after  standing  a  few  minutes,  the 
residue  is  rubbed  off  with  more  rag, 
and  is  stroked  in  the  direction  of  the 
grain ;  when  quite  dry,  it  is  pajjered 
with  flour  paper.  All  wood  that  is 
to  be  stained  nmst  be  particularly 
well  planed  and  sandpapered,  as  the 
stains  at  once  show  up  defects.  The 
same  rule  holds  with  all  work  to  be 
painted  or  varnished. 

Wardrobe. — The  description  of 
the  making  of  a  6J-ft.  break-front 
wardrobe  in  solid  wood,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  698,  by  W.  Parnell,  received  a 
prize  from  the  Cabinet-maker.  It  is 
as  follows. 

When  you  have  your  job  set  out, 
get  and  cut  out  the  whole  of  the  ma- 
terial necessary  to  make  it,  choosing 
(if  the  choice  is  left  to  you)  dry  and 
well-seasoned  wood  for  every  part. 
Next  shoot  and  glue  all  joints,  glue 
on  all  facings  on  inside  ends  and 
tops  and  bottoms ;  on  the  2  ends  of 
the  centre  carcase  it  will  be  necessary 
to  joint  a  piece  of  solid  wood  to  the 
front  edge  to  allow  for  theextra  widtii 
of  that  carcase ;  this  piece  must  be 

31  in.  wide,  and  of  the  same  wood  as  the  exterior  of  the  job,  whatever  it  may  be.  Your 
joints  and  glueings  being  all  done,  plane  up  to  the  proper  thickness  the  whole  of  the 
wood,  shooting  the  front  edge  of  each  piece  straight  and  square.     Do  not  bring  your 


Cabinet-making — Examples.  381 

carcase  stuff  to  the  exact  width  until  after  it  is  squared  off ;  but  you  may  bring  the  stuff 
for  the  plinth  and  cornice  frames  to  tlie  rijjht  width,  also  the  door  stuff,  allowin"-  the 
stiles  yV  ^^-  'wider  than  the  finished  size,  for  fitting. 

When  you  have  all  your  wood  planed,  proceed  to  make  the  plinth  and  cornice  frames  : 
these  are  in  pine,  therefore  make  them  h  in.  shorter  than  the  finished  size  ;  let  the  front 
rail  of  the  plinth  and  cornice  frames  n;n  the  whole  length  less  the  h  in.  Exactly  as  if 
you  were  going  to  make  a  straight-front  wardrobe,  dovetail  the  front  and  ends  together, 
dovetail  the  back  rail  down  at  such  a  distance  from  the  back  ends  of  the  end  rail  as 
will  admit  of  a  block  being  glued  behind  it ;  allow  the  cross  dovetails  to  go  just  "  hand 
tight,"  for  when  they  are  too  tight  they  are  apt  to  force  the  end  of  the  rail  out  and  make 
it  crooked;  dovetail  down  2  cross  rails  to  come  between  the  carcases,  allow  the  plinth, 
back,  and  cross  rails  to  be  1  in.  wider  than  the  front  and  end  rails  to  allow  them  to 
stand  level  with  the  plinth  mouldings,  and  the  back  and  cross  rails  of  the  cornice  frame 
to  stand  down  ^  in.  to  be  level  with  the  moulding  under  the  cornice.  Prepare  your 
break  pieces  for  the  cornice  and  plinth,  lining  them  up  at  each  end  to  3  in.  thick ; 
let  the  linings  go  the  same  way  of  the  grain  as  the  fronts,  and  be  5-7  in.  long; 
square  the  breaks  up  I  in.  shorter  than  finished  length,  and  fit  them  in  their  exact 
positions,  with  2  dowels,  one  at  each  end,  but  do  not  glue  them  yet.  Glue  your  plinth 
and  cornice  frames  together ;  set  them  square,  glue  a  block  in  each  corner,  and  put  them 
on  one  side  whilst  you  proceed  with  your  doors ;  set  out  the  stiles  and  rails  from  your 
board,  gauge  for  the  mortices  and  tenons,  so  that  the  outside  of  the  tenon  comes  in  a 
line  with  the  inside  of  the  door  moulding,  which  will  bring  the  tenon  almost  in  the 
centre  of  the  thickness  of  the  stuff.  The  top  rail  of  the  centre  door  will  be  as  much 
thinner  as  the  moulding  is  rebated  so  as  to  allow  for  the  arched  head,  which  will  be  a 
piece  of  thin  wood  grooved  into  the  stiles  with  a  shoulder  on  the  front  side  only,  and  after 
the  door  is  glued  together,  to  be  slid  down  from  the  top  and  glued  to  the  face  of  the 
top  rail ;  this  will  allow  the  glass  panel  to  be  square.  Before  glueing  your  doors  to- 
gether, put  them  up  dry  and  see  that  they  are  true  ;  otherwise,  when  they  are  glued  you 
may  perhaps  have  a  good  bit  of  trouble  with  them.  The  small  corners  in  the  wing  doors 
should  be  the  same  thickness  as  the  head  in  the  centre  door,  and  should  be  tongued 
into  the  stiles,  but  need  not  be  to  the  rail,  as  it  is  the  same  way  of  the  grain,  and  if  well 
jointed  and  glued  will  hold  as  well.  "When  you  have  glued  your  doors  together,  and 
seen  that  they  are  true  and  square,  and  that  the  stiles  are  straight  with  the  rails, 
proceed  to  mitre  a  piece  of  wood  J  in.  thick,  of  the  same  sort  as  the  exterior  of  the  job, 
Tound  your  plinth  and  cornice  frames  ;  next  make  the  frames  for  the  carcase,  backs,  and 
blind  frame  for  the  centre  door ;  make  your  mortices  and  cut  your  tenons  before 
ploughing  the  grooves  in  the  edges  to  receive  the  panels.  In  putting  the  centre  upright 
and  cross  rails  together  for  the  centre  carcase,  back  and  blind  frame,  allow  the  cross 
rail  to  cut  through  the  upright,  if  halved  together,  so  that  it  may  appear  as  though  the 
upright  was  in  2  pieces  and  mortised  into  the  cross  rail,  which  is  done  in  some  shops, 
but  preferably  halved  together.  When  you  have  your  frames  ready,  knock  them  together, 
dry,  and  hang  them  up  out  of  the  way. 

Now  work  your  mouldings ;  and  in  working  the  mouldings  for  tlie  doors  plough  a 
groove  on  the  reverse  side,  so  that  when  the  moulding  is  cut  off  the  board  it  will  form 
a  rebate  to  rest  on  the  doorstile.  When  jou  have  worked  and  cleaned  up  all  the 
mouldings  necessary  for  the  job,  proceed  to  mitre  and  glue  on  those  for  the  plinth  and 
cornice,  taking  care  that  for  the  internal  mitres  you  use  parts  of  the  same  length  of 
moulding,  so  that  they  may  intersect  without  requiring  any  easing  ;  do  not  at  present 
glue  the  internal  mitres,  but  when  the  mouldings  are  all  on  the  frames  take  off 
the  break  pieces,  easing  the  moulding  at  the  mitres  if  necessary,  and  now  glue  the 
breaks  on,  and  when  dry  level  off  any  odding,  and  put  the  plinth  and  cornice  on  one 
side. 

Nest  clean  up  the  doors  on  the  front  sides,  merely  levelling  the  backs,  and  put  iu 


382  Cabinet-making — Examples. 

the  mouldings.  Square  up  all  the  stuif  for  the  carcases  and  fittings  with  the  exception 
of  drawers,  tray  and  peg-rail  fronts  and  backs,  and  one  end  of  drawers  and  tray 
bottoms.  In  squaring  the  top,  shelf  and  bottom  of  the  centre  carcase,  allow  them  to 
be  a  trifle  large  at  the  back  so  that  the  drawers  and  trays  may  run  freely,  but  it  must 
be  very  little,  not  more  than  the  thickness  of  veneer  (Jj  in.),  otherwise  it  will  have  the 
contrary  etiect  of  giving  them  too  much  play.  Make  the  carcase  tops  and  bottoms  |  in. 
shorter  than  the  extreme  length  of  the  carcase,  to  allow  yV"^'^-  ^^P  *^°  ®^^^  carcase  end ; 
and  the  shelves  and  partition  edges  f  in.  longer  than  the  length  of  the  carcase  between 
the  ends,  to  allow  |  in.  at  each  end  for  a  dovetail. 

Gauge  for  the  dovetails,  and  cut  first  those  in  the  ends  and  chop  them  out ;  next 
jilace  the  top  and  bottom  of  a  carcase  on  the  bench  inside  uppermost,  stand  the  corre- 
sponding carcase  end  in  position,  and  mark  the  dovetails  on  the  top  and  bottom  with  a 
marking-awl,  repeating  the  process  till  you  have  marked  all ;  then  cut  the  dovetails, 
taking  care  to  cut  to  the  lines  and  allowing  them  to  be  tighten  the  outsides  so  that  they 
may  glue  up  clean  and  fit  well.  It  is  preferable  not  to  cut  the  shoulders  at  tlie  front 
and  back  now,  as  unless  great  care  is  taken  you  may,  before  you  are  ready  to  glue  up, 
find  the  corners  knocked  off  the  outside  dovetails ;  chop  out  your  dovetails  in  the  tops 
and  bottoms. 

Now  take  your  carcase  ends  in  pairs  and  set  out  for  the  drawers,  trays  and  peg-rails, 
squaring  them  across  the  front  edges  with  a  maiking-awl  lightly,  to  mark  where  the 
grooves  come ;  then  square  across  the  width  of  the  end  inside  and  run  the  grooves ; 
those  for  the  trays  and  peg-rails  -^  in.  deep,  and  right  through  from  front  to  back  ;  for 
the  runners  between  the  drawers,  the  same  depth,  but  commencing  4  in.  from  the  front 
edge ;  and  those  for  the  shelves  f  in.  deep,  and  also  commencing  4  in.  from  the 
front  edge.  Chop  down  from  4  to  7J  in.  from  the  front  edge,  in  the  grooves  for 
the  runners  between  the  drawers,  to  J  in.  deep,  to  receive  partition  edges.  Cut 
a  dovetail  on  the  under  side,  to  1  in.  from  the  front  edge,  but  cut  the  top  side 
straight  in  a  line  with  the  groove,  so  you  will  have  a  dovetail  on  the  under  side  of  tlie 
partition  edge  only ;  having  cut  the  dovetails  in  the  ends,  put  the  partition  edges  in 
their  respective  places,  and  mark  the  dovetail  on  them.  Cut  them  so  that  they  fit,  but 
not  too  tight,  for  if  they  are  too  tight  they  will  force  the  partition  edge  out  of  square 
when  di-iven  home,  and  that  would  interfere  with  the  proper  working  of  the  drawers. 
Plough  grooves  on  the  back  edges  and  also  on  edges  of  runners  for  dust-boards.  Cut  a 
shoulder  on  the  front  edges  to  fit  between  the  carcase  end  ^  in.  back,  that  it  will  allow 
the  edge  to  come  within  f  in.  of  the  front  edge  of  the  carcase  ends,  the  shelves  to  be 
kei^t  back  ia  the  same  manner,  having  a  dovetail  of  the  same  sort  on  their  ends.  The 
division  between  the  drawers  may  be  dovetailed  Loth  sides  into  the  edge  and  shelf. 

Eebate  the  back  edges  of  the  outside  carcase  ends,  bringing  them  to  their  proper 
width ;  bring  also  the  other  ends,  tops,  bottoms  and  shelves  to  their  proper  widths, 
and  clean  up  all  the  deal  that  requires  to  be  coloured  (make  your  colour  or  have  it  made 
so  that  it  may  be  ready  by  the  time  you  have  cleaned  tlie  wood,  and  in  sufiScient  quantity 
to  do  the  whole,  so  that  you  may  have  the  inside  of  the  job  one  colour)  ;  before  using 
the  colour,  try  it  on  a  piece  of  wood  to  see  if  it  is  right,  and  also  if  there  is  sufficient  glue 
in  it  to  prevent  its  being  rubbed  off  when  dry.  When  you  have  cleaned  up  all  the 
parts  that  require  colouring,  commence  to  colour,  wiping  it  off  with  soft  shavings,  and 
smoothing  it  nicely  with  the  palm  of  yoiu-  hand.  When  the  whole  is  coloured,  clean 
up  your  outside  ends  inside  and  out,  also  your  drawer  stuff  if  not  already  done ;  by  the 
time  you  have  done  that  the  colour  will  be  dry.  Take  the  panels  for  the  backs,  lightly 
pass  a  piece  of  very  fine  glasspaper  over  the  insides,  and,  if  customary  in]  the  shop, 
wax  them ;  then  glue  up  your  carcase  backs.  Serve  the  remainder  of  your  coloured  work 
the  same  as  you  did  the  panels,  also  waxing  the  inside  of  the  solid  ends  where  seen, 
and  cutting  shoulders  of  tops  and  bottoms.  Level  the  frames  outside  and  in,  clean  up 
and  colour  the  insides. 


Cabinet-jiaking — Examples.  383 

Commence  to  glue  your  carcases  together.  A  very  handy  way  of  doing  so  is  to  Iny 
one  end  on  the  bench  (of  course  if  it  is  the  outside  one  you  must  have  either  a  clotli 
or  bench  sticks  under  it),  hand-screw  it  tightly  to  the  bench,  and  glue  tlic  dovetails  at 
one  end ;  drive  in  the  corresponding  top  or  bottom  and  tlien  the  other  end.  Take  off 
the  hand-screws,  place  the  other  end  of  the  carcase  under  the  one  you  now  have  on  the 
bench,  and  then  turn  over  the  end  with  the  top  and  bottom  glued  in,  and  glue  them  into 
the  other.  Put  in  your  shelf  (if  there  is  one),  glueing  the  dovetail  only  in  the  groove  ; 
place  the  carcase  on  its  face  on  the  floor,  square  it  with  a  rod  from  corner  to  corner, 
fit  tlie  back,  and  having  waxed  the  frame  inside,  screw  it  in  its  place  and  level  it  off. 

"When  glueing  the  centre  carcase  together,  commence  as  with  tlie  others,  but  when  you 
have  turned  it  over  to  glue  the  top  and  bottom  into  the  second  end,  put  your  partition 
edges  into  the  places  cut  behind  the  dovetails  to  receive  them  ;  then  glue  and  drive  home 
your  toj)  and  bottom,  glue  the  dovetails  and  drive  up  the  partition  edges,  put  in 
your  shelf,  glueing  the  dovetail  only ;  place  and  glue  the  division  between  the  drawers 
in  its  position.  Stand  the  carcase  on  the  floor  on  2  pieces  of  wood,  set  it  square,  and 
proceed  to  put  the  runners  in  their  places,  cutting  a  tenon  |  in.  long  on  the  front  ends 
of  them  to  fit  in  the  plough-groove  at  the  back  of  the  partition  edge  ;  plane  the  runner 
a  shaving  or  so  thinner  at  the  back  than  the  front,  and  fix  it  in  its  place  ;  glue  the  tenon 
only,  and  nail  the  back  end  to  the  end  of  the  carcase.  Put  the  centre  runner  in  with 
a  tenon  at  the  front,  and  suspend  it  at  the  back  with  a  thin  lath  dovetailed  into  the 
back  edge  of  the  shelf  and  end  of  runner;  allow  this  lath  to  be  just  a  trifle  longer 
between  the  shoulders  than  the  front  division  ;  it  may  be  IJ  in.  wide.  Now  fit  and  put 
the  dust-boards  in,  putting  a  touch  of  glue  to  the  front  edge  to  prevent  their  slipping  back 
should  they  shrink.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  runners  are  at  least  |  in.  shorter  than 
the  width  of  the  ends ;  when  in  their  places,  lay  your  carcase  on  its  face,  see  that  it  still 
remains  square,  fit  the  back,  wax  the  frame  where  necessary,  and  screw  it  in  and  level 
it.  Now  level  the  fronts,  tops  and  bottoms  of  each  carcase,  cleaning  as  you  go ;  place 
your  plinth  on  the  floor  where  your  wardrobe  is  to  stand,  and  put  the  centre  carcase  on 
it,  arrange  it  in  position  and  fix  it  there  ;  next  place  and  fix  the  2  wings  to  the  plintli, 
put  the  cornice  on  the  toiD,  place  it  in  its  proper  position,  and  fix  the  carcases  to  it,  and 
to  each  other,  putting  screws  where  necessary,  but  not  more  than  are  necessary.  Now 
block  the  carcases  to  the  plinth  and  cornice,  with  4  blocks  about  2J  in.  sq.  on  the  top 
and  bottom  of  each  carcase,  so  that  when  the  job  is  removed  each  carcase  will  imme- 
diately go  into  its  proper  position.  Wlien  that  is  done,  wedge  tlie  wardrobe  up  so  that  it 
stands  true  on  the  front  and  perpendicular,  glue  a  lath  I  in.  thick  by  Ih  in.  wide,  with 
bead  or  edge  to  the  ends  of  the  centre  carcase  in  the  angle  formed  by  the  wing,  and 
proceed  to  fit  your  drawers,  trays  and  peg-rails,  and  finish  them  right  off,  but  if  possible, 
when  you  are  ready  to  glue  your  drawers  together,  let  in  the  handles  in  the  fronts 
before  doing  so,  as  it  is  easier  and  quicker,  for  you  can  lay  the  front  on  the  bench  to  do 
it ;  when  your  drawers,  &c.,  are  finished,  not  forgetting  the  stops,  which  should  allow 
them  to  stand  in  i  in.  beyond  the  front  of  partition  edges  and  shelves.  The  peg-rails 
standing  back  about  ^  in.  from  the  edge  of  carcase,  proceed  to  make  the  clothes-well : 
first  the  top  should  be  clamped  at  each  end,  with  a  frame  outside  it  consisting  of  a  back 
and  2  end  pieces  tenoned  together  exactly  like  the  lid  of  a  w.c. ;  glue  2  runners  1  ft.  3  in. 
long  to  the  carcase  ends,  +  in.  from  the  front  edsro  and  .t  in.  wider  than  the  side  rails  of  the 
top  frame,  having  a  plough-groove  on  the  edge  -|  in.  deep  to  receive  a  sliding  fiont  |  in. 
thick  ;  fit  in  the  front  and  cut  a  hand-hole  at  the  top  to  draw  it  up  by  ;  fit  the  top  into 
top  frame  and  hinge  it  at  the  back ;  place  tlie  top  frame  in  its  position,  resting  on  the 
runners  at  the  front,  screw  through  the  carcase  back  into  the  back  rail,  and  glue  blocks 
under  the  side  rails  to  fasten  them  to  the  carcase  ends.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  glue  the 
rails  across  the  ends.  Next  fit  your  doors,  in  doing  which  allow  them  to  be  a  full 
thickness  of  a  veneer  (^\  in.)  short,  so  that  they  may  not  drag  on  the  plinth,  and  allow 
them  to  be  a  trifle  wide,  so  that  they  just  project  beyond  the  carcase  end.    When  hinging 


384  Cabinet-making — Examples 

them,  keep  tliem  up  tight  under  the  cornice ;  but  previous  to  doing  that,  when  your 
doors  are  fitted,  glue  on  the  pilasters,  tit  iu  tlie  panels,  fit  blind  frame,  and  clean  them  uji, 
and  when  your  doors  are  up  with  hinges  and  locks  all  iu  working  order,  place  them  in 
their  respective  positions.  Make  the  beads  for  fixing  them  there,  and  then  if  you  have 
to  satisfy  any  one  but  yourself,  ask  the  foreman  or  employer  (as  the  case  may  be)  to 
examine  it,  and  afterwards  take  the  job  to  pieces,  colour  the  outside,  and  you  have 
finished  the  task.  The  choice  of  wood  for  the  structure  and  designs  of  the  mouldings 
do  not  afi"ect  the  mode  of  construction. 

Sideboard. — Fig.  G99  illustrates  the  construction  of  a  7-ft.  pedestal  sideboard  with 
3-panel  back.  The  description  gained  for  W.  Eobinson  a  prize  in  the  Cabinet-maher. 
Having  set  out  the  work  full  size,  first  proceed  to  get  out  the  top,  which  is  a  piece  of 
1-in.  stuif,  7  ft.  long,  and  shot  to  2  ft.  2  iu.  broad.  This,  when  finished,  has  a  2-in. 
ovolo  on  the  top  edge,  and  a  i-in.  bead  sunk  on  the  face  edge.  Get  out  some  |-in.  stufl', 
4^  in.  wide,  and  line  it  up  on  the  under  side  of  the  top,  letting  the  end  lining  run  the 
same  way  of  the  grain  as  the  top.  Cross  line  the  top  also  over  the  inside  end  of  the 
pedestals  ;  this  and  the  back  lining  may  be  pine.  Next  proceed  to  get  out  the  drawer 
frame.  It  will  be  made  of  1-in.  pine,  and  its  extreme  length,  with  its  end  facings  out, 
will  be  G  ft.  5  in.,  and  its  extreme  breadth  from  the  outside  of  back  to  the  front  edge 
of  the  top  blade  will  be  1  ft.  lOJ  in. ;  the  lower  blade  sets  back  2  in.  In  getting  out 
the  cross  rails  of  the  frame,  frame  a  piece  of  2-in.  stufi',  5  in.  wide  on  one  end,  cross- 
ways  of  the  grain,  and  in  putting  the  frame  together  let  the  flush  sides  of  the  cross 
rails  go  next  the  centre  drawer  and  the  outside  ends  respectively.  When  all  is  fitted, 
place  the  4  cross  rails  side  by  side,  and  shape  all  together,  and  leave  them  with  the 
carver  to  run  3  flutes  -J"^  in.  wide  on  each.  Next  proceed  to  get  out  the  pedestals. 
These  are  simply  a  frame,  with  the  stiles  of  2-iu.  scantling,  with  1^-in.  cross  framing, 
precisely  the  same  as  the  door,  the  panels  being  §  in.  thick,  and  bevelled  iu  \\  in.  from 
their  edges.  Clean  off  the  face  of  the  panels,  and  finish  off  the  mouldings,  and  let  the 
polisher  body  them  in. 

In  the  meantime  the  framing  can  be  got  on  with.  The  top  and  bottom  rails  run 
across,  and  are  framed  into  the  pilasters  or  angle  pieces,  and  the  stiles  are  checked  or 
sunk  into  the  pilaster  \  in.  (see  section  of  pedestal).  The  inner  frame  is  connected  with 
the  outer  frame  by  4  short  rails.  Note  :  the  end  panels  are  framed  in  grooves,  but  the 
door  panels  are  framed  or  fastened  in  with  beads.  Having  got  the  panels  from  the 
polisher,  frame  the  1^-in.  framing  together,  and  mitre  the  mouldings  ofiered  to  the  top, 
give  all  to  the  polisher,  and  when  done  screw  the  side  panels  to  the  centre  panel, 
islace  on  its  face,  and  block  in  the  silvered  glass ;  put  on  the  blind  frames,  then  screw 
the  job  all  together.  Screw  the  brackets,  pediment,  &c.,  on,  and  see  that  the  doors 
work  easily,  and  the  locks  are  oiled.  The  doors  may  be  hung  with  centre  hinges,  or 
with  strong  brass  butts,  3  in.  long,  letting  the  knuckle  stand  out  i  in.  past  its  centre  of 
motion,  and  an  ornamental  hinge  plate  screwed  in,  &c.,  first  having  cleaned  off  the  face, 
and  got  it  bodied  in.  Now  proceed  to  frame  the  pilasters  to  the  frames,  and  having 
dovetailed  the  top  and  bottom  to  the  ends,  clean  all  off,  and  let  the  carver  flute  tkem, 
and  cut  the  elliptic  pateras  in  the  centres. 

The  doors  may  now  be  got  out,  of  course  letting  the  stiles  run  through. 

As  the  moulding  forms  the  rebate  for  the  panels,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  panels 
will  be  narrower  by  ^  in.  on  each  edge  than  the  pedestal  panels  were,  in  consequence 
of  no  groove  being  in  the  stiles,  &c. 

The  frame  may  now  be  taken  in  hand,  the  drawer  fronts  fitted  on  the  rake,  and 
the  drawer  sides  fitted  and  shot  to  their  proper  shape,  the  front  dovetails  being  on 
the  rake  in  order  to  take  the  front. 

Get  out  4  blocks  the  same  shape  as  the  blocks  between  the  drawers,  and  glue  them 
on  to  the  ends  of  the  frame  over  the  pilasters.  Now  get  out  2  mock  drawer  fronts,  and 
■fix  them  between  them,  and  face  the  frame  to  represent  the  blades  over  and  under 


Cabinet-making— Examples. 


385 


the  drawer,     (Note  that  the  blades  have  a  sunk  bead  on  the  centre  of  their  faces  ) 
The  plinth  rails  may  now  be  got  out  and  fixed,  as  also  tlio  bases  of  the  pilasters 

To  make  the  bases,  get  out  a  piece  of  cross-gruiu  stuff,  -U  in.  wide  by  1  in  thick 


699. 


and  about  2  ft.  2  in.  wide,  and  run  the  moulding  along  the  edge,  and  then  cut  it 
in  lengths,  and  fix  them,  leaving  their  sides  flush  with  the  pilasters.  The  trays 
and  cellarette  drawer  may  now  be  made,  the  frame  cleaned  off,  and  pieces  fitted  on 

2  0 


386  Cabinet-making — Examples. 

the  fronts  &c.,  and  carved  as  drajiery.  The  flutes  on  the  fronts  of  the  drawers  can 
then  be  carved,  and  the  ram's  head  and  angle  brackets,  and  centre  ornament  under 
drawer,  finished. 

The  door  mouldings  may  now  be  mitred  in,  and  the  panels  bevelled  ^  in.  from 
the  edge.  Place  the  frame  on  the  bench,  and  put  on  the  runners  for  the  drawers, 
and  afterwards  place  it  on  the  jiedestals  and  block  it  in  its  place.  Now  fit  and  hang 
the  doors,  &c.,  and  let  the  carver  have  them  to  cut  the  circular  pateras  at  the  angles. 

After  this  take  the  top,  shoot  the  back  edge,  joint  2  pieces  of  stuff  3J  in.  long 
by  1|  in.  wide  at  each  end,  and  run  the  mouldings  through.  These  are  to  finish 
the  top  off  level  with  the  plate  glass  back.  The  top  and  frame  may  now  be  finally 
screwed  together,  the  drawers  run  and  stopjied,  and  their  fittings  put  on.  The  carcase 
backs  of  the  pedestals  may  be  put  in,  levelled,  and  coloured,  and  all  given  to  the  polisher. 

The  back  is  composed  of  3  frames,  the  groundwork  of  which  is  1^-in.  stuff;  the 
2  outside  frames  have  their  outside  stiles  faced  on  the  outer  edge  by  a  pilaster,  2  in.  sq., 
and  which  projects  2  in.  above  the  toji  of  the  frame  to  receive  the  carved  urn.  The 
breadth  of  the  outside  frames,  including  the  jjilaster,  is  1  ft.  8  in.,  and  the  extreme 
height  is  2  ft.  2  in.,  exclusive  of  the  pilaster.  These  2  frames  are  faced  with  |-in. 
stufi"  and  the  bevelled  glass  is  surrounded  by  a  moulding.  The  pilaster  is  carved  and 
fluted,  and  the  dentilled  cornice  then  mitred  round  the  top,  showing  a  |-in.  break.  A 
small  console  is  placed  at  the  bottom  as  a  suitable  finish. 

The  centre  frame  is  got  out  of  the  same  stuff  as  the  side  frames,  viz.  l^-in.,  and 
faced  with  |-in.  stuff.  In  getting  out  this  frame,  the  breadth  must  be  ^  in.  narrower 
than  the  finished  size,  in  order  to  allow  a  side  facing  to  hide  the  joint  of  the  ground- 
work and  its  front  facing.  The  extreme  height  of  this  frame  will  be  3  ft.  9  in.,  and  the 
extreme  breadth  3  ft.  1  in.  Now  glue  2  pilasters  3  ft.  7  in.  long  by  2  in.  sq.  on  the 
face,  keeping  them  flush  on  the  top  ends,  also  on  the  outsides  ;  and  on  the  faces  of  these 
two,  glue  2  shaped  pilasters  of  same  length,  but  only  2  in.  by  Ih  in.  Mitre  the  cornice 
round,  and  also  the  necking,  and  leave  a  break  of  2  in.  at  the  centre.  This  tablet  is  to 
be  3|  in.  wide. 

The  edge  of  the  facing  on  the  centre  frame  is  a  ^-in.  hollow.  Get  out  the  ogee 
pediment,  and  fit  the  looping  of  drapery  to  the  urn,  and  give  all  other  carvings,  &c., 
to  the  carver.  Note  that  it  is  always  better  to  have  the  glass  before  finishing  the  sight 
measurements,  as  the  bevels  can  be  matched  to  mitre  with  the  mouldings,  and  a  more 
even  margin  secured. 

CAHVING  AND  FRETWORK.— These  artistic  operations  may  be  described 
luider  one  general  head,  as  they  deal  mainly  with  the  same  material — elegant  woods? 
and  can  be  carried  on  together. 

Carving. — This  is  an  industry  which  essentially  depends  upon  the  native  talent  of 
the  operator,  and  in  which  no  progress  can  be  made  by  simply  following  directions. 
It  will  be  found  an  excellent  plan  to  make  a  model  in  clay  of  the  proposed  design,  and 
then  carve  the  wood  according  to  the  clay  model,  which  latter  can  be  modified  till  it 
gives  satisfaction.  The  subject  of  carving  may  be  divided  into  Woods,  Tools,  and 
Operations. 

Woods. — The  choice  of  the  woods  to  bo  operated  upon  is  a  point  of  considerable 
importance,  and  the  workman  would  do  well  to  study  the  various  woods  and  their 
lieculiarities. 

Camphor. — A  very  fine  wood,  with  a  close  clean-cutting  grain.  It  produces  an 
excellent  efiect  when  worked  into  small  articles  of  furniture  of  the  Elizabethan  and 
neo-Grecian  style.     Unfortunately,  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  in  Europe. 

Ebony. — Of  this  wood  there  are  several  varieties  in  the  market,  the  only  one 
serviceable  to  the  carver  being  that  with  a  close  and  even  grain,  so  close  indeed,  that 
under  the  gouge  it  appears  to  have  no  fibre  whatever.  The  hardness  renders  it  extremely 
difficult  to  work,  and  for  this  reason  ebony  carvings  are  of  great  value.    The  great 


Carving— Woods.  387 

<3efect  wliich  this  wood  has,  is  its  tendency  to  exfoliate,  and  to  split.  An  imitation  ebony 
is  sometimes  offered,  which  is  made  by  soaking  pear-wood  in  an  iron  and  tannin  dye-beck 
for  a  week  or  more.  The  colour  penetrates  to  the  very  heart  of  the  wood,  so  that  the 
cut  is  as  black  as  ebony.  Ebony  is  above  all  woods  the  most  suitable  for  email  carvings 
of  every  description,  whether  for  use  or  ornament,  tlio  deep  black  colour  and  the 
hardness  and  fine  texture  of  grain  giviug  it,  when  polished,  the  appearance  of  black 
marble.  This  wood  is  also  somewhat  difficult  to  procure  in  large  blocks — not,  however, 
on  account  of  the  growth  of  the  tree,  which  is  very  large,  but,  either  from  the  careless- 
ness of  those  who  are  employed  in  felling  it,  or  the  extreme  heat  to  which  it  is  exposed 
it  rarely  arrives  here  in  logs  of  any  size  that  are  not  more  or  less  riven  and  spoilt  by 
cracks  and  flaws — "  shakes,"  as  they  are  termed  in  timber  merchants'  jmrlance.  There 
are  two  kinds  of  ebony — the  green  and  black ;  of  these  the  former  is  for  some  reason 
the  more  highly  prized,  and  consequently  is  the  more  expensive;  but  for  carving 
purposes  there  is  little  or  nothing  to  choose  between  them;  they  are  both  equally 
pleasant  to  use,  but  the  blacker,  being  the  harder  of  the  two,  is  capable  of  taking  a 
higher  polish,  its  only  drawback  being  an  occasional  white  or  red  streak,  but  tlieso  are 
rare,  and  can  be  obliterated  by  applying  a  little  ink  to  the  spot  after  the  carving  is  done. 
Black,  or  iron  wood,  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  is  a  species  of  ebony,  but  has  little  to 
recommend  it  but  its  extreme  hardness  and  weight ;  indeed,  on  the  former  account  it 
should  rather  be  shunned  by  the  carver,  as  it  will  turn  the  edge  of  the  tools. 

Lime. — The  easiest  of  all  woods  to  work,  being  soft  and  equal  under  the  tool.  But 
it  is  of  little  use  for  delicate  work,  as  it  does  not  "  hold  "  to  fine  details ;  for  that  reason 
it  is  only  used  for  frames,  or  at  most  for  coarse  undercut  work,  which  has  neitlier  to  bear 
heavy  weights  nor  sustain  much  wear.  The  tint  of  this  wood  is  something  like  that  of 
fresh  butter.  It  is  less  liable  to  split  and  splinter  than  almost  any  other  wood,  which 
qualities  render  it  of  great  utility  to  carvers  for  carrying  out  designs  when  lightness  and 
boldness  are  equally  required.  It  takes  a  stain  well,  and  a  fair  polish,  or  it  may  be 
varnished  without  greatly  altering  the  colour  of  the  wood,  but  giving  to  it  a  very 
agreeable  boxwood  appearance.  It  is  suitable,  as  well  as  for  large  festoons,  for  smaller 
works,  such  as  book-stands,  miniature  and  portrait  frames. 

Mahogany,  owing  to  its  tendency  to  cliiji,  when  reduced  to  thin  edges  or  angles,  is 
only  used  for  carvings  having  a  bold  outline,  in  which  fine  projecting  lines  are  not  requisite. 
There  are  two  very  distinct  kinds.  That  suited  for  carving  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  common  soft  wood  known  as  cedar  mahogany,  used  for  ordinary  furniture,  but  is 
hard  and  dark,  and  known  as  Spanish.  This  wood  is  well  suited  for  basso  relievo,  as  is 
also  the  Spanish  chestnut,  the  two  woods,  when  polished,  being  much  alike,  though  the 
mahogany  is  of  a  somewhat  richer  colouring. 

Oak  is  so  well  known  as  not  to  require  description.  Its  strong  fibres  and  coarse 
texture  render  it  unfit  for  the  finer  kinds  of  sculpture.  The  most  adapted  to  the  pur- 
poses of  the  carver  is  perhaps  the  variety  found  in  the  Vosges.  Those  trees  which  grow 
in  the  heart  of  the  forests  produce  a  softer,  more  brittle  wood,  more  exempt  from  knots 
and  other  irregularities  than  those  which  grow  on  the  borders.  Foreign  oak  is  much  to  be 
preferred  to  home-grown  wood,  which  is  of  a  hard,  tough  nature,  and  liable  to  knots, 
which  are  a  great  impediment  to  the  carver,  and  from  which  the  American  and  Nor- 
wegian forest-grown  oak  is  comparatively  free.  These  oaks  may  be  known  by  the  close 
and  smooth  grain,  and  somewhat  grey  tinge,  the  English  wood  being  closer  grained  and 
of  a  yellower  colour.  Oak  is  especially  useful  for  decorative  work  in  library  or  large 
hall,  and,  above  all,  for  ecclesiastical  purposes. 

Pear. — This  wood,  owing  to  the  fineness  of  its  grain,  its  cohesivencss,  its  durability, 
and  its  equable  cut,  is  perhaps  the  best  for  all  delicate  work,  such  as  vegetation,  flowers, 
&c.  It  takes  a  beautiful  black  by  staining.  Much  pear  is  sold  as  ebony.  Pear-tree  is  a 
pleasant  wood  for  working,  and  a  good  piece  resembles  lime  in  its  pliability.  It  is 
€stensivelv  used  in  France  for  the  purposes  for  which  we  employ  lime. 

2  c  2 


388  Caeving— Woods. 

Sandal-wood,  from  tlie  texture,  beautiful  colour  (a  rich  yellow  brown),  and  the 
delicious  scent,  is  especially  suited  to  small  carvings.  The  superabundance  of  oil, 
which  emits  so  delightful  a  fragrance,  causes  it  also  to  take  a  beautiful  polish  merely  by 
rubbing  it  slightly  with  tlie  hand.  The  best  sandal-wood  is  brought  from  India  and 
Ceylon.  It  also,  like  ebony,  is  diiBcult  to  procure  in  sound  pieces.  It  is  sold,  as  are 
the  most  valuable  woods,  by  weight,  the  price  varying  from  6d.  to  Is.  per  lb.,  according 
to  the  size  and  soundness  of  the  logs.  Small  pieces  are  cheaper  than  large  ones  in  pro- 
portion, imless  they  are  prepared  and  squared  to  any  even  size,  and  then  they  are  far 
more  expensive,  as  in  the  course  of  preparation  2  or  3  logs  may  perhaps  be  cut  up  and 
spoiled  before  one  can  be  found  without  flaw,  and  of  course  this  waste  is  taken  into 
account  and  charged  fur  by  the  M'ood  merchant. 

Sycamore,  holly,  and  chestnut  are  amongst  the  lightest  of  our  woods.  The  first  is 
greatly,  and,  in  fact,  principally  used  for  bread-plates,  potato-bowls,  and  other  articles, 
when  a  light  tint  is  a  consideration. 

Walnut. — The  wood  of  tliis  tree  is  usually  of  a  brown  colour,  and  on  being  cut  shows 
a  brilliant  grain.  It  is  soft,  binding,  and  easy  to  work.  Of  all  woods,  it  is  the  one 
whose  colour  varies  most.  Although  its  colour  is  generally  brown,  samples  are  to  be 
found  in  which  the  veins  are  almost  black  on  a  white  ground.  This  freak  of  nature  is 
sometimes  found  in  the  same  tree  which  at  other  parts  is  equably  coloured.  The  best 
walnut  for  the  carver  is  that  of  a  brown  uniform  tint,  slightly  bronzy  ;  its  veins  should 
be  regular  and  otfer  an  equal  grain  under  the  gouge.  The  white  varieties  are  softer 
than  the  above  named,  and  would  be  preferable,  were  it  not  for  the  black  veins  before 
described,  which  entirely  disfigure  the  work,  and  necessitate  the  greatest  attention  in 
staining  to  equalize  the  tone.  The  veiny  brown  wood  is  generally  too  fibrous  and  too 
knotty,  and  is  often  traversed  by  sap-wood,  which  in  some  places  becomes  decomposed,, 
forming  a  mass  resembling  a  tough  gritty  leather,  which  blunts  the  tool  without  being- 
cut.  Before  beginning  to  work,  the  absence  of  such  defects  should  be  carefully  ascer- 
tained. Trees  which  grow  near  marshy  lands,  or  near  manure  tanks,  absorb  a  sap  of  a 
peculiar  nature,  which  has  a  disagreeable  odour  of  rotten  eggs,  plainly  perceptible  when 
the  wood  is  heated  by  rubbing,  either  with  the  hand  or  with  a  tool.  The  walnut  is 
rather  liable  to  the  attacks  of  worms,  especially  in  the  sap-wood.  This  may  be  to  a  great 
extent  prevented  by  washing  the  wood  with  a  strong  decoction  of  walnut  "  shucks"  and 
alum,  applied  cold.  The  best  walnut  comes  from  abroad,  and  is  much  in  use  amongst 
Continental  carvers,  especially  the  Austrian  ;  but  though  it  is  pleasant  and  easy  to  work, 
it  has  a  dull  and  dingy  appearance,  so  that  a  carving  would  have  looked  better  and 
been  more  effective  had  it  been  done  in  any  of  the  other  woods  mentioned,  though  the 
labour  would  have  been  far  greater.  Italian  walnut  is  a  rich  and  beautiful  wood  for  a 
variety  of  purposes,  such  as  cabinets,  panels,  bookcases,  and  frames.  It  is  hard,  but  the 
effect  produced  by  its  use  amply  repays  the  extra  labour  caused  by  the  close  texture 
of  the  material.  American  walnut  is  a  very  good  wood  for  amateurs,  and  is  much  in 
favour  with  them  for  its  dark  colour.  It  has,  however,  a  more  open  grain  than  lime,  and 
therefore  requires  more  care  to  avoid  accidents.  It  is  used  for  many  small  works  where 
much  projection  is  unnecessary,  as  book-racks,  letter-boxes,  and  watch-stands. 

"Wild  Cherry. — Easy  to  work,  and  of  a  vivid  red  tint,  which,  however,  loses  brilliancy 
with  age.  It  is  very  liable  to  be  worm-eaten,  and  is  only  used  in  sculpture  in  making- 
little  boxes. 

Yew. — This  extremely  hard  wood  is  well  adapted  to  the  carver,  although  it  has 
almost  gone  out  of  use.  The  sap-wood  is  white,  the  heart-wood  of  a  bright  orange,  the 
grain  is  fine  and  close,  the  cut  being  particularly  "clean." 

To  procure  good  wood  for  carving,  the  trees  should  be  felled  at  a  proper  time  and 
age,  and  the  wood  thoroughly  seasoned.  The  proper  time  to  fell  oaks  and  most  other 
trees  is  \Then  they  fail  to  increase  in  size  more  than  2  ft.  per  annum.  If  cut  down 
before  that  period  of  their  existence,  the  heart  will  not  be  fully  developed,  and  will  not 


Carving — Woods.  389 

be  as  hard  as  the  other  part.    When  oaks  arc  about  30  years  old  their  growth  is  most 
rapid.     Autumn  is  generally  considered  the  best  time  to  fell. 

If  wood  be  used  in  an  unseasoned  state  it  is  sure  to  warp  and  twist ;  and  when  it  is 
so  used  for  panels  fitted  into  loose  grooves,  it  shrinks  away  from  the  edge  which  happens 
to  be  the  most  slightly  held;  but  when  restrained  by  nails,  mortices,  or  otlier unyielding 
attachments,  which  do  not  allow  them  the  power  of  contraction,  they  split  with  irresistiblo 
force,  and  the  material  and  the  workmanship  are  thus  brought  to  no  useful  service. 
It  is  therefore  very  necessary  that  the  natural  juices  of  the  tree  be  got  rid  of  by  seasonin" 
it  before  use.  After  a  tree  is  lopped,  barked,  and  roughly  squared,  it  is  left  some  time 
exposed  to  the  weather,  and  may  be  soaked  in  fresh  running  water  with  advantage,  and 
boiled  or  steamed.  Any  of  these  processes  tends  to  dilute  and  wash  out  the  juices,  and 
the  water  readily  evaporates  from  the  wood  at  a  subsequent  period.  Thin  planks,  if 
properly  exposed  to  the  air,  will  be  seasoned  in  about  a  year,  but  the  thicker  the  wood 
the  longer  the  time  it  will  take. 

All  woods,  to  carve  properly,  should  be  perfectly  dry— but  not  too  old — in  this  latter 
case  they  become  brittle  and  nerveless.  If  possible,  the  wood  should  come  from  the 
upper  portions  of  the  trunk,  as  these  are  less  subject  to  knots.  As  a  rule,  the  branches 
should  be  rejected,  as  their  wood  has  not  sufficient  body.  The  sap-wood  should  always 
be  refused,  as  it  is  too  soft,  blackens  easily,  and  is  sure  to  suffer  from  the  attacks  of 
worms. 

It  is  often  useful  to  be  able  to  stain  the  wood  after  the  carving  is  complete.  This 
is  done,  either  to  give  an  appearance  of  age,  or  to  imitate  some  other  wood.  The  ageing 
is  generally  performed  as  follows,  tliough  the  ready-made  oak-stains  may  be  used  with 
equal  success.  Boil  5  oz.  of  dry  powdered  walnut  "  shucks  "  in  1  qt.  of  water.  Filter  ofl' 
the  clear  liquor,  and  apply  cold  to  the  work  with  a  brush.  Or,  take  2  oz.  Cassel  earth 
and  2  oz.  American  red  potash,  boil  in  1  qt.  of  water,  and  apply  as  above.  This  latter 
colour  imitates  well  tbe  tints  of  old  oak,  and  if  applied  to  oak  itself  darkens  it  consider- 
ably. With  pear-wood,  it  is  usual  to  use  a  decoction  of  gamboge  and  saffron,  to  bring  up 
the  yellow  tone.  Lime  may  be  stained  of  various  colours  in  the  following  modes. 
Solutions  of  tin  salts  and  turmeric  applied  consecutively  give  a  good  orange.  Brush 
over  with  madder,  allowing  to  dry,  and  then  applying  acetate  of  lead,  gives  brown  with 
darker  veins.  Walnut  takes  a  line  mahogany  tint  if  washed  witli  a  strong  decoction  of 
Brazil  or  Campeachy^wood.  All  sculptured  woods  may  be  dyed  of  a  full  black,  by  being 
washed  over  with  a  solution  composed  of  1^  oz.  powdered  extract  of  logwood,  2  qt.  of 
water,  to  which  is  added  after  boiling  i  oz.  potash  cliromate. 

In  general  terms,  oak  is  the  best  wood  for  large  surfaces,  and  ebony  or  boxwood  for 
small,  minute  work ;  but  walnut,  lime,  chestnut  (both  horse  and  Spanish),  mahogany 
and  plane,  are  all  suited  to  the  purpose,  while  sandal-wood,  apple,  pear,  holly,  cypress, 
fig,  and  lemon  tree,  being  hard  and  fine-grained,  may  all  be  used  with  good  effect, 
according  to  the  style  and  size  of  the  carving,  and  other  circumstances.  Sycamore,  lime, 
holly,  and  woods  of  a  like  nature,  being  white  or  cream-coloured,  are  only  suited  to  that 
special  style  of  carving  whose  beauty  depends  on  great  purity  of  colouring — such,  for 
instance,  as  the  minute  basso  relievo  after  a  picture,  models  of  figures  in  imitation  of 
ivory,  groups  of  birds  or  delicate  foliage  ;  but  all  these  woods,  unless  protected  by  glass, 
soon  lose  their  extreme  whiteness,  and  with  it  their  chief  beauty.  Therefore,  they 
are  little  used,  excepting  for  the  trifling  purposes  just  mentioned.  The  woods  of  the 
apple  and  pear  tree  are,  from  the  hard  texture  and  fine  grain,  exceedingly  pleasant  to 
work,  but  the  fruiting  value  of  the  trees  renders  the  wood  rare,  and  occasional  deep- 
coloured  veinings  sometimes  interfere  with  the  design.  Boxwood  is  equally  hard  and 
fine-grained,  and  is  far  superior  in  uniformity  of  colour,  which  is  a  rich  yellow.  Fig-tree 
wood  is  also  much  prized  for  small  carvings,  being  of  a  very  beautiful  warm  red  colour; 
but  even  in  Italy  it  is  rare,  owing  to  the  value  of  the  living  tree,  and  extremely  difficult 
to  procure  in  England.     The  great  bar  to  the  free  use  of  all  these  hard  woods  is  the 


390 


Carving — Woods ;  Tools. 


difficulty  of  procuring  them  in  pieces  of  any  sizes,  for,  as  their  texture  indicates,  they 
are  mostly  bushes  of  slow  growth,  rarely  attaining  to  more  than  10  in.  to  12  in.  in 
diameter,  added  to  which,  as  regards  boxwood  especially,  it  is  largely  used  for  other 
purposes  besides  carving,  which  necessarily  increases  the  demand,  and  makes  it  more 

expensive. 

When  any  very  delicate  designs  have  to  be  executed,  and  the  most  minute  finish 
is  required,  boxwood,  ebony,  or  any  other  equally  hard  and  close-grained  woods  are 
decidedly  the  best  to  choose. 

Woods  with  ornamental  grain,  as  bird's-eye  maple,  satinwood,  yew,  and  laburnum, 
are  not  desirable  for  carving  purposes;  the  grain  and  colour  often  interfere  with  the 
effect  which  it  is  an  object  to  produce. 

Tools. The  work  of  the  carver  rarely  needs  a  special  bench,  any  short  deal  table 

answering  every  practical  purpose.  This  should  be  of  a  convenient  height  to  suit  the 
operator,  and  be  placed  under  a  north  window  for  the  benefit  of  the  light.  The  workman 
should  stand  rather  than  sit  at  his  work,  and  will  find  a  revolving  music-stool  the  least 
inconvenient  seat.  The  work-table  should  admit  of  holes  being  made  in  it  for  the 
reception  of  a  screw  for  holding  down  the  work.  The  cutting  tools  used  are  of  special 
forms,  representative  examples  of  which  are  illustrated  herewith.    Fig.  700  ia  a  straight 


?oo. 


701. 


702. 


703. 


704. 


705. 


|^^^va-~4J 


M\ 


706. 


70  T. 


708. 


709. 


710. 


711. 


ro 


carving  chisel ;  Fig.  701,  a  skew  carving  chisel ;  Fig.  702,  a  flat  carving  gouge ;  Fig.  703, 
a  medium  carving  gouge;  Fig.  704,  a  carving  gouge  for  scribing;  Fig^  .05,  a  deep 
carvin"  -ou-e;  Fi-.  706,  a  straight  fluting  gouge;  Fig.  707,  a  front-bent  flutmg  gouge 


Carving— Tools. 


391 


Fig.  70S,  a  straight  parting  tool ;  Fig.  700,  a  bent  parting  tool ;  Fig.  710,  a  spoonbit 
parting  tool  ;  Fig.  711,  a  spoonbit  chisel;  Fig.  712,  a  skew  spoonbit  chisel;  Fig.  71o, 
a  medium  front-bent  carving  gouge  ;  Fig.  714,  a  spoonbit  gouge  for  scribing ;  Fig.  715, 
a  deep  spoonbit  gouge  ;  Fig.  716,  a  back-bent  spoonbit  gouge;  Fig.  717,  a  veining  tool ; 
Fig.  718,  an  unshouldered  print-cutters'  chisel ;   Fig.  719,  a  bolt  chisel ;   Fig.  720,   a 


111 


718. 


r\ 


iKJ 


dog-leg  chisel ;  Fig.  721,  an  improved  print-cutters'  gouge.  Of  each  kind  of  cutting 
tool  there  are  some  half-dozen  forms,  varying  in  the  acuteness  of  the  angle  or  sharpness 
of  the  curve  of  the  cutting  edge,  so  as  to  be  more  readily  adapted  to  the  sweep  or  corner 
of  the  line  being  cut.  la  bent  chisels,  there  is  one  for  the  right  corner  and  one  for  the 
left.  Tools  of  unusual  form  can  be  readily  ex- 
temporized from  old  knitting-needles  or  small  72i. 
files,  by  heating  to  whiteness,  hammering  to 
shape,  and  tempering  in  oil  or  sealing-wax. 
Usually  the  palm  of  the  hand  suflSces  for  giving 
a  blow  to  the  cutting  tool,  but  a  small  roimd 
mallet  is  handy  for  heavy  work.  The  ordinary 
marking  and  gouging  tools,  and  a  small  brush  for 
removing  chips,  are  necessary  adjuncts. 

Some  order  should  be  observed  la  arranging 
the  tools  on  the  bench,  both  for  facility  in 
selecting  any  particular  one  required  and  for 
preserving  their  cutting  edges.  A  good  plan  is 
to  lay  them  with  the  handles  towards  the  back 
of  the  bench,  and  along  the  back  margin,  taking 
care  to  drop  the  handle  first  in  putting  them 
down.  As  regards  quality,  the  tools  should  be 
of  the  best.  A  few  words  may  suffice  to  indicate 
the  points  to  be  considered  in  selecting  good 
tools.  First,  as  regards  substance,  for  general 
use,  especially  if  likely  to  be  used  much  with 
the  mallet,  care  must  be  taken  that  they  are 
not  so  thin  as  to  make  them  liable  to  break  in 
half  when  in  use.     The  stoutest  to  be  obtained 

now  are  hardly  likely  to  be  too  stout.  Especially  should  they  be  stout  near  the  handle. 
Attention  must  be  given  also  to  what  may  bo  termed  the  "  lines  "  of  a  tool.  They 
should  be  easy  and  true.  There  is  an  uncertainty  about  the  shape  or  lines  of  some 
tools  which  give  the  impression  that  the  maker  could  scarcely  have  known  what  sort  of 


392  Carving— Tools. 

thing  he  wished  to  produce.  About  many  that  are  in  the  market,  there  s  something 
more  than  uncertainty,  for  their  deficiency  iu  this  respect  is  of  the  most  glaring  kind. 
It  is  not  that  this  is  merely  a  matter  of  taste  or  fancy,  which  has  no  real  effect  upon 
the  practical  value  of  a  tool.  If,  for  example,  a  tool  is  only  slightly  "twisted"  or 
slightly  bent,  it  is  very  likely  to  break  whun  malleted,  and  can  never  be  used  with 
pleasure.  It  will  be  useful  to  the  learner  to  study,  if  he  has  opportuuitj',  the  "  make  " 
of  good  old  tools  or  new  ones  of  acknowledged  merit,  in  order  that  he  may  be  able  to 
make  a  mental  comparison  when  making  purchases.  One  other  point  of  importance  to 
consider  is  the  "  temper."  The  proof  of  the  "  temper"  is  in  the  using.  It  is  true  that 
an  experienced  eye  is  not  likely  to  be  deceived  in  this  matter ;  it  is  also  true  that  the 
temper  of  a  tool  may  in  a  measure  be  tested  by  a  file,  but  the  file  must  be  in  the  hands 
of  an  experienced  person.  In  any  case,  the  final  test  is  in  the  using.  If  the  tool  is  so 
"  soft "  that  the  edge  turns  when  brought  into  contact  with  hard  wood — not  the  hardest 
— and  that  end  way  of  the  grain ;  or  if,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  so  "  hard  "  or  brittle 
that  used  in  the  same  way  the  edge  breaks,  it  had  better  be  discarded. 

The  "  parting  tool "  is  of  all  tools  the  most  easily  broken,  and  the  difficulty  and 
trouble  of  sharpening  it  makes  this  mishap  anything  but  a  trivial  aflfair.  But  it  is  a 
most  useful  and,  moreover,  a  necessary  tool,  and  a  carver  might  well  possess  a  variety — 
say  6  or  8 — of  them.  Any  one  having  the  smallest  acquaintance  Avith  carvers'  tools  will 
have  noticed  tliat  the  sides  or  blades  of  some  parting  tools  spread  considerably  more 
than  others.  Tlie  carver  must  make  choice  of  one  or  more  for  rough  work,  and  there 
can  be  no  question  that— other  things  being  equal — those  with  the  most  spread  are  the 
strongest,  and  therefore  the  safest  for  rough  work.  Small  parting  tools,  with  their  sides 
brought  nearer  togetlier,  i.e.  having  little  spread,  are  invaluable  for  incised  work;  and 
may,  in  the  hands  of  a  skilful  workman,  be  made  to  do  work  which  could  only  be 
accomplished  by  the  help  of  other  tools  with  far  greater  difficulty  and  labour,  and  even, 
at  times,  with  a  less  satisfactory  result.  Parting  tools,  which  are  intended  for  such 
light  work,  must  be  suitably  sharpened  and  kept  for  that  purpose  alone.  If  they  are 
fit  for  light  work,  they  are  as  certainly  unfit  for  heavy  work,  as  a  broken  tool  would  soon 
remind  the  incautious  workman.  As  already  stated,  for  heavy  work,  substance,  as  a 
quality  in  a  tool,  is  very  important.  But  this  is  especially  the  case  with  the  tool  under 
notice.  There  must  be  substance  in  the  blades,  and  especially  where  they  meet,  towards 
which  they  should  become  somewhat  stouter.  In  purchasing,  see  that  the  inside  is 
truthfully  cut  out — i.  e.  that  the  "  lines"  are  good — and  beware  of  flaws. 

The  "  voluter  "  is  second  only  to  the  parting  tool  in  importance  and  value  to  the 
carver,  even  if  it  be  not  equal  to  it.  And  this,  again,  is  a  tool  which  must  receive 
special  attention  when  the  subject  of  sharpening  is  reached.  Of  this,  too,  it  will  be 
necessary  that  the  carver  should  have  a  variety.  Like  the  parting  tool,  it  is  one  which 
affords  the  manufacturer  an  excellent  opportunity  of  distinguishing  himself,  if  he  has 
any  desire  to  do  so.  The  sides  of  a  voluter — if  in  speaking  of  this  tool  such  a  term 
is  admissible — should  very  slightly,  but  only  very  slightly,  spread.  This  is  necessary, 
if  it  is  to  free  itself  when  in  use.  For  some  purposes,  the  voluter  makes  an  excellent 
parting  tool.  In  cutting  round  leafwork,  previous  to  setting-in,  instead  of  always  using 
a  parting  tool,  try  the  voluter.  It  will  even  answer  such  a  purpose  better  at  times,  and 
has  this  additional  recommendation — that  it  is  less  liable  to  break. 

A  combination  of  circumstances  and  conditions  iu  tool  and  workman  go  to  make  a 
tool  that  is  termed  "handy,"  i.  e.  eminently  adapted  to  the  work  in  view.  Some  of  the 
points  necessary  to  earn  this  denomination  for  a  tool  may  be  considered.  For  instance, 
one  purpose  for  which  every  carver  uses  his  scroll  tools  is  that  known  as  "  setting-in." 
For  this  purpose,  other  things  being  equal,  the  tools  which  are  the  handiest  are  the 
shortest.  The  long  tool  is  objectionable  for  one  or  two  reasons.  If  it  is  struck  hard  with 
the  mallet,  as  it  must  often  be  when  used  for  this  purpose,  there  is  a  certain  "  spring  " 
in  it,  unless  it  is  a  very  thick  tool,  which  creates  an  uneasy  feeling  in  the  mind  of  the 


Carving — Tools.  393 

carver,  for  such  a  tool  is  liable  to  break  ia  half.  A  short  tool  is  almost  sure  to  be  a 
strong  tool.  A  long  tool  is  objectionable,  too,  because  the  carver  has  to  raise  liis  mallet 
to  an  inconvenient  height  in  order  to  strike  it.  But  tlie  main  reason  for  giving  jjrefer- 
ence  to  short  tools  wlieu  used  for  this  purpose  is,  that  the  carver  can  grasp  the  handle 
and  at  the  same  time  rest  his  hand  upon  the  work  to  kce[)  the  tool  in  the  desired  pcjsition. 
It  is  obvious  tliat  with  a  long  tool  this  cannot  be  done.  The  sharpening  of  these  tools 
must  be  done  equally  from  inside  and  outside.  When  a  tool  is  grasped  in  the  right 
hand,  and  used  as  in  moulding,  then  it  may  bo  full  length.  A  short  tool  would  cramp 
the  hand  in  using  it.  We  may  almost  reverse  the  statement  made  in  connection  witli 
tools  used  for  setting-in,  and  say  the  handiest  are  the  longest.  Not  that  an  inordinate 
length  is  desirable.  There  must  be  room  for  the  right  hand,  which  pushes,  and  the  left 
hand,  which  guides,  and  more  than  enough  for  these  if  the  tool  is  to  have  "  play,"  and 
the  carver  is  to  see  what  he  is  doing.  To  produce  a  long,  easy  curve  is  almost  out  of 
the  question  with  a  short  tool.  The  mode  of  sharpening  tools  used  in  this  manner  if 
employed  entirely  (as  in  the  case  of  the  voluter)  or  mostly  for  this  purpose  is  a  i)oint  of 
importance.  Attention  must  be  directed  to  the  back  of  the  tool,  that  is  the  round  side, 
which,  when  it  is  used  in  the  manner  under  notice,  is  generally  downwards — that  is, 
next  the  wood.  There  must  be  no  "  ridge  "  running  from  one  side  of  the  tool  to  the 
other  within  J  or  f  in.  of  the  edge,  otherwise  the  surface,  line,  or  hollow  which  is  being 
worked  will  be  one  series  of  "dips"  or  hollows,  which  would  have  anything  but  a 
"  beautifully  undulating  "  effect.  The  sharpening  on  the  back  must  be  with  a  nicely 
graduated  angle  right  up  to  the  edge,  that  the  tool  may  work  in  a  smooth,  easy,  sweeping 
style.  The  necessary  strength  may  be  given  to  the  edge  by  sharpening  on  the  inside  at 
a  much  shorter  angle,  that  is  by  what  is  called  "dubbing  it  up."  These  remarks  apply 
in  an  especial  manner  to  the  "  voluter."  This  tool  must  be  brought  to  an  edge  very 
much  from  the  inside,  the  edge  being  strengthened  in  the  manner  just  de=;cribed.  If  it 
is  to  work  easily  in  a  hollow,  but  a  little  larger  than  its  own  size,  it  must  be  sharpened 
on  the  back  with  a  very  long  angle;  the  handle  in  this  case  will  be  inconveniently  near 
the  wood,  but  this  inconvenience  will  be  obviated  by  the  use  of  voluters  slightly — only 
slightly — bent.  This  tool  is  made  too  often,  by  the  absurd  manner  in  which  it  is 
sharpened,  very  much  like  a  wedge.  It  "  binds,"  and  bruises  the  sides  of  the  hollow  in 
which  it  works.  A  third  mode  in  which  a  scroll  tool  is  often  employed  is,  as  in  facing 
the  round  parts  of  leafwork.  A  short  tool  is  perhaps  the  handiest  for  this  purpose,  but 
no  rule  can  be  laid  down  upon  this  point.  When  it  is  held  in  position  by  the  left  and 
struck  by  the  right  hand,  shortness  is  an  advantage,  because  of  the  left  hand  having  to 
rest  upon  the  work  at  the  same  time.  But  it  is  as  often,  perhaps,  pushed  as  in  moulding, 
when  a  longer  tool  is  better.  In  sharpening,  the  same  attention  must  be  given  to  the 
inside  as  is  required  for  the  backs  of  those  just  mentioned.  If  there  is  any  "  ridge  "  near 
the  edge  on  the  inside,  there  is  a  constant  tendency  in  the  tool  to  "glance  off"  the  work; 
and  the  tool  has  to  be  held  in  a  position  too  nearly  approaching  the  vertical  before  it  can 
cut  at  all. 

The  modes  of  use  just  glanced  at  are  the  three  principal.  If  the  carver  has  tofls  well 
adapted  for  these,  his  tools  may  be  described  as  "  handy."  The  handiness  of  a  tool, 
then,  may  be  said  briefly  to  consist  in  the  readiness  with  which  it  lends  itself  to  any 
particular  purpose.  A  tool  should  be  made  subservient  to  the  requirements  of  the 
workman.  If  a  new  tool  is  too  long  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  chiefly  reijuired, 
there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  be  shortened  before  being  sharpened.  It  will  be 
for  the  ingenuity  of  the  workman  to  surmount  the  difficulty  which  arises  from  the 
circumstance  thut  the  same  tool  is  often  required  fur  every  purpose.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, it  is  worth  while  to  have  duplicates  of  certain  tools,  that  they  may  be  kept  largely 
for  one  particular  purpose.  A  workman's  tools  are  worthy  of  his  most  careful  study. 
Enough  has  been  said  to  show  that  the  manner  in  which  a  tool  is  sharpened  has  much  to  do 
with  its  utility,  and  that  the  subject  of  sharpening  generally  is  deserving  of  special  notice. 


394  Caeving — Tools;  Operations. 

The  first  essentials  for  sharpening  carving  tools  are  grindstones  and  oilstones. 
These  have  already  been  described  under  Carpentry  (see  pp.  240-3),  but  more  care 
is  needed  in  choosing  them  for  carving  tools  owing  to  the  greater  delicacy  of  the  edges 
to  be  sharpened,  so  that  the  least  flaw  in  a  stone  should  suflBce  to  condemn  it.  The 
mounted  grindstone  is  used  only  to  take  oft'  the  thick  edge  of  the  tool,  as,  for  instance, 
when  the  tool  is  new.  It  should  be  ground  back  to  a  breadth  of  i  to  J  in.,  great  care 
being  taken  to  keep  the  tool  cool  by  tlie  use  of  abundant  water  in  the  trough,  to  avoid 
injuring  its  temper.  The  coarse  edge  is  next  drawn  fine  by  applying  oilstones  of 
progressive  degrees  of  fineness.  These  oilstones  are  obtained  in  slips,  and  their  edges 
are  gradually  adapted  to  fit  the  inner  sides  of  the  curved  or  angular  tools,  while  their 
sides  become  recessed  and  similarly  adjusted  to  the  outer  side  of  the  tools.  The 
grinding  away  should  be  done  from  the  inside,  while  the  "  setting  "  proper  is  done  from 
the  outside.  In  the  rubbing  out,  it  is  well  to  fix  the  stone  in  a  vice,  with  pads  to  protect 
it  from  the  jaws,  and  use  both  hands  in  manipulating  the  tool.  In  sharpening  the 
outside  edge,  the  tool  should  be  held  in  the  left  hand,  and  the  stone  worked  upon  it  by 
the  right  hand.  Certain  slips  should  be  reserved  for  certain  kinds  of  tools,  and  care 
must  be  observed  to  commence  with  a  coarser  (generally  a  darker  coloured)  and  proceed 
to  a  finer  (whitish  and  semitransparent)  grained  stone.  The  final  edge  is  given  to  the 
tool  by  stropping  it  on]  a  broad  strip  of  buff"  leather  saturated  with  tallow  and  crocus 
powder  rubbed  in  under  the  influence  of  a  fire.  A  well-set  tool  should  pare  deal  against 
the  grain  witli  a  perfectly  clean  cut.  The  slips  of  oilstone  will  require  grinding  at  the 
edges  to  fit  the  tools.  The  rubbing  out  is  effected  in  the  case  of  very  small  tools  by  the 
aid  of  emery  powder  and  oil  applied  by  a  strip  of  wood.  The  oil  used  is  generally 
ordinary  machine  oil,  but  petroleum  is  also  in  favour.  The  handles  of  all  tools  should 
be  well  adapted  to  the  hand  using  them,  and  some  system  should  be  observed  in  the 
style  (shape,  colour,  &c.)  of  handle,  so  that  the  tool  may  always  be  immediately 
recognized  by  the  handle  alone. 

Operations. — When  the  carver  has  made  a  selection  of  a  design  and  of  a  piece  of 
wood  to  be  carved,  he  proceeds  to  transfer  the  design  to  the  wood.  There  are  several 
ways  of  performing  this.  (1)  Rub  the  surface  of  the  wood  with  chalk,  and  then  sketch 
the  design  on  it.  (2)  Cut  a  piece  of  paper  the  right  size,  sketch  the  design  on  it,  and 
paste  it  on  the  wood.  (3)  Sketch  the  design  on  paper,  lay  it  on  the  wood  with  a  sheet 
of  carbon  paper  intervening,  and  pass  a  hard  point  over  the  lines,  when  they  will  be 
transferred  to  tlio  wood.  (4)  In  mouldings,  a  piece  of  cardboard  may  be  cut  to  the 
design  and  a  pencil  drawn  round  the  outline.  The  wood  bearing  the  design  is  suitably 
fixed  on  the  bench  or  table. 

No  two  carvers  work  exactly  in  the  same  manner,  but  the  object  of  all  is  to  secure 
complete  command  over  the  action  of  the  tools.  In  general  terms,  the  tool  should  be 
firmly  grasped  by  the  left  hand,  so  that  the  hand  reaches  to  within  about  1  in.  of  the 
cutting  edge,  while  the  right  hand  encompasses  the  top  of  the  handle  and  applies  the 
inotive  power.  It  is  a  great  advantage  to  the  operator  to  be  able  to  reverse  this  order 
of  things  in  left-handed  work.  In  diaper  carving,  commence  by  cutting  out  the  outline 
with  the  parting  tool,  held  slanting  in  the  right  hand,  with  the  left  hand  arched  over 
the  tool,  and  having  tlie  wrist  and  finger-tips  resting  on  the  work,  as  a  check  to  the 
forward  motion  of  the  tool,  and  a  guide  in  curves.  The  groundwork  of  the  design  is 
thrown  up  by  punching.  In  commencing  a  panel  in  relief,  the  outline  is  gone  over  with 
a  chisel  or  gouge  held  perpendicularly  in  the  left  hand,  with  the  middle  finger  beside 
the  blade,  the  right  hand  giving  slight  blows  with  the  mallet.  Small  gouges  are  next 
used  to  scoop  out  the  parts  to  be  cut  away,  and  chisels  to  reduce  the  ground  to  a 
uniform  depth.  To  ensure  clean  cutting,  the  grain  of  the  wood  must  be  constantly 
watched  and  humoured  by  altering  the  direction  of  the  tool.  The  work  consists  in  the 
two  operations  of  "  blocking  out "  the  design  (cutting  away  the  superfluous  wood)  and 
"  finishing  "  the  details,  but  every  carver  has  his  own  way  of  dividing  the  work  betweea 


Fretwork — Woods;  Tools.  395. 

the^two  steps.     A  great  choice  of  beautiful  designs  will  be  found  in  Bcmrose's  *  Manual 
of  Wood  Carving.' 

Fretwork.— Fret  or  scroll  sawing  is  a  modern  invention  by  wliicli  much  handsome- 
work  is  now  done  especially  for  ornamental  cabinet-making.  The  subject  may  bo 
divided  into  woods,  tools,  and  operations. 

Woods. — Wood  for  fret-sawing  must  bo  good,  free  from  knots,  and  perfectly  smooth. 
Soft  woods  can  be  hand-planed  to  a  suflacient  degree  of  smoothness ;  but  hard  woods 
require  scraping  down  with  a  steel  scraper,  and  then  sandpapering.  The  chief  woods 
used  are  :— 

Bird's-eye  maple  is  close-grained,  gritty  in  sawing,  and  polishes  well,  but  needs 
much  filling. 

Black  walnut  is  cheap,  goes  well  under  the  saw,  and  is  very  generally  used.  Pieces 
of  uniform  shade  and  free  from  streaks  should  be  chosen,  except  where  the  streaks  would 
show  up  well. 

Ebony  is  well  suited  for  inlaying,  and  takes  a  high  polish  :  but  it  is  costly,  and  the- 
hardness  and  closeness  of  grain  render  sawing  difficult  without  applying  olive-oil  to 
the  blade. 

Mahogany  is  adapted  to  almost  all  work,  being  easy  to  saw,  yet  hard,  close-gi-ained, 
and  susceptible  of  taking  a  fine  polish. 

Rosewood  is  close-grained  and  as  difficult  to  saw  as  ebony,  but  polishes  well. 

Red  cedar,  though  not  hard,  is  troublesome  to  saw  and  liable  to  split.  It  is 
pleasantly  fragraut. 

Spanish  cedar  is  soft  and  easily  worked.  Small  articles  can  be  made  out  of  old  cigar- 
boxes,  when  the  paper  has  been  got  off  and  the  surface  sandpapered. 

Satinwood  has  an  elegant  colour  and  lustre,  with  considerable  hardness  and  a  close 
grain,  and  polishes  well. 

Tulipwood  has  a  reddish  streaked  appearance,  a  finer  and  closer  grain  than  satinwood,. 
and  is  capable  of  being  highly  polished,  but  it  is  costly. 

White  holly  is  very  popular  in  America,  being  very  easy  to  saw,  while  possessing  a 
fine  close  grain. 

Tools. — These  are  very  few  in  number.  The  first  requisite  is  an  ordinary  table  for 
supporting  the  work,  which  latter  is  held  tight  by  clamps  such  as  have  already  been 
described  (p.  196),  the  jaw  of  the  clamp  being  prevented  from  coming  into  contact  with 
the  fretwood  by  the  intervention  of  a  "  rest,"  formed  of  a  slot  of  deal  about  20  in.  long,. 
6  in.  wide,  1  in.  thick,  and  having  a  triangular  piece  cut  out  of  one  end,  so  as  to  form  a 
couple  of  legs  :  the  saw  is  worked  in  the  crutch  of  the  fork,  and  thue  the  "  rest  "  helps 
to  sustain  the  fretwood  against  the  force  of  the  sawing.  For  making  a  hole  to  admit 
the  saw,  recourse  may  be  had  to  a  bradawl  (p.  246)  or  to  a  small  archimedcan  drill 
(p.  248),  the  latter  being  preferable,  and  capable  of  doing  much  useful  work  by  the  aid. 
of  a  set  of  drills. 

Of  saws  there  is  an  endless  variety,  reaching  in  price  from  Is.  6d.  to  5/.  or  61.  The 
small  hand-saws  with  a  set  of  blades  are  best  for  beginners  ;  the  expensive  machine - 
saws,  such  as  the  Fleetwood,  Challenge  or  Rival  can  only  be  appreciated  and  used  to 
advantage  by  skilled  manipulators,  in  whose  hands  they  do  wonderful  work.  A  very 
useful  little  machine  with  a  dexter  treadle,  costmg  25s.  without  or  40s.  with  a  table,  is- 
shown  in  Fig.  722.  These  saws  are  made  of  iron  and  steel  throughout,  except  the  bows 
and  treadle-rods.  They  are  very  carefully  made  and  fitted,  and  neatly  finished ;  will 
hold  the  finest  to  coarsest  saws,  and  will  cut  1^-in.  wood,  if  desired,  but  they  are  recom- 
mended for  light  work  principally.  The  distance  from  saw  to  the  back  of  frame  is 
12J  in.  The  frame  is  a  solid  casting,  provided  with  a  clamp  to  secure  it  to  a  t;\ble  or 
bench.  The  bows  F,  of  hard  ash,  are  fitted  with  iron  plates  on  the  back  end.  These 
plates  have  knife  edges,  carefully  made,  upon  whicli  the  bows  rock  with  little  or  no 
friction.     The  front  ends  of  the  bows  are  fitted  with  pivoted  steel  screw  clamps,  A,  B,  for- 


396 


Fretwoek — Tools  ;  Operations. 


722. 


iiolding  all  sizes  of  saws.  The  plates  on  which  these  swing  are  adjustable,  so  that  the 
pitch  of  the  saw  can  be  altered  if  desired,  or  corrected  if  it  does  not  run  straight.  The 
straining  rod  D  is  provided  with  a  cupped  nut  C  containing  a  spiral  spring.  This 
and  the  stop  in  the  back  end  of  the  frame  hold  the  upper  saw  arm  still,  and  the  lower 
one  in  place,  when  from  any  cause  the 
saw  is  disconnected.  The  machine  is 
oold  by  Churchills,  Finsbury,  together 
with  many  other  forms. 

The  edges  left  by  the  saw  need 
filing  down,  for  which  purpose  the 
operator  will  require  a  round  file  about 
4  in.  long,  and  half-round  and  flat  files 
each  2  to  4  in.  long.  The  filing  is  fol- 
lowed by  the  application  of  sandpaper. 
In  this  there  is  some  art.  The  sand- 
paper should  never  be  held  in  the 
fingers.  If  the  work  is  very  small,  the 
sheet  of  sandpaper  should  be  fastened 
down  on  a  smooth  surface  and  the  work 
be  rubbed  on  it  with  a  circular  motion. 
If  larger,  the  sandpaper  may  be 
stretched  round  a  smooth  slab  of  wood 
4  in.  long,  3  in.  wide,  and  f  in.  thick, 
and  secured  by  clamping  a  correspond- 
ing slab  to  the  back  of  the  first,  making 
what  may  be  called  a  "sand  board." 
Or  the  paper  may  be  glued  to  a  smooth 
wooden  cylinder  and  used  in  a  lathe  if 
at  hand. 

Operations. — In  fretwork,  the  de- 
sign is  cut  out  by  means  of  a  saw, 
instead  of  by  the  edged  tools  used  in 


carving.     The  mode  of  working  has 


been  made  pretty  evident  in  describing  the  tools.     In  sawing,  care  must  be  taken  to 
give  short  gentle  strokes  adapted  to  the  thinness  and  lightness  of  the  wood  dealt  with. 

One  of  the  most  general  forms  in  which  fretwork  is  applied  is  for  forming  an  orna- 
ment called  a  "  gallery,"  used  for  the  tops  of  cabinets  and  other  articles  of  furniture. 
These  galleries  vary  in  size  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  for  which  they  are 
intended.  They  are  generally  about  \\  in.  to  2  in.  wide,  and  their  length  is  \  in.  to  |  in. 
less  than  that  of  the  top  upon  which  they  are  placed.  When  getting  out  the  wood,  be 
particular  to  select  as  straight-grained  a  piece  as  possible  ;  this  is  indispensable  for  all 
kinds  of  fretwork.  Its  thickness  should  be  f  in.  or  J  in. ;  for  miniature  work,  \  in.  is 
sufficient.  Before  cutting  out,  consider  the  kind  of  gallery  you  are  to  have,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  to  be  finished  at  the  ends,  various  modifications  being  adopted. 
In  some,  the  ends  are  tenoned  into  a  turned  ornament,  having  a  pin  fitting  into  the  top. 
In  others,  ends  are  also  made  at  right  angles  to  the  back  and  tenoned  into  the  orna- 
ments. Where  it  is  necessary  to  have  ends,  dispense  with  the  turning,  and  secure  them 
to  the  back  by  means  of  dovetails.  It  is  necessary  to  have  ends  where  the  top  is  rather 
wide,  and  it  is  better,  wherever  possible,  and  where  there  is  sufficient  space,  to  admit 
one  about  3  in.  and  upwards  long.  Having  considered  the  kind  of  gallery,  the  length 
it  is  to  be,  and  the  manner  of  finishing  the  ends,  plane  it  over,  take  to  a  width,  and 
square  it.  You  may  with  advantage  get  one  piece  out  long  enough  to  make  both  ends. 
You  should  now  mark  the  gallery  and  ends.     It  will  be  necessary  not  to  allow  the 


Feetwoek — Operations. 


397 


fret-cutting  to  come  quite  to  the  ends.  Whether  it  is  to  bo  tenoned  or  dovetailed,  you 
will  require  sufficient  for  working;  J  in.  or  |  in.  should  be  marked  and  loft  plain  fortlii.s 
purpose.  The  bottom  must,  of  course,  always  be  so,  because  of  fitting,  and  the  top  is 
better  straight  or  plain,  whether  the  design  is  geometrical  or  otherwise,  as  a  straight  or 
plain  top  bar  protects  to  a  great  extent  the  other  fretwork,  rendering  it  less  liable  to 
accident,  especially  if  a  scrollwork  pattern.  The  bars  should  be  about  j\-  in.  wiile,  and 
care  should  be  taken  that  the  cutting  is  of  such  a  nature  as  to  allow  sufficient  support  to 
the  Tarious  parts  of  the  figure,  preserving  a  light  appearance  witli  the  requisite  strength. 
Galleries  are  fixed  on  by  means  of  dowels.  When  turned  ornaments  are  employed,  the 
pins  are  usually  sufficient,  with  one  dowel  or  so,  to  secure  it.  In  other  cases,  small 
dowels  are  placed  at  a  distance  of  3J  in.  or  4  in.  apart  in  the  back,  and  a  little  closer  in 
the  ends ;  one  or  two  dowels  in  the  ends  acting  as  a  great  support  to  the  back.  When 
marking  their  position,  be  careful  to  select  the  strongest  part  of  the  fretwork,  that  is,  the 
portion  connected  with  the  bottom  rail,  and  where  you  can  bore  deepest  for  the  dowels. 
In  boring,  do  it  slowly  and  in  the  centre  ;  glue  and  knock  in  the  dowels  gently.  It  is 
best  to  cut  them  in  lengths  first,  and  in  pressing  them  into  the  holes  made  to  receive 
them  in  the  top,  keep  the  gallery  as  upriglit  as  possible,  and  allow  all  the  dowels  in 
back  and  ends  to  enter  together.  Do  not  get  one  end  in  first,  or  the  back  ones  in  and 
not  the  ends,  or  you  will  be  likely  to  break  some  of  them. 

It  is  sometimes  required  to  place  a  gallery  upon  a  shaped  surface,  with  which  it  is 
necessary  for  it  to  correspond.  It  is  then  got  out  of  thinner  material,  about  half  the 
thickness  of  that  previously  given,  to  enable  it  to  be  bent  the  requisite  shape.  The 
method  diifers  from  the  preceding  one,  dowels  being  insufficient  to  hold  it  when  bent. 
After  the  position  it  is  to  be  in  is  determined,  the  thickness  of  the  fretwork  is  marked 
bare,  and  a  groove  to  receive  it  is  cut  upon  the  work.  Tliis  should  be  about  I  in.  deep 
and  of  a  uniform  depth  tliroughout.  The  work  is  carefully  bent  to  this  and  inserted, 
afterwards  removed  and  glued.  When  getting  out  work  of  this  description,  be  careful 
to  allow  additional  width  for  the  bottom  bar  or  rail,  so  that  it  will  show  equal  with  the 
top  after  insertion ;  that  is,  add  the  depth  the  groove  is  to  be  to  the  width  of  the 
bars. 

Another  application  of  fretwork  is  for  "  stretchers,"  used  principally  for  the  various 
kinds  of  tables,  and  sometimes  for  other  things,  both  for  structural  and  ornamental 
purposes.    Figs.  723,  724,  725,  and  726  are  drawings  representing  forms  of  stretchers. 


723. 


72(. 


In  Figs.  723  and  724  the  geometrical  designs  are  intended  to  be  used  as  shown.  This  is  a 
form  adopted  for  tables  in  place  of  the  turned  one  connecting  the  front  and  back  legs  with 
a  cross  one  at  right  angles  between.  Tlie  rails  are  used  diagonally,  being  tenoned  into  the 
alternate  legs,  and  passing  through  an  ornament  in  the  centre.  You  must  allow  for  the 
diameter  of  this  when  setting  out,  also  a  space  each  side  equivalent  to  that  against  the 
legs  where'tenoned.  You  will  be  able  to  put  one  rail  in  in  one  length,  but  the  other  will 
require  to  be  in  two  halves,  on  account  of  the  mortices  intersecting  in  the  centre  of  the 


398 


Fretwork — Operations. 


ornament.  The  width  of  these  rails  will  vary  from  about  1 J  in.  to  2|  in.,  according  to 
the  size  of  the  work  ;  in  some  of  the  largest  octagon  tables  this  is  sometimes  exceeded. 
The  material  is  usually  1  in.  thick ;  in  small  work  f  in.  is  suf3Bcient.  The  top  edges 
may  be  moulded.    In  stretchers  of  this  description  the  top  and  bottom  bars  of  the  rails 


725. 


72C. 


should  be  always  left  strong.  Fig.  725  is  a  very  good  form  if  used  flatways,  intended  for 
a  large  table,  being  tenoned  into  legs  at  a  h  and  c  d.  The  whole  of  the  wood  for  this  is 
not,  as  miglit  be  imagined,  got  out  in  one,  for  the  obvious  reason  that  the  end  pieces 
connecting  a  c  and  b  d  would  be  crossways  of  the  grain  of  the  wood  and  consequently  of 
little  use.  The  stretcher  is  fret-cut  first,  the  ends  being  cut  separately  and  afterwards 
connected.  Fig.  726  is  a  portion  of  a  stretcher  where  the  end  is  tenoned  into  a  leg 
and  the  other  into  a  centre  placed  rather  higher,  the  edges  being  either  plain- 
shaped  or  moulded.  It  is  sometimes  required  to  have  the  centre  of  a  stretcher  cut 
with  a  more  elaborate  design  than  the  remainder.  The  thickness  of  wood  required 
for  the  general  part  of  the  stretcher  would  not  admit,  or  at  least  not  readily,  this  kind 
of  work  to  be  executed.  The  centre  may  then  be  got  out  of  thinner  material,  J  in. 
or  J  in.,  and  fitted  accurately  as  a  panel  to  the  framing  of  the  stretcher.  By  adopting 
this  plan,  the  finest  description  of  work  may  be  employed  without  affecting  the  requisite 
strength. 

Outline  Cutting. — This  variety  of  work,  as  its  name  implies,  is  used  for  all  purposes 
where  outline  shaping  alone  is  required,  either  applied  separately  or  to  work  that  is  to 
be  afterwards  carved.  The  importance  of  getting  all  carved  work  previously  shaped  by 
fret-cutting,  so  far  as  is  possible  with  the  nature  of  the  design,  is  much  greater  in  some 
cases  tlian  in  others ;  but  in  all  it  is  sufficient  to  demand  careful  consideration.  It  is 
advisable  to  first  make  a  pattern  the  requisite  shape,  and  to  mark  out  from  it.  It  should 
not  be  very  thick  ;  about  i  in.  or  i  full  will  answer  best.  By  placing  this  upon  your 
wood  you  will  be  able  to  mark  out  in  the  best  manner.  If  your  work  is  straight  or 
nearly  so,  there  is  not  much  difficulty ;  but  if  it  curves  considerably,  as  in  some  kinds 
of  legs,  cabriole,  for  instance,  endeavour  to  arrange  the  markings  so  that  they  will  to  a 
great  extent  cut  out  of  each  other,  getting  the  hollow  portion  of  one  against  the  rounded 
of  another,  and  vice  versa. 

Brackets. — Among  the  varieties  of  brackets  most  used  may  be  mentioned  the 
following.  First,  those  which  are  fitted  upon  a  flat  surface  or  pilaster,  the  front  and 
sides  being  carved,  like  those  used  for  bookcases  and  wardrobe  doors.  The  wood  for 
these  should  be  got  out,  and  the  back  planed,  fitted,  and  toothed.  One  end  should  also 
be  squared,  the  one  that  is  to  be  the  top  in  the  upper  brackets  and  the  bottom  in  the 
lower.  After  carving  they  are  fixed  by  simply  glueing  or  by  dowelling.  Second, 
brackets  having  two  of  their  sides  straight  and  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  These 
have  a  very  extensive  application,  and  numerous  forms  are  employed.  Sometimes  they 
are  merely  cut  in  outline,  the  front  being  moulded ;  the  whole  design  fret-cut  is  prefer- 
able. These  brackets  vary  in  thickness  from  |  in.  to  2  in.,  and  occasionally  upwards ; 
they  are  used  for  most  articles  of  furniture,  the  heavier  kinds  being  sometimes  employed 


Upholstery — Tools, 


399 


partly  as  a  means  of  support  for  shelves,  &c.,  and  the  ligliter  more  usually  for  ornamental 
purposes.  When  cutting  out  brackets  like  these,  it  is  most  convenient  to  mark  the  wood 
so  that  each  piece  will  make  2,  leaving  the  furtlier  cutting  to  the  fret-cutter.  The 
advantages  of  this  are  obvious.  It  is  necessary  to  plane  over,  and  thickness,  and  to 
square  the  edges  and  ends  first  ;  this  can  be  more  easily  done  witli  a  square  or  rectan- 
gular piece  of  wood  than  with  one  approximating  to  the  shape  of  the  brackets.  When 
marking,  you  can  see  the  size  necessary  to  get  out  the  shape  by  drawing  a  line  from 
the  extremities  of  the  brackets.  Let  these  lines  be  the  diagonal  of  the  rectangle,  and 
mark  your  work,  so  that  there  is  sufficient  space  to  get  out  the  outline  inside  it  when 
setting  the  edges  square  with  the  outside.  It  is  sometimes  advisable  to  make  a  slight 
difference  from  the  diagonal  mark  when  the  spaces  between  the  top,  bottom,  and  centre 
of  the  outline  are  considerable.  Brackets  are  fixed  either  by  dowels  or  screws,  generally 
by  a  combination  of  both  methods.  For  most  purposes  dowels  of  |  in.  diameter  are 
sufficient;  for  the  lighter  kinds  less  will  do.  Consider  the  most  suitable  position  for 
them,  where  the  work  will  afford  the  best  hold,  and  where  they  will  prevent  it  from 
twisting  or  moving.  It  is  rarely  possible  to  use  screws  from  the  front  or  face,  without 
the  work  is  applied  in  such  a  manner  that  some  i3art  is  not  easily  discernible.  They 
may,  however,  be  sometimes  used  from  the  back  or  inside. 

Many  excellent  designs  for  fretwork  will  be  found  in  Bemrose's  '  Fret-cutting  and 
Perforated  Carving.' 

UPHOLSTERY. — This  term  is  applied  to  the  art  of  stufiSng  and  covering  seats, 
and  the  arrangement  of  curtains  and  bed  hangings.  The  subject  may  be  divided  into 
sections  on  the  tools,  materials,  and  processes. 


727. 


728. 


T 


Tools. — These  are  few  in  number  and  inexpensive  to  buy.  The  hammers  used  by 
upholsterers  are  peculiar.  Fig.  727  shows  the  ordinary  form,  while  Fig.  728  represents  that 
known  as  Benwell's.     Figs.  729-730  illustrate  a  couple  of  very  useful  light  hammers  of 


729. 


American  design.  The  pincers  employed  for  straining  canvas  are  shown  in  Fig.  731.  In 
addition  will  be  required  rule  and  tape  measures,  heavy  and  light  scissors,  screws  and 
screwdriver,  round  needles  of  assorted  sizes,  double-pointed  needles  (G,  8, 10, 12,  and  14  in. 
long),  ripping  chisel,  bradawl,  and  mallet. 


400 


Upholstery — Materials ;  Leather  Work. 


Materials. — These  embrace  stuffinf^  or  filling,  coverings  for  springs  and  exteriors, 
springs  (5,  6,7,  8,  and  10-in.)  tacks,  and  twine. 

Among  stuffing  materials,  horsehair  continues  to  hold  the  first  place,  ranging  in  price 
from  Id.  to  2s.  a  lb.,  18d.  being  a  good  average  quality.     It  is  bought  in  the  "  rope,"  and 


730. 


teazed  out,  preferably  by  hand,  as  the  machines  invented  for  the  purpose  are  said  to  injure 
the  quality  and  reduce  the  length  of  the  staple.  The  poorest  grades  are  suitable  for  rolls 
and  very  inferior  work  ;  that  costing  about  lOd.  a  lb.  is  adapted  for  the  last  stuffing  of 
ordinary  hair-covered  furniture ;  while  only  the  best  kind  should  be  put  into  mattresses. 


731. 


Horsehair  when  used  alone  has  a  tendency  to  manifest  a  crispness  or  harshness  to  the 
touch,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  usual  to  overlay  it  with  a  little  wadding,  placed  soft  side 
downwards,  which  also  prevents  the  ends  of  the  hnirs  protruding  in  time  through  the 
covering  of  the  furniture.     This  wadding  costs  about  Is.  6d.  a  dozen. 

Featliers  are  popular  for  filling  beds,  being  warmer  and  lighter.  Prices  range  from 
6d.  to  2s.  fc'fZ.  a  lb.,  but  the  lowest  prices  are  not  by  any  means  always  the  cheapest,  as  the 
better  qualities  are  more  elastic  and  consequently  may  be  used  in  smaller  quantities  with 
equally  good  or  better  results.  Flocks,  costing  3(2.  to  lOd.  a  lb.,  are  used  as  cheaper 
substitutes  for  feathers  in  second-rate  mattresses,  beds,  and  pillows.  Various  vegetable 
fibres  are  used  for  first  stuffing  in  furniture,  among  the  most  generally  used  being  alfa, 
Spanish  moss,  Algerian  fibre,  Mexican  fibre,  and  coconut  fibre. 

Leather  coverings  are  of  2  kinds,  morocco  (goat  skin)  and  roan  (sheep  skin).  The 
former  runs  in  sizes  of  25  to  35  in,  -wide,  and  is  far  the  better  in  point  of  wear  and  keeping 
its  colour.  Koans  run  larger  (30  to  38  in.  wide),  but  only  cost  about  half  as  much  as 
moroccos.  Being  softer  they  are  easier  to  work,  but  are  apt  to  be  torn  by  buttons  when 
these  are  used,  and  generally  speaking  they  are  only  fit  for  the  outside  backs  of  chairs 
and  such  positions,  where  they  do  not  actually  get  any  wear  and  tear.  Among  the 
various  other  materials  employed  as  coverings,  the  principal  are :  American  leather  cloth, 
made  about  45  in.  wide;  Utrecht  velvet,  24  in.;  damasks,  reps,  and  tapestries,  50  in.; 
cretonne,  30  to  36  in. ;  silk  plush,  24  in. 

Some  of  the  most  useful  twines  for  upholstering  are  made  by  the  West  of  England 
Twine  Works.  For  tying  down  springs,  sewing,  buttoning,  and  stitching,  select  No.  28 
3-cord  mattress  twine  ;  and  for  lashing  down  springs.  No.  360  laid  cord. 

Leather  Work.  Sinall  Chair ;  buttoned  and  loelted. — The  construction  of  the  frame 
of  a  chair  has  already  been  described  (Figs.  689-95,  pp.  363-9).  The  first  step  is  to- 
tightly  strain  3  lengths  of  webbing  (No.  10  or  12)  across  the  seat  from  front  to  back,  and 


UrHOLSTERY — Leather  Work. 


401 


?>  from  side  to  side,  securiDg  it  to  the  bottom  of  the  frame  with  =-iu.  tacks.  Next 
distribute  the  5  springs  (G  in.)  diagonally  and  equidistantly  over  the  scat,  and  fasten  to 
the  webbing  with  medium  twine.  Knot  some  lashing  cord  to  tho  top  ring  of  eacli  s[»ring, 
and  tic  them  all  down  to  about  4J  in.  high,  taking  care  that  they  are  quite  upright  in 
their  places.  Fasten  a  breadth  of  canvas  taut  across  the  springs  with  |-in.  tacks,  and, 
with  a  bent  needle,  sew  the  canvas  to  the  top  rings  of  the  springs  (still  keeping  them 
upright)  with  5  equally  divided  stitches,  knotting  each  separately. 

Before  the  first  stuffing  is  commenced,  a  string  is  run  round  the  edge  of  the  seat,  and 
a  moderately  full  body  of  hair  is  picked  or  strung  on,  avoiding  too  much  iu  the  middle  ; 
scrim  (very  coarse  muslin)  is  next  laid  over  the  hair.  Keeping  the  bridle  square  with 
the  chair,  temporarily  tacked  into  place,  and  fastened  to  the  canvas  on  tho  springs  by  a 
<louble-pointed  needle,  making  3  rows  of  stitches  3  in.  long  and  4  in.  from  the  out.side 
edge.  Next,  this  outer  edge  has  to  be  firmly  filled  in,  so  that  after  the  scrim  has  been 
secured  with  J-in.  tacks  all  round,  and  stitched  all  over,  the  stuflSng  should  rise  about 
3  in.  above  the  frame,  presenting  the  correct  outline  of  the  seat,  and  slightly  overhanging. 

To  begin  the  second  stuffing,  mark  a  line  down  the  centre  of  the  seat  from  front  to 
back,  and  mark  the  places  for  10  buttons,  putting  alternately  3  and  2  in  a  row,  com- 
mencing with  3  in  the  front,  and  allowing  none  to  be  less  than  3  in.  from  the  edges  of  the 
seat.  At  each  button,  a  small  hole  is  made  with  scissors  through  the  scrim,  to  fix  the  spot. 
The  skin  for  covering  the  seat  is  next  placed  with  the  neck  to  the  back,  and  marked 
as  shown  in  Fig.  732,  a  being  the  central  line,  h  the  plaits,  and  c  the  spots  for  the 
buttons,  which  may  be  1 5  to  2 J  in.  apart,  according 
to  the  degree  of  fulness  desired.  Tiie  skin  being 
filled,  the  liair  for  the  second  stuffing  is  picked  on 
with  care,  so  that  the  leather  maybe  tilled  out  firmly 
and  free  from  creases ;  then  the  wadding  and  the 
skin  are  put  in  place,  and  the  buttons  are  inserted 
with  a  slip  knot  of  button  twine  and  pulled  half- 
way down,  taking  care  to  slope  the  hair  away  from 
under  the  buttons  ;  the  knots  are  then  tied,  the  ends 
are  cut  otF,  and  the  plaits  are  worked  out  smooth. 
Work  the  fulness  of  the  stuffing  into  the  outside 
plaits  that  are  square  with  the  seat,  and  pin  the  skiu 
to  the  edge  of  the  first  stuffing. 

In  cutting  off  the  skin  to  the  exact  form,  which  is 
the  next  step,  about  |  in.  must  be  allowed  for  turning 
in.  It  is  well  to  secure  the  outside  edges  of  the 
plaits  by  an  occasional  stitch.  The  margin  cut  off 
all  round  the  skin  will  be  available  for  the  border 
and  welt,  for  the  latter  of  which  lashing  twine  is 
used.    The  2  joints  necessary  in  the  border  should 

come  about  2  in.  from  the  front  corners  on  the  sides,  the  jointing  being  effected 
in  the  following  manner.  With  a  very  sharp  knife,  the  border  is  cut  quite  straight, 
and  the  ends  to  be  joined  are  chamfered  otf  so  as  to  overlap  each  other  about  §  in.  ;  tho 
joints  are  made  fast  either  by  curriers'  paste  or  by  nearly  cold  glue :  both  will  make 
ineradicable  stains  if  they  penetrate  the  leather,  as  they  will  do  if  hot.  When  the  joints 
have  dried  tight,  the  border  is  strained  into  place  and  temporarily  pinned  on,  2  or  3 
corresponding  little  notches  being  snipped  on  the  border  and  seat  in  front  and  at  botii 
sides,  as  a  guide  iu  the  sewing.  The  strip  for  the  welt  is  cut  and  joined  iu  the  same  way. 
After  both  border  and  welt  have  been  dried  and  sewn,  they  are  turned  up  and  stitched 
to  the  edge  of  the  leather  seat.  A  little  piece  of  buckram  tacked  on  each  front  corner 
assists  in  preserving  a  proper  outline.  When  some  wadding  has  been  stuffed  under  tho 
border,  it  ia  fastened  with  |-iu.  tacks,  without  creases.    If  studs  are  added  with  banding, 

2d 


402 


Upholstery — Leather  Work. 


they  should  be  about  1 J  in.  apart ;  if  close  studding  is  adopted,  no  band  is  needed.  It  is 
only  when  springs  are  employed  that  canvas  is  used  on  the  bottoms ;  and  the  average 
quantity  of  hair  used  is  2§  lb.,  whether  it  is  a  spring  seat  or  not. 

Flain  Seats. — In  the  case  of  chairs  covered  with  morocco,  roan,  or  American  leather 
cloth,  with  plain  seats  and  welted  borders,  the  springs  are  usually  left  a  little  higher  than 
in  the  previous  case,  otherwise  they  do  not  difter  in  the  first  stufBng.  The  skin  is  best 
cut  on  the  first  stuffing ;  lay  it  clean  out  without  straining,  pin  round,  allow  for  turning, 
and  cut  to  shape  ;  but  some  prefer  to  finish  the  seat  in  calico  and  cut  the  skin  on  that. 
The  border  and  welt  are  cut  and  joined  as  before ;  after  straining  on,  notching,  and 
sewing,  the  welt  is  hammered  flat,  and  the  strain  on  the  border  prevents  wrinkles. 
When  the  skin  is  thus  prepared,  the  second  stuffing  commences  by  picking  on  the  hair ; 
then  it  is  finished  in  calico,  and  temporary  ties  are  stitched  up  through  webs,  springs,  and 
seat,  pulling  all  down  flat,  and  knotted  beneath.  Now  the  skin  can  easily  be  drawn  on, 
the  welt  is  stitched  to  the  edge  of  the  first  stufBng,  and  the  border  tacked  down  in  place  ; 
on  the  temporary  ties  being  cut  and  pulled  out,  the  seat  rises  up  tight.  If  the  welting  is 
omitted,  as  usual  in  all  but  first-class  articles,  the  skin  is  tacked  down  to  the  seat-rail 
moulding,  and  the  same  process  followed  out.  Plaits  can  be  eased  out  by  temporary  tacking 
and  shrifting,  except  on  round  articles,  when  care  must  be  taken  to  have  them  vertical. 

Easy  Chairs. — Everything  depends  on  adapting  the  heiglit  of  the  springs  and 
adjustment  of  the  stufling  to  the  particular  character  of  the  chair.  A  good  rule  is  to 
keep  the  stufiSng  well  to  the  front  of  the  seat,  in  order  to  give  it  a  decided  throw  back. 
Tlie  swell  in  the  back  must  be  regulated  so  as  to  catch  the  small  of  the  back  of  the  sitter, 
and  not  to  throw  the  shoulders  or  the  bottom  of  the  spine  too  much  forward.  It  is  well  to- 
avoid  making  the  stuffing  very  full,  consequently  1^  or  If  in.  will  suffice  for  each  diamond, 
that  is  to  say,  if  the  diamonds  on  the  scrim  are  Tin.  by  5  in.,  the  skin  may  be  marked 
8f  in.  by  7|  in.     Easy  chairs  are  much  best  without  buttons,  especially  in  leather. 

Settees  and  Couches. —  Here  a  new  difficulty  arises,  in  that  the  size  of  the  articles 
necessitates  3  or  more  skins  being  joined  together.  If  the  seat  is  plain,  the  skins  may  be 
cut  quite  square  across  it,  joined  with  a  small  welt,  pinned  over  on  the  first  stuffing,  and 
cut  to  shape ;  the  border  is  well  strained  round  to  avoid  fulness,  and  joined  up  to  the 
seat  as  in  the  first  example,  the  scroll  and  pad  at  the  back  being  dealt  with  in  a 
similar  manner. 

If  the  seat  is  to  be  buttoned,  the  skins  may  not  be  large  enough  to  tack  down.  Then 
the  places  for  the  tufts  are  marked  on  the  first  stuffing,  allowing  the  fii'st  row  to  be  3h  in. 
from  the  front  edge  of  the  seat,  and  the  diamonds  7  in.  crosswise  by  5^  in.  lengthwise ; 
small  holes  are  cut  in  the  scrim  where 
the  tufts  come.  In  marking  out  the 
skins,  the  fulness  allowed  is  2  in.  across 
the  seat  by  If  in.  along  it  for  each 
diamond,  making  9  in.  by  7j  in.  on  the 
skin,  the  seat  having  a  full  sweej)  across 
it,  but  being  straight  in  the  length.  It  is 
convenient  to  mark  out  on  a  sheet  of  paper 
as  many  full-sized  diamonds  as  a  skin  will 
cut,  adjusting  this  in  the  most  economical 
manner  on  the  skin,  and  marking  it 
through.  Each  skin  added  to  form  the 
length  must  be  joined  exactly  at  the 
diamond   edges,   as   shown  in  Fig.  733. 

The  neck  of  each  skin  is  placed  at  the  back  of  the  seat,  and  if  the  skin  should  not  be 
long  enough,  the  necessary  piecing  is  done  at  the  back  edge.  The  button  marks  must 
meet  accurately  and  be  sewn  through.  The  bordering  and  welting  do  not  differ  from, 
the  first  example. 


Upholstery — Hair  Cloth ;  Fancy  Coverings.  403 

For  fi  buttoned  scroll  about  H  skins  will  generally  be  required  ;  and  in  marking  the 
diamonds  on  the  scrim  they  should  begin  at  about  8  in.  from  the  scat,  and  be  7  in. 
crosswise  and  5  in.  lengthwise,  allowing  1a  in.  on  each  diamond  for  crosswise  fulness, 
and  increasing  1  in.  for  every  line  in  lengthwise  fulness  (e.  g.  1  -V  in.  on  the  first,  2\  in.  on 
the  second,  and  so  on),  in  the  case  of  ordinary  scrolls,  though  of  course  some  variation 
will  arise  according  to  the  shortness  or  fulness  of  the  curve,  necessitating  the  greatest 
judgment  if  a  perfect  shaped  scroll  is  to  be  the  result.  The  correct  fulness  allowance  on 
each  diamond  in  stuffing  the  back  is  about  l-i  in.,  and  to  reduce  the  liability  to  wrinkle 
across  the  diamonds  the  lowest  row  of  buttons  on  the  back  may  be  a  little  above  that  on 
the  scroll.  For  arm  pads,  if  present,  10  in.  leather  will  be  wide  enough,  and  small  pieces 
may  be  used  up  by  joining  in  the  plaits ;  the  bxittons  are  placed  about  5  in.  apart,  and 
secured  by  twine  passed  through  the  middle  of  the  pad  and  tacked  on  each  side. 

Hair  Cloth. — Woven  horsehair  cloth  is  procurable  in  several  widths,  the  price 
increasing  out  of  proportion  to  the  extra  number  of  inches ;  hence,  cloth  work  is  usually 
welted,  to  permit  the  use  of  narrower  widths.  It  cannot  be  plaited,  and  is  adapted  only 
for  plain  seats.  The  article  is  finished  in  hoUand  or  canvas  of  black  colour — light  tints 
would  show  through — the  seating  and  borders  are  cut  to  size  and  shape,  and  the  border 
is  strained  round  loosely,  and  welted.  On  backs  and  scrolls,  the  clotli  need  not  be  laid 
tightly,  as  the  buttons  will  pull  it  into  shape.  Any  wrinkles  and  creases  which  may 
appear  in  the  cloth  when  placed  and  tacked  on  can  be  removed  by  moistening  with  water, 
all  disappearing  on  drying. 

Fancy  Coverings. — Covering  in  soft  fancy  materials  presents  far  fewer  difficulties 
than  when  working  with  leather  or  hair-cloth.  The  stuffing  should  be  kept  softer  and  the 
springs  may  be  more  pliable.  When  joints  in  the  covering  are  needed  at  all  they  may 
best  run  lengthwise,  as  in  a  wide  couch  for  instance.  The  following  materials  would  be 
required  for  an  ordinary  drawing-room  suite,  according  to  the  style : — 

Plain  Seats.  Buttoned. 

Gimp       36  yd.  36  yd. 

Cord        22  „  22   „ 

Buttons I  gross  2  gross 

Tapestry  or  rep      8-9  yd.  10-12  yd. 

Cretonne 14-16    ,,  18-20   „ 

Plush  or  velvet      18-20    „  24-26,, 

Plaiii  Seats. — For  cheap  work,  plain  seats  are  first  stufied  in  calico;  but  if  the 
covering  is  to  be  velvet  or  plush,  the  work  is  finished  in  calico  before  covering.  Buttoned 
backs  and  scrolls  may  be  tacked  down  for  inferior  work,  or  bordered  and  corded  on  the 
edges  for  better  class  goods. 

Buttoned  Seats.— In  marking  out  the  scrim  for  the  buttons,  the  following  allow- 
ances for  fulness  have  to  be  made :— Small  chairs,  1 1  in.  each  way ;  easy-chair  seats, 
2  in.  each  way;  easy-chair  backs,  IJ  in.  each  way;  couch  seats,  2i  in.  across  and 
2  in.  along;  couch  back,  li  in.  each  way;  couch  scroll,  If  in.  across,  and  1  in. 
progressively  on  each  diamond  from  the  bottom  row,  which  is  often  low  down  to 
the  seat.  For  bordered  work,  the  cover  should  be  turned  under  and  sewn  to  the  edge 
of  the  scrim  on  the  top,  when  it  cannot  move  during  wear ;  while  if  first  stitched  in 
under  the  roll,  it  works  loose  and  baggy  in  wear. 

Spring  Edges. — If  a  spring  edge  is  to  be  made,  the  middle  springs  should  be  soft 
and  8  or  9  in.,  and  be  lashed  in  place  farther  from  the  rails,  with  canvas  laid  over  and 
tacked  to  the  top  of  the  rails  on  the  extreme  inside  edge.  Soft  6-in.  springs  are  used 
at  the  edge,  fastened  securely  in  a  vertical  position  on  the  rails,  all  to  one  height,  the 
cord  holding  them  being  best  knotted  to  the  top  ring  of  each  spring,  and  fixed 
down  on  each  side  by  |-in.  tacks.    The  shape  of  the  edge  is  formed  by  bending  spring 

2  D  2 


404  Upholstery — Fancy  Coverings ;  Mattresses. 

•wire  to  the  exact  shape  of  the  rail,  and  securing  it  -with  string  tightly  to  the  top  ring 
of  the  spring  edge ;  the  canvas  covering  is  sewn  to  the  spring  edge  and  to  the  canvas 
ah-eady  on  about  3  in.  from  the  top  level,  aiming  to  allow  the  two  sets  of  springs  to 
woik  independently  of  eacli  other.  The  first  stuffing  should  be  soft  and  free,  with  a 
bold  overhanghig  stitched  edge,  finished  on  the  wire  edge  ;  a  strip  of  canvas  sewn  to 
the  wire  edge  which  is  tacked  to  the  seat  rail  permits  the  height  of  border  to  be 
regulated  by  pulling  to  shape ;  the  second  stuffing  may  be  finished  with  a  bold  cord 
just  under  the  roll,  witli  a  frill  or  one  row  of  buttons  on  the  border. 

French  Eauj  Chairs. — For  these,  the  scrim  is  tacked  down  to  the  bottom  of  the 
frame  in  front,  and  finished  with  a  round  edge  in  calico  sliglitly  hanging  over,  but  no 
stitched-up  edge  to  the  seat.  The  seat  is  filled  with  very  soft  8-in.  springs,  and  the 
plain  part  is  upholstered  in  tapestry  in  the  usual  way,  and  stitched  to  a  line  previously 
marked  on  the  calico.  Half  diamonds  for  the  tufted  front  are  marked  on  the  calico, 
allowing  the  buttons  about  3  in.  apart,  and  holes  are  snipi3ed  for  button  marks.  The 
plush  is  marked  with  a  fulness  allowance  of  IJ  in.  good.  Hair  of  superior  quality  is 
filled  in  on  the  top  of  the  calico,  tufted  round,  kept  in  place  by  sewing  to  the  tapestry, 
and  finished  with  cord  or  gimp  to  cover  the  stitches.  Festoons  of  plush  cover  the 
tacks  on  the  rail,  and  are  finished  with  a  fringe  1  or  1^  iu-  deep.  The  inside  of  the 
back  and  sidus  is  webbed,  canvassed,  and  finished  in  tajoestry  without  any  stitching. 
The  pad  which  runs  round  the  back  and  arms  is  finished  in  scrim  cut  on  the  skew, 
which  renders  it  softer  and  makes  it  hold  better.  The  hair  is  tacked  rather  firm  on 
the  jmds  and  stitched  only  on  the  front  scrolls.  The  pad  is  marked  for  buttons  about 
4  in.  apart,  and  holes  are  snipped  to  let  them  sink  a  little.  The  wadding  is  laid  on 
and  covered  with  plush,  finishing  with  good-sized  cord.  To  form  plaits  and  fulness 
near  the  bottom,  the  festoons  are  cut  wider  at  the  bottom  than  at  the  top ;  they  are 
made  and  tacked  on  separately,  a  bold  cord  covering  the  tacks  as  on  the  inside  of  the 
back.  When  a  bolster  is  added  on  the  top  of  the  back,  it  is  formed  in  the  stuffing  as 
follows.  A  good  body  of  superior  hair  is  picked  or  strung  on  the  top  rail,  and  made 
firm  but  not  tight ;  the  scrim  is  cut  20  in.  wide  on  the  skew,  tacked  down,  and  stitched 
up  to  a  fine  edge. 

Needlework  Chairs. — The  best  shape  for  displaying  needlework  is  the  Sjianish. 
For  a  needlework  central  strip,  with  plush  sides  and  border,  the  first  step  is  to  stuff 
without  springs,  keeping  it  quite  flat  across  to  counteract  the  tendency  to  wrinkle.  A 
little  hair  or  wadding  is  picked  or  strung  on,  and  the  needlework,  pinned  to  a  correct 
line,  is  sewn  in  place  with  a  6-in.  needle  through  canvas  and  webs,  allowing  the  needle 
to  slope  outwards  from  the  work  to  produce  a  more  rigid  stay.  The  side  margins  are 
buttoned,  allowing  IJ  in.  for  fulness  where  there  is  little  curve,  increasing  J  to  ^  in.  on 
the  top  and  bottom  rounds,  and  decreasing  in  the  hollow.  Suitable  cord  is  used  to  hide 
the  point  and  finish  the  borders.  When  the  needlework  is  puckered,  it  may  be  rendered 
quite  square  and  straight  by  straining  it  face  downwards  very  tight  and  true  on  the 
board,  with  a  clean  cloth  under  it,  and  damping  and  pressing  it  till  dry. 

Mattresses. — Sjjring. — The  construction  of  the  box-frame  spring  mattress  requires 
sides  about  6  in.  high  with  8  laths  across  the  bottom,  and  5  10-in.  springs  for 
each  lath  in  a  mattress  4i  ft.  wide,  the  latter  being  secured  to  tlie  laths  by  small 
staples,  tied  down  in  a  somewhat  rounding  form,  and  finally  lashed  each  way.  The 
springs  are  covered  with  strong  canvas  firmly  sewn  on  as  in  the  case  of  a  single  chair 
(p.  401) ;  and  a  well-stitched  roll  3  or  4  in.  high  is  fixed  round  the  box.  On  to  the 
canvas  is  picked  the  hair  or  wool  stuffing  (20  lb.  of  the  former  or  25  lb.  of  the 
latter),  and  this  is  covered  by  ticking,  laid  with  the  stripe  running  lengthways,  and 
lightly  tacked  ;  next  the  tick  is  tufted,  and  the  whole  is  turned  upside  down,  the  tick 
being  tacked  on  to  the  bottom  edge  of  the  box.  Double  webbing  is  nailed  on  the  under 
side  about  12  in.  from  the  corners,  for  handles,  and  the  under  side  is  finally  covered  with 
canvas.    When  the  mattress  is  made  in  two  halves,  the  sides  of  each  spring  box  will 


Upholstery— Beds,  Pillows.     Painting.  405 

only  bo  half  the  length  of  the  bed  ;  the  two  middle  rows  of  springs  should  almost  meet, 
and  a  strip  of  cane  lashed  across  the  ends  of  the  half  boxes  where  they  join  preserves  thf 
squareness  of  the  boxes  and  constitutes  a  base  to  work  upon,  but  it  must  be  stitclied 
up  all  round,  keeping  the  middle  soft. 

Tufted  Top.— An  extra  allowance  of  f  in.  to  the  ft.  each  way,  must  be  made  for 
fulness  in  cutting  the  tick  top,  if  the  mattress  is  to  liave  a  tufted  top  and  welted  or 
bouml  border.  The  diamonds  may  be  12  to  14  in.  long  and  tlie  tufts  G  in.  from  tlie 
edges,  the  border  being  out  to  exact  size  and  somewhat  tight  all  round,  a  small  plait 
opposite  each  outside  tuft  allowing  the  top  to  come  into  the  border. 

Folding. — For  a  folding  spring  mattress,  the  two  lialf  boxes,  about  5  in.  high,  are 
placed  together,  and  the  springs  are  lashed  each  way  ;  the  canvas  and  tick  are  each  put 
on  in  a  single  piece,  cutting  the  former  a  little  at  each  side  where  the  fold  comes,  and 
allowing  a  fulness  of  f  in.  per  ft.  in  the  latter.  The  top  is  let  into  a  tight  border 
41  in.  wide,  and  a  second  border  is  sewn  on  to  give  enough  material  to  tack  under  the 
bottom  of  the  spring  box.  After  running  a  twine  round  on  the  edg(i  of  the  case,  a 
good  body  of  hair  is  picked  on  very  firm,  the  tick  is  put  over  and  temporarily  tacked, 
the  mattress  is  tufted,  and  the  border  is  stitched  round.  Next  the  two  halves  are 
folded  together,  and  the  open  ends  are  covered  with  canvas  or  tick,  sewn  to  the  cut 
borders  ;  then  2  pieces  of  web  are  covered  with  similar  tick,  a  piece  of  cane  or  wire 
about  3  in.  long  being  stitched  crossways  to  the  end  of  one,  with  a  button  capable  of 
taking  it  in  the  other,  and  these  are  nailed  one  to  each  half  of  the  frame  bottom. 

Stuffed. — For  mattresses  stuffed  with  hair  or  wool,  the  ticks  are  cut  with  a  fulness 
of  f  in.  per  ft.  larger  than  the  bedstead ;  no  allowance  for  binding  is  made  in  the 
borders,  which  are  cut  4i  in.  deep.  The  amount  of  stuffing  required  is  computed  at 
the  rate  of  9  or  10  lb.  per  ft.  in  width,  assuming  the  hair  or  wool  to  be  of  fairly  good 
quality ;  the  tufting  is  done  with  a  diamond  of  10  to  12  in.,  some  6  in.  from  the 
edge. 

French  pallets. — In  these,  made  of  half  wool  and  half  hair,  only  6  lb.  of  stuffing  is 
reckoned  per  ft. ;  the  ticks  have  an  allowance  of  1^  in.  per  ft.  each  way  for  fulness, 
and  are  cut  without  a  border,  only  one  side  being  sewn  together.  In  distributing  the 
hair  and  wool,  the  former  should  occupy  the  centre,  forming  a  layer  which  is  covered 
on  both  top  and  bottom  sides  with  the  wool,  equally  divided.  If  it  is  spread  on  one  half 
of  the  tick,  the  other  half  can  be  folded  over  it  and  stitched  round.  Tufting  completes 
the  operations. 

Beds  and  Pillows. — The  tick  for  a  feather  bed  should  be  cut  to  the  size  of  the 
bedstead,  with  a  5-in.  border  and  a  welt,  the  pattern  running  lengthways  on  the  bed, 
and  crossways  on  the  border  and  welting.  The  stuffing  allowance  of  medium  quality 
feathers  is  8  lb.  per  ft.  in  width,  decreasing  with  a  superior  kind.  For  flock,  the 
figure  is  about  the  same,  but  the  tick  is  cut  without  a  border. 

Bolster  ticks  are  cut  20  in.  wide  and  of  a  length  to  suit  the  wiilth  of  the  bed  ;  the 
ends  are  gathered  and  welted  on  the  cross  either  to  an  oval  piece  12  in.  by  8  in.,  or  to 
a  square  piece  14  in.  by  6  in.  rounded  on  the  ends.  This  is  for  feathers,  of  which  8  to 
10  lb.  will  be  required.  In  the  case  of  flock  stuffing,  they  are  finished  square,  and 
require  about  tlie  same  weiglit.  Pillow  ticks  are  cut  20  in.  wide  and  sewn  to  finish 
square,  requiring  4  to  5  lb.  of  feathers  or  flock. 

PAINTING,  GRAINING,  AND  MARBLING.— The  primary  object  of 
painting  is  to  aid  the  preservation  of  the  material  so  treated  ;  its  secondary  object  is  the 
ornamentation  of  the  surface.     Graining  answers  only  a  decorative  purpose. 

Painting.— Paints  employed  with  a  view  of  aiding  preservation  are  of  the  kind 
known  as  "  oil  paints."  These  consist  of  basic  pigments  to  give  "body"  or  covering 
power,  colouring  pigments  to  modify  the  hue,  vehicles  or  mediums  for  rendering  the  mass 
soft  and  coherent,  sometimes  solvents  for  increasing  the  liquidity,  and  driers  for  hastening 
the  removal  of  the  moisture  incident  to  the  vehicle  when  the  paint  has  been  applied. 


406  Painting — Basic  Pigments. 

Basic  Pigments. — The  most  important  are  white-lead,  red-lead,  zinc-white,  and  iron 
oxide. 

White-lead  is  a  form  of  lead  carbonate.  The  best  kind  is  produced  by  the  Dutch 
process,  which  consists  in  placing  gratings  of  pure  lead  in  tan,  and  exposing  them  to  the 
fumes  of  acetic  acid ;  by  these  they  are  corroded,  and  covered  with  a  crust  of  carbonate, 
which  is  removed  and  ground  to  a  fine  powder.  There  are  other  processes  for  manu- 
facturing white-lead,  in  which  it  is  precipitated  by  passing  carbonic  acid  through 
solutions  of  different  salts  of  lead.  "  Clichy  white"  is  produced  in  this  way  by  the 
action  of  carbonic  acid  gas  upon  lead  acetate.  The  white-lead  produced  by  precipitation 
is  generally  considered  inferior  to  that  prepared  by  corrosion.  It  is  wanting  in  density 
or  body,  and  absorbs  more  oil,  but  does  not  require  grinding.  Pure  white-lead  is  a 
heavy  powder,  white  when  first  made ;  if  exposed  to  the  air  it  soon  becomes  grey  by  the 
action  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  effervesces  with  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid,  dissolving  when  heated,  and  is  easily  soluble  in  dilute  nitric  acid.  Heated 
on  a  slip  of  glass  it  becomes  yellow.  It  may  be  used  as  the  basis  of  paints  of  all  colours. 
It  is  often  sold  mixed  with  various  substances — such  as  baryta  sulphate,  lead  sulphate, 
lime  sulphate,  whiting,  chalk,  zinc-white.  These  do  not  combine  with  oil  so  well  as 
white-lead,  nor  do  they  so  well  protect  any  surface  to  which  they  are  applied.  Baryta 
sulphate,  the  most  common  adulterant,  is  a  dense,  heavy,  white  substance,  very  like  white- 
lead  in  appearance.  It  absorbs  very  little  oil,  and  may  frequently  be  detected  by  the 
gritty  feeling  it  produces  when  the  paint  is  rubbed  between  the  finger  and  thumb. 
White-lead  is  sold  either  dry  in  powder  or  lump,  or  ground  in  oil  in  a  paste  containing 
7-9  per  cent,  of  Knseed  oil,  and  more  or  less  adulterated.  When  baryta  sulphate  has 
been  added,  its  presence  is  in  most  cases  avowed ;  the  mixture  is  called  by  a  particular 
name,  which  indicates  to  the  initiated  the  proportion  of  sulphate  of  baryta  that  it  contains. 
"Newcastle  White,"  "  Nottingham  White,"  "  Kremnitz  "  or  "  Krems  White"  (known 
also  as  "  Vienna  White,"  imported  from  Austria  in  small  tubes),  "  French  "  or  "  Silver 
White  "  (in  drops,  from  Paris),  and  "  Flake  White  "  (made  in  England  in  small  scales), 
should  all  be  pure  white-lead,  but  they  differ  considerably  in  density.  "  Venice  White" 
contains  1  part  white-lead  to  1  part  baryta  sulphate ;  "  Hamburg  White  "  contains  1  part 
to  2  ;  "  Dutch  "  or  "  Holland  White  "  contains  1  part  to  3.  When  the  baryta  sulphate 
is  very  white,  like  that  of  the  Tyrol,  these  mixtures  are  considered  preferable  for  certain 
kinds  of  painting,  as  the  barytes  communicates  opacity  to  the  colour,  and  protects  the 
lead  from  being  speedily  darkened  by  sulphurous  smoke  or  vapours.  White-lead  improves 
by  keeping.  It  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  air,  or  it  will  turn  grey.  Old  white-lead 
of  good  quality  goes  farther  and  lasts  better  than  if  it  is  used  when  fresh ;  moreover, 
the  paint  made  with  fresh  lead  has  a  tendency  to  become  yellow,  and  the  fresh  white- 
lead  itself  often  has  a  yellowish  tinge,  from  the  presence  of  iron.  Of  all  the  bases  for 
paints,  white-lead  is  the  most  commonly  used ;  for  wood  surfaces  it  affords  in  most  cases 
the  best  protection,  being  dense,  of  good  body,  and  permanent.  It  has  the  disadvantage, 
however,  of  blackening  when  exposed  to  sulphur  acids,  and  of  being  injurious  to  those 
who  handle  it.  Testing  its  quality  is  a  very  simple  operation.  In  the  case  of  dry  white- 
lead,  digest  it  with  nitric  acid,  in  which  it  dissolves  readily  on  boiling.  When  ground 
with  oil,  the  oil  should  be  burnt  off,  and  the  residue  treated  with  nitric  acid ;  or  the 
whole  may  be  boiled  for  some  little  time  with  strong  nitric  acid,  which  destroys  the  oil 
and  dissolves  the  lead  on  the  addition  of  water.  Baryta  sulphate  being  insoluble  in  the 
acid  remains  behind,  and  can  be  collected  on  a  filter,  washed  with  hot  distilled  water, 
and  weighed. 

Ked-lead  or  minium  is  produced  by  raising  "  massicot "  (lead  oxide)  to  a  high 
temperature,  short  of  fusion,  during  which  it  absorbs  oxygen  from  the  air,  and  is  further 
oxidized.  It  is  usually  in  the  form  of  a  bright  red  powder.  The  colour  is  lasting,  and 
unaffected  by  light  when  the  article  is  pure  and  used  alone ;  but  any  preparation  con- 
taining lead,  or  acids  mixed  with  it,  deprive  it  of  colour,  and  impure  air  makes  it  black. 


Painting— Colouring  Pigments.  407 

Hed-lead  is  used  as  a  drier ;  also  for  painting  iron  ;  and  in  the  priming  coat  for  paintinf^ 
wood.  It  is  sometimes  adulterated  with  brick-dust,  whicli  may  bo  detected  by  heating 
in  a  crucible,  and  treating  with  dilute  nitric  acid  ;  the  lead  will  be  dissolved,  but  the 
brick-dust  will  remain.  It  may  also  be  adulterated  with  "  colcothar."  As  a  substitute 
for  it,  antimony  sulphide  ("  antimony  vermilion  ")  has  been  proposed.  It  is  sold  in  a 
very  fine  powder,  without  taste  or  smell.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  alcohol,  or  essential 
oils,  is  but  little  acted  upon  by  acids,  and  is  stated  to  be  unaffected  by  air  or  light.  It 
is  adapted  for  mixing  with  white-lead,  and  affords  an  intensely  bright  colour  when 
ground  in  oil. 

Zinc  oxide,  the  basis  of  ordinary  zinc  paint,  is  prepared  by  distilling  metallic  zinc 
in  retorts,  under  a  current  of  air;  the  metal  is  volatilized,  and  white  oxide  is  condensed. 
This  is  filled  into  canvas  bags,  and  pressed  to  increase  its  density.  It  is  durable  in  water 
and  oil,  dissolves  in  hydrochloric  acid,  does  not  blacken  in  the  presence  of  sulphuretted 
liydrogen,  and  it  is  not  injurious  to  the  men  who  make  it,  or  to  tlie  painters  who  use  it. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  does  not  combine  so  well  with  oil,  is  wanting  in  body  and  covering 
power,  and  is  difficult  to  work.  The  want  of  density  is  a  great  drawback  to  its  use, 
and  the  purest  quality  is  not  always  the  best  for  paint  on  account  of  its  low  specific 
gravity ;  in  this  respect  the  American  zinc  whites,  which  are  frequently  very  pure,  do 
not  generally  compete  with  the  zinc-white  supplied  by  the  Vieille  Montague  Company, 
in  Belgium.  Zinc  oxy-sulphide  is  used  as  the  basis  of  Griffith's  patent  white  paint, 
stated  by  Dr.  Phipson  to  be  prepared  by  precipitating  zinc  chloride  or  sulphide  by  means 
of  a  soluble  sulphide — of  sodium,  barium,  or  calcium.  The  precipitate  is  dried  and 
levigated,  while  hot,  in  cold  water. 

Iron  oxide  is  produced  from  a  brown  htcniatite  ore  found  at  Torbay  in  Devonshire, 
and  forms  the  basis  of  a  large  class  of  paints  of  some  importance.  The  ore  is  roasted 
.separated  from  impurities,  and  ground.  Tints,  varying  from  yellowish  brown  to  black, 
may  be  obtained  by  altering  the  temperature  and  other  conditions  under  which  it  is 
roasted. 

Colouring  Pigments. — Many  of  these,  such  as  the  ochres  and  umbers,  are  from  natural 
eartlis ;  others  are  artificially  made.  They  may  generally  be  purchased  either  as  dry 
powder  or  ground  in  oil. 

Blacks : — "  Lampblack  "  is  the  soot  produced  by  burning  oil,  rosin,  small  coal,  resinous 
woods,  coal-tar,  or  tallow  ;  is  in  the  state  of  very  fine  powder,  works  smoothly,  is  of  a 
ilense  black  colour,  and  durable ;  but  dries  badly  in  oil.  "Vegetable  black  "  is  a  better 
Ivind  of  lampblack  made  from  oil ;  is  very  light,  free  from  grit,  and  of  a  good  colour  ; 
should  be  used  with  boiled  oil,  driers,  and  a  little  varnish ;  linseed  oil  or  turps  keeps  it 
from  drying.  "  Ivory  Black  "  is  obtained  by  calcining  waste  ivory  in  close  vessels,  and 
then  grinding ;  is  intensely  black  when  properly  burnt.  "  Bone  Black  "  is  inferior  to 
ivory  black,  and  prepared  in  a  similar  manner  from  bones.  "  Blue  Black  "  and  "  Frankfort 
Black  "  of  the  best  quality  are  made  from  vine  twigs  ;  inferior  qualities  from  other  woods, 
charred  and  reduced  to  powder.  "  Grant's  Black,"  or  "  Bideford  Black,"  is  a  mineral 
substance  found  near  Bideford ;  it  contains  a  large  proportion  of  silicious  matter,  is  denser 
than  lampblack,  but  has  not  so  much  colouring  power. 

Blues. — "  Prussian  Blue  "  is  made  by  mixing  potash  prussiate  with  a  salt  of  iron. 
The  potash  prussiate  is  obtained  bj'  calcining  and  digesting  old  leather,  blood,  hoofs,  or 
other  animal  matter  with  potash  carbonate  and  iron  filings.  This  pigment  is  much  used, 
especially  for  dark  blues,  making  purples  and  intensifying  black  ;  dries  well  with  oil  ; 
.slight  differences  in  the  manufacture  cause  considerable  variation  in  tint  and  colour, 
which  leads  to  the  material  being  known  by  different  names — such  as  "  Antwerp  " 
'•  Berlin,"  "  Haerlem,"  "  Chinese  "  Blue.  Indigo  is  produced  by  steeping  certain  plants, 
from  Asia  and  America,  in  water,  and  allowing  them  to  ferment ;  is  a  transparent  colour, 
works  well  in  oil  or  water ;  but  is  not  durable,  especially  when  mixed  with  white-lead. 
Prench  and  German  ultramarines   are  made  of    good  colour,  and  cheap,  by  fusing 


408  Painting — Colouring  Pigments. 

■washing,  and  reheating  a  mixture  of  soda,  silica,  alum,  and  sulphur ;  used  uhiefly  for  colour- 
ing wall  papers.  Cobalt  blue  is  an  oxide  of  cobalt  made'by  roasting  cobalt  ore ;  a  beautiful 
pigment,  and  works  well  in  water.  "  Smalt,"  "  Saxon  blue,"  and  "  Koyal  blue"  an- 
coloured  by  cobalt  oxides.  "  Bremen  blue  "  or  "  Verditer  "  is  a  compound  of  copper  and 
lime  of  a  greenish  tint. 

Browns  generally  owe  their  colour  to  iron  oxide.  "  Raw  umber  "  is  a  clay  coloured 
by  oxide  of  iron ;  the  best  comes  from  Turkey  ;  it  is  very  durable  both  in  water  and  in 
oil,  and  does  not  injure  other  pigments  when  mixed  with  them.  "  Burnt  umber  "  is  the 
last-mentioned  pigment  burnt  to  give  it  a  darker  colour;  useful  as  a  drier,  and  in 
mixing  with  white-lead  to  make  stone  colour.  '•  Vandyku  brown  "  is  an  earthy  mineral 
pigment  of  dark-brown  colour  ;  durable  both  in  oil  and  in  water,  and  usefid  for  graining. 
"  Purple  brown  "  is  of  a  reddish-brown  colour;  sliould  be  used  with  boiled  oil,  and  a 
little  varnish  and  driers  for  outside  work.  "  Burnt  sienna  "  is  produced  by  burning  raw- 
sienna  ;  the  best  colour  for  shading  gold.  "  Brown  ochre  "  is  another  name  for  "  spruce 
ochre."  "  Spanish  brown  "  is  also  an  ochre.  '*  Brown  pink  "  is  a  vegetable  pigment 
often  of  a  greenish  hue  ;  works  well  in  water  and  oil,  but  dries  badly,  and  will  not  keep 
its  colour  when  mixed  with  white-lead. 

Greens  may  be  made  by  mixing  blue  and  yellow  pigments,  but  such  mixtures  are 
less  diirable  than  those  produced  direct  from  copper,  arsenic,  &c. ;  the  latter  are,  however, 
oLy'ectiouablo  for  use  in  distemper,  or  on  wall  papers,  as  they  are  injurious  to  health. 
"  Brunswick  green "  of  the  best  kind  is  made  by  treating  copper  with  sal-ammoniac ; 
chalk,  lead,  and  alum  are  sometimes  added  ;  has  rather  a  bluish  tinge  ;  dries  well  in 
oil,  is  durable,  and  not  poisonous.  Ordinary  Brunswick  green  is  made  by  mixing  lead 
chiomate  and  Prussian  blue  with  baryta  sulphate.  "  Mineral  green  "  is  made  from 
bi-basic  copper  carbonate;  weatliers  well.  "  Verdigris "  (copper  acetate)  furnishes  a 
bluish-green  colour,  durable  in  oil  or  varnisli,  but  not  in  water;  dries  rapidly,  but  is  not 
a  safe  pigment  to  use.  "  Green  verditer  "  is  copper  carbonate  and  lime.  "  Prussian 
green"  is  made  by  mixing  ditferent  substances  witli  Prussian  blue.  Several  other  greens 
made  from  copper  are  "Brighton,"  "■malachite,"  "mcmntain,"  "marine,"  "Saxon," 
"  African,"  "  French,"  and  "  patent "  green.  "  Emerald  green  "  is  made  of  verdigris 
mixed  with  a  solution  of  arsenious  acid  ;  is  of  very  brilliant  colour,  but  very  jwisonous, 
difficult  to  grind,  and  dries  badly  in  oil ;  shoul  be  purchased  ready  ground  in  oil,  in 
which  case  the  poisonous  particles  do  not  fly  aoout,  and  the  difficulty  of  grinding  is 
avoided.  "  Scheele's  green  "  and  "  Vienna  green  "  are  also  copper  arsenites,  and  higidy 
poisonous.  "  Chrome  green  "  sliould  be  made  from  chromium  oxide,  and  is  very  durable : 
inferior  chrome  green  is  made,  however,  by  mixing  lead  chromate  and  Prussian  blue,  and 
is  called  "  Brunswick  green."  The  chrome  should  be  free  from  acid,  or  the  colour  will 
fade  ;  may  be  tested  by  placing  it  for  several  days  in  strong  sunlight. 

Lakes  are  made  by  precipitating  coloured  vegetable  tinctures  by  means  of  alum  and 
potash  carbonate ;  the  alumina  combines  with  the  organic  colouring  matter,  and  teparates 
it  from  the  solution.  The  tincture  used  varies  in  the  different  descriptions  of  lake ;  the 
best,  made  from  cochineal  or  madder,  is  very  expensive.  The  colour  is  not  durable,  and 
dries  slowly  ;  it  mixes  well  with  white-lead,  and  is  used  for  internal  work.  "  Drop  lake  " 
is  made  by  dropping  a  mixture  of  Brazil  wood  through  a  funnel  on  to  a  slab  ;  the  drops 
are  dried  and  mixed  into  paste  with  gum  water,  sometimes  called  "  Brazil  wood  lake." 
"Scarlet  lake  "is  made  from  cochineal,  as  are  "  Florentine,"  "Hamburg,"  "Chinese," 
"  Pioman,"  "Venetian,"  and  "carminated  "  lakes. 

Oranges.— " Chrome  orange"  is  a  kad  cliromate,  brighter  than  vermilion,  but  less 
durable.  "  Orange  ochre  "  is  a  bright  yellow  ochre  burnt  to  give  it  warmth  of  tint ;  dries 
and  works  well  in  water  and  oil,  and  is  very  durable  ;  known  also  as  "  Spanish  ochre." 
"  Orange  red  "  is  produced  by  a  further  oxidation  than  is  required  for  red-lead ;  is  a 
brighter  and  better  pigment. 

Reds. — "  Carmine, "  made  from  the  cochineal  insect,  is  the  most  brilliant  red  pigment 


Painting — Vehicles  or  Mediums.  40& 

known ;  but  too  expensive  for  ordinary  liouse  painting,  and  not  durable ;  sometimes 
used  for  internal  decoration.  "  Ecd-luad  "  ground  by  itself  in  oil  or  varnish  forms  a 
durable  pigment,  or  it  may  be  mixed  with  ochres ;  white-lead  and  metallic  salts  generally 
destroy  its  colour.  "  Vermilion "  is  mercury  sulphide  found  in  a  natural  state ;  best 
comes  from  China  ;  artificial  vermilion  is  also  made  both  in  China  and  on  the  Continent 
from  a  mixture  of  sulphur  and  imrcury  ;  genuine  is  very  durable,  but  it  is  sometinas 
adulterated  with  red-lead,  &c.,  and  then  will  not  weather ;  on  heating  some  in  a  test 
tube  it  should  entirely  volatilize,  and  the  powder  crushed  between  sheets  of  i)aper  should 
not  change  colour.     German  vermilion  is  antimony  tersulphide  ;ind  of  orange-red  colour 

"Indian  red"  is  a  ground  hematite  ore  brought  from  Bengal,  sometimes  artificially 
made  by  calcining  iron  sulphate ;  tints  vary,  but  a  rosy  hue  is  considered  tlie  bist ;  may 
be  used  with  turpentine  and  a  little  varnish  to  produce  a  dull  surface,  drying  rapidly,  or 
with  boiled  oil  and  a  little  driers,  in  which  case  a  glossy  surface  will  be  produced,  drying 
more  slowly.  '•  Chinese  red "  and  "  Persian  red "  are  lead  chromates,  produced  by 
boiling  white-lead  with  a  solution  of  potash  bichromate  ;  the  tint  of  Persian  red  is  obtained: 
by  the  employment  of  sulphuric  acid ;  these  are  much  used  for  painting  pillar  post  boxes. 
"  Light  red "  is  a  burnt  ochre,  and  shares  the  characteristics  of  raw  ochres  already 
described.  "  Venetian  red  "  is  obtained  by  heating  iron  sulphate  produced  as  a  waste 
product  at  tin  and  copper  works ;  is  often  adulterated  by  mixing  lime  sulphate  with  it 
during  the  manufacture  ;  when  pure  it  is  known  as  "  bright  red  "  ;  when  special  tints  of 
purple  and  brown  are  required,  these  should  be  obtained  in  the  process  of  manufacture, 
and  not  produced  by  mixing  together  a  variety  of  different  shades  of  colour;  when  the 
tint  desired  is  attempted  to  be  obtained  by  this  latter  course  it  is  never  so  good,  and  tlie 
pigments  produced  are  known  as  "  faced  colours  "  and  are  of  inferior  value.  "  Rose  pink  " 
is  a  chalk  or  whiting  stained  with  a  tincture  of  Brazil  wood ;  fades  very  quickly,  but  is 
used  for  paperhangings,  common  distemper,  and  for  staining  cheap  furniture.  "  Dutsh 
pink  "  is  a  similar  substance  made  from  quercitron  bark. 

Yellows. — Chrome  yellows  are  lead  chromates,  produced  by  mixing  dilute  solutions  of 
lead  acetate  or  nitrate  and  potash  bichromate ;  this  makes  a  medium  tint  known  as 
"  middle  chrome."  The  addition  of  lead  sulphate  makes  this  paler,  when  it  is  known 
as  "lemon  chrome,"  whereas  the  addition  of  caustic  lime  uiakes  it  "orange  chrome" 
of  a  darker  colour.  The  chromes  mix  well  with  oil  and  with  white-lead  either  in  oil  or 
water;  stand  the  sun  well,  but,  like  other  lead  salts,  become  dark  in  bad  air.  Chronn! 
yellow  is  frequently  adulterated  with  gypsum.  "  Naples  yellow  "  is  a  salt  of  lead  and 
antimony ;  is  not  so  brilliant  as  chrome,  but  has  the  same  characteristics.  "  King's 
yellow  "  is  made  from  arsenic,  and  is  therefore  a  dangerous  pigment  to  use  in  internal 
work ;  is  not  durable,  and  injures  several  other  colours  when  mixed  with  them.  "  Chinese 
yellow,"  "  arsenic  yellow,"  and  "  yellow  orpiment "  are  other  names  for  king's  yellow. 
Yellow  ochre  is  a  natural  clay,  coloured  by  iron  oxide,  and  found  abundantly  in  mnnj' 
parts  of  England ;  is  not  very  brilliant,  but  is  well  suited  for  distemper  work,  as  it  i:^ 
not  affected  by  light  or  air;  does  not  lose  its  colour  when  mixed  with  lime,  as  some  other 
pigments  do.  "  Spruce  ochre  "  is  a  variety  of  brownish-yellow  colour.  "  Oxford  ochre  " 
is  of  a  warm  yellow  colour  and  soft  texture,  absorbent  of  both  oil  and  water.  "  Stone 
ochre  "  is  found  in  the  form  of  balls  imbedded  in  the  stone  of  the  Cotswold  hills  ;  varies 
in  tint  from  yellow  to  brown.  "  Raw  sieuna"  is  a  clay,  stained  with  oxides  of  iron  and 
manganese,  and  of  a  dull  yellow  colour  ;  is  durable  both  in  oil  and  water,  and  useful  in 
all  work,  especially  graining.  "  Yellow  lake"  is  a  pigment  made  from  turmeric,  alum, 
&o. ;  is  not  durable,  and  does  not  mix  well  with  oil  or  metallic  colours. 

VeJddes  or  Mediums. — A  vehicle  to  be  perfect  should  mix  readily  with  the  pigment, 
forming  a  pasty  mass  of  treacly  consistence;  it  should  exert  neither  colouring  nor 
chemical  action  upon  the  pigments  with  which  it  is  mixed  ;  spread  out  in  a  thin  layer 
upon  a  more  porous  substance,  it  should  solidify  and  form  a  film  not  liable  to  subsequent  dis- 
integration or  decay,  and  sufficiently  elastic  to  resist  slight  concussion.     No  vehicle  yet 


410  Painting — Vehicles  or  Mediums. 

introduced  complies  with  all  these  conditions;  those  which  most  nearly  approach  them 
are  the  drying-oils.  Tlie  use  of  oil  in  painting  is  said  to  have  been  invented  in  the 
14th  century,  and  soon  readied  considerable  perfection.  Even  the  best  of  recent  painters 
have  not  succeeded  in  giving  to  their  works  that  durabili-ty  which  the  originators  of  the 
method  attained.  All  organic  substances  are  liable  to  a  more  or  less  rapid  oxidation, 
especially  if  exposed  to  light  and  lieat.  Oil  is  no  exception  to  tliis  rule ;  but  it  seems 
that,  in  its  pure  state,  it  is  much  more  durable  than  when  mixed  with  other  substances. 
Although  ground-nut-  and  poppy-oils  are  sometimes  employed  by  artists  where  freedom 
from  colour  is  essential,  linseed-oil  is  the  vehicle  of  by  far  the  larger  proportion  of  paint 
for  both  artistic  and  general  purposes. 

Oil-paint  appears  to  have  been  unknown  to  the  ancients,  who  used  various  vehicles, 
chiefly  of  animal  origin.  One  of  these,  which  was  in  liigh  repute  at  Rome,  was  white- 
of-egg  beaten  with  twigs  of  the  fig-tree.  No  doubt  the  indiarubber  contained  in  the 
milky  juice  exuding  from  tlie  twigs  contributed  to  the  elasticity  of  the  film  resulting  from 
the  drying  of  this  vehicle.  Pliny  was  aware  of  the  fact  that  when  glue  is  dissolved  in 
vinegar  and  allowed  to  dry,  it  is  less  soluble  than  in  its  original  state.  Many  suggestions 
have  been  made  in  modern  times  for  vehicles  in  which  glue  or  size  plays  an  important 
part.  In  order  to  render  it  insoluble,  various  chemicals  have  been  added  to  its  solution, 
such  as  tannin,  alum,  and  a  chromic  salt.  None  of  these  vehicles,  however  useful  for 
sjDecial  purposes,  has  become  sufficiently  well  known  to  warrant  description. 

Linseed-oil,  to  be  suitable  for  painting,  must  dry  well.  A  test  which  will  indicate 
whether  this  be  the  case  or  not  is  to  cover  a  piece  of  glass  witii  a  film  of  the  raw  oil,  and 
to  expose  it  to  a  temperature  of  about  100°  F.  (38°  C).  The  time  which  the  film 
requires  to  solidify  is  a  measure  of  the  quality  of  the  oil.  If  the  oil  has  been  extracted 
from  unripe  or  impure  seed,  the  surface  of  the  test-glass  will  remain  "  tacky  "  or  sticky 
for  some  time,  and  the  same  will  happen  if  the  oil  imder  examination  has  been  adulterated 
with  an  animal  or  vegetable  non-drying  oil. 

Until  recently,  linseed-oil  was  frequently  adulterated  with  cottonseed-oil,  extracted 
from  the  waste  seeds  of  the  cotton-plant.  Where  the  admixture  was  considerable,  it 
could  easily  be  detected  by  the  sharp  acrid  taste  of  the  cottonseed-oil.  Now,  however, 
means  have  been  found  for  removing  this  disagreeable  taste,  and  the  consequence  has 
been  that  cottonseed-oil  is  so  largely  used  for  adulterating  olive-oil,  or  as  a  substitute  for 
it,  that  its  price  has  risen  above  that  of  linseed-oil.  Another  adulterant  which  is  rather 
difficult  to  detect  is  rosin.  Oil  containing  this  substance  is  thick  and  darker  in  colour 
than  pure  oil.  When  the  proportion  of  rosin  is  considerable,  its  presence  may  be  ascer- 
tained by  heating  a  film  of  the  oil  upon  a  metallic  plate,  when  the  characteristic  smell 
of  burning  rosiu  will  be  perceptible.  When  the  percentage  of  rosin  is  too  small  for 
detection  in  this  manner,  a  film  of  the  oil  should  be  spread  upon  glass  and  allowed  to 
dry.  When  quite  hard,  the  film  should  be  scraped  off,  and  treated  with  cold  turpentine, 
which  will  dissolve  any  rosiu  which  may  be  present,  without  materially  afi'ecting  the 
oxidized  oil.  The  presence  of  rosin  may  also  be  detected  by  the  following  simple 
chemical  test : — The  oil  is  boiled  for  a  few  minutes  with  a  small  quantity  of  alcohol 
(sp.  gr.  0'9),  and  is  allowed  to  stand  until  the  alcohol  becomes  clear.  The  supernatant 
liquid  is  then  poured  off,  and  treated  with  an  alcoholic  solution  of  lead  acetate.  If  the 
oil  be  pure,  there  will  be  very  slight  turbidity,  while  the  presence  of  rosin  causes  a  dense 
Uocculent  precipitate.  Should  linseed-oil  be  adulterated  with  a  non-drying  oil,  it  will 
remain  sticky  for  months,  when  spread  out  in  a  thin  film  uiion  glass  or  other  non- 
absorbent  substance. 

The  sp.  gr.  of  linseed-oil  is  in  some  cases  of  value  in  estimating  its  quality ;  but  as 
the  variations  are  slight,  it  would  be  difficult  to  detect  them  in  so  thick  a  liquid  by 
means  of  an  ordinary  hydrometer.  A  simple  method  of  obtaining  an  approximate  result 
is  to  procure  a  sample  of  oil  of  known  good  quality,  and  to  colour  it  with  an  aniline  dye. 
-A  drop  of  this  tinted  oil  will,  when  placed  in  the  oil  to  be  tested,  indicate,  by  its  sinking 


Painting — Driers.  411 

•or  swimming,  the  relative  density  of  the  liquid  under  examination.  Freslily-extracted 
linseed-oil  is  unfit  for  making  paint.  It  contains  water  and  organic  impurities,  rcsjiecting 
the  composition  of  which  little  is  known,  and  which  are  generally  termed  "  mucilage."  Bv 
storing  the  oil  in  tanks  for  a  long  time,  the  water  and  the  greater  part  of  the  impurities 
are  precipitated,  forming  at  the  bottom  of  the  cistern  a  pasty  mass  known  ns  "  foots." 

To  accelerate  the  purification  of  the  oil,  and  to  remove  at  least  a  portion  of  the  colour- 
ing matter,  various  methods  are  in  use.  The  action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  linseed-oil 
is  not  so  favourable  as  upon  other  oils.  It  is,  however,  sometimes  employed,  in  the 
proportion  of  2  parts  of  a  mixture  of  equal  volumes  of  commercial  sulphuric  acid  and 
water  to  100  of  oil.  The  dilute  acid  is  poured  gradually  into  the  oil,  and  the  mixture  is 
violently  agitated  for  several  hours,  then  run  into  tanks,  and  allowed  to  settle.  A  con- 
centrated solution  of  zinc  chloride  has  been  substituted  for  sulphuric  acid  in  the  propor- 
tion of  about  li  per  cent,  of  the  weight  of  the  oil.  "When  the  reaction  is  complete,  steam 
or  warm  water  is  admitted  into  the  li(|uid  to  clarify  it.  Oil  treated  in  this  way  loses  a 
considerable  proportion  of  the  colouring  matter  which  it  originally  contained.  When  the 
oil  is  to  be  used  for  white  paint,  it  is  sometimes  bleached  by  exposing  it  to  the  action  of 
light.  On  a  large  scale,  this  is  done  in  shallow  troughs,  lined  with  lead  and  covered 
with  glass.  The  lead  itself  appears  to  have  some  influence  upon  the  bleaching  of  the 
oil,  for  the  decoloration  is  not  so  rapid  if  the  troughs  be  lined  with  zinc.  For  small 
quantities,  a  shallow  tray  of  white  porcelain  gives  very  good  results,  the  white  surface 
increasing  the  photo-chemical  action.  It  is  not  quite  clear  whether  the  presence  of 
water  accelerates  the  bleaching  of  oil  by  this  method ;  some  manufacturers  consider  its 
presence  necessary,  others  omit  it.  Various  salts  are  added  to  the  water,  the  one  most 
in  use  being  copperas.  However  the  oil  may  have  been  prepared,  it  will,  if  kept  for  a 
long  time,  deposit  a  sediment.  At  first  this  contains  mucilage ;  but  the  sediment  from 
old  oil  consists  chiefly  of  the  products  of  decomposition  of  the  oil  itself.  Oxygen  is  not 
necessary  for  this  decomposition ;  but  it  is  increased  by  the  action  of  light.  Raw  linseed- 
oil  dries  more  slowly  than  boiled ;  but  the  resulting  film  is  more  brilliant  and  durable. 
Raw  and  boiled  oils  are  therefore  usually  mixed  in  proportions  varying  according  to  the 
time  which  can  be  allowed  for  the  paint  to  dry,  or  to  tlie  properties  required  of  the  film. 
For  ordinary  kinds  of  paint,  equal  parts  of  boiled  and  raw  oils  are  customary.  Linseed-oil 
heated  to  350°  to  400°  F.  (176°  to  204°  C.)  dries  much  more  rapidly  tlian  in  its  raw  state. 

Driers. — The  maximum  drying  power  is  obtained  by  the  addition  of  certain  metaUic 
oxides,  which  not  only  part  with  some  of  their  own  oxygen  to  the  oil,  but  also  act  as 
carriers  between  the  atmospheric  oxygen  and  the  heated  liquid.  This  heating  of  the 
oil  with  oxides  is  known  as  boiling,  although  the  liquid  is  not  volatilized  without  decom- 
position, as  is  the  case  with  water.  At  about  500°  F.  (260°  C.),  bubbles  begin  to  rise 
in  the  oil,  producing  acrid  white  fumes  on  coming  into  contact  with  the  air.  The  gas 
thus  given  ofl"  consists  chiefly  of  vapour  of  acrolein  mingled  with  carbonic  oxide.  There 
is  no  advantage  in  heating  the  oil  higher  than  350°  F.  (176°  C.) ;  the  drying  properties 
of  the  oil  are  not  increased  by  heating  beyond  this  point,  while  its  colour  is  considerably 
darkened.  For  the  finer  qualities  of  boiled  oils,  it  is  essential  that  the  raw  oil  should 
have  been  stored  for  some  time,  so  that  it  may  be  free  from  mucilage.  This  mucilage  is 
the  chief  source  of  the  dark  colour  of  some  boiled  oils ;  when  heated,  it  forms  a  brown 
substance,  which  is  soluble  in  the  oil  itself,  and  extremely  difiScult  to  remove.  Tiie 
oxides  usually  added  to  the  oil  during  boiling  are  litharge  or  red-lead,  the  former  being 
preferred  on  account  of  its  lower  price.  About  2  to  5  per  cent,  by  weight  of  tlie  oxides 
or  driei-s  is  gradually  stirred  into  the  oil  after  it  has  been  slowly  raised  to  about  300°  F. 
(149°  0.).  The  stirring  should  be  continued  until  the  litharge  is  dissolved,  or  it  would 
cake  on  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  and  cause  the  oil  to  burn.  Litharge  may  even  be 
reduced  to  a  cake  of  metallic  lead  when  the  fire  is  brisk.  Some  pans  are  furnished  witli 
stirrers  and  gearing  by  which  the  latter  can  be  worked  by  hand  or  steam.  The  material 
of  which  the  pans  are  made  is  wrought-  or  cast-iron.    Copper  pans  are  sometimes  used 


412  Painting — Driers. 

with  tlie  object  of  improving  the  colour  of  the  oil.  Little  is  known  respecting  the 
chemical  reactions  which  take  place  during  the  boiling  of  oil.  Even  when  the  air  is 
excluded  during  the  process,  tiie  drying  properties  are  greatly  increased,  and,  if  boiled 
long  enough,  the  oil  is  converted  into  a  solid  substance.  The  loss  of  weight  whicli 
ensues  is  dependent  upon  the  temperature  and  the  time  during  which  the  operation  con- 
tinues. It  is  less  when  the  air  is  freely  admitted  than  if  the  pan  is  covered  witli  a  hood. 
The  vapours  given  oil'  by  the  oil  are  of  an  extremely  irritating  character,  and  should  be 
destroyed  by  passing  tlirough  a  furnace.  As  their  mixture  with  air  in  certain  propor- 
tions is  explosive,  this  furnace  should  be  situated  at  some  distance,  and  the  gases  be  con- 
ducted into  it  by  an  earthenware  pipe. 

Since  it  has  been  tried  to  substitute  zinc  oxide  for  white-lead  in  painting,  researches 
have  been  made  to  replace  litharge  as  a  drier  by  a  substance  free  from  the  inconveniences 
which  caused  the  abandoinnent  of  white-lead.  If  sulphuretted  hydrogen  impairs  the 
whiteness  of  painting  done  with  white-lead,  it  is  not  logical  to  employ  a  lead  drier  with 
zinc  paints,  because  the  latter  substances  will  lose  their  advantage  of  not  becoming  dark. 
Several  metallic  oxides  and  salts,  especially  zinc  sulphate,  manganese  oxide,  and  umber, 
have  the  property  of  combining  with  oils,  which  they  render  drying.  To  these  may  be 
added  the  protoxides  of  the  metals  of  the  third  class,  i.  e.  iron,  cobalt,  and  tin.  But  these 
oxides  are  very  unstable  and  difHcult  of  preparation ;  hence  it  became  desirable  to  dis- 
cover some  means  by  which  they  might  be  combined  with  bodies  which  would  enable 
them  to  be  prepared  cheaply,  and  at  the  same  time  leave  unimpaired  their  desiccating 
powers.  Moreover,  it  is  acknowledged  that  driers  in  the  dry  state  are  preferable  in  many 
respects  to  drying  oils.     Following  are  some  of  the  recently-introduced  driers : — 

(1)  Cobalt  and  Manganese  Benzoates. — Benzoic  acid  is  dissolved  in  boiling  water, 
the  liquid  being  continually  stirred,  and  neutralized  with  cobalt  carbonate  until 
eifervescence  ceases.  Excess  of  carbonate  is  removed  by  filtration,  and  the  liquor  is 
evaporated  to  dryness.  The  salt  thus  prepared  is  an  amorphous,  hard,  brownish  material, 
which  may  be  powdered  like  rosin,  and  kept  in  the  pulverulent  state  in  any  climate, 
simply  folded  in  paper.  Painting  executed  with  a  paint  composed  of  Sjjarts  of  this  drier 
with  1000  of  oil  and  1200  of  zinc-white,  dries  in  IS  to  20  hours.  Manganese  benzoate  is 
prepared  in  the  same  way,  substituting  manganese  carbonate  for  that  of  cobalt.  Applied 
under  similar  circumstances,  it  dries  a  little  more  rapidly,  and  a  little  less  is  required. 
Urobenzoic  (hippuric)  acid  is  equally  efficacious. 

(2)  Cobalt  and  Manganese  Borates. — These  salts  also,  in  the  same  proportions,  are 
found  to  be  of  equal  efficacy.  The  latter  is  extremely  active,  and  requires  to  be  used 
in  much  smaller  proportions. 

(3)  Resinates. — If  an  alkaline  resinate  of  potash  or  soda  be  dissolved  in  hot  water, 
and  this  solution  be  precipitated  by  a  solution  of  a  proportionate  quantity  of  a  cobalt  or 
manganese  chloride  or  sulphate,  an  amorphous  resinate  is  formed,  which,  after  being 
collected  on  cloth  filters,  washed,  and  dried,  forms  an  excellent  drier. 

(4)  Zumatic  (Transparent)  Drier. — Take  zinc  carbonate,  90  lb. ;  manganese  borate, 
10  lb. ;  linseed-oil,  90  lb.  Grind  thoroughly,  and  keep  in  bladders  or  tin  tubes.  The 
latter  are  preferable. 

(5)  Zumatic  (Opaque)  Drier. — Manganese  borate,  as  a  drier,  is  so  energetic  that  it  is 
proper  to  reduce  its  action  in  the  following  way: — Take  zinc-wliite,  25  lb. ;  manganese 
borate,  1  lb.  Mix  thoroughly,  first  by  hand,  then  in  a  revolving  drum ;  1  lb.  of  this 
mixed  with  20  lb.  paint  ensures  rapid  drying. 

(G)  Manganese  Oxide. — Purified  linseed-oil  is  boiled  for  6  or  8  hours,  and  to  every 
100  lb.  boiled  oil  are  added  5  lb.  of  powdered  manganese  peroxide,  which  may  be  kept 
suspended  in  a  bag,  like  litharge.  The  liquid  is  boiled  and  stirred  for  5  or  6  hours  more, 
and  then  cooled  and  filtered.  This  drying  oil  is  employed  in  the  proportion  of  5  to  10  per 
cent,  of  the  zinc-white. 

(7)  Guynemer's. — Take  pure  manganese  sulphate,  1  part ;  manganese  acetate,  1  part ; 


Painting — Grinding,  Storing,  Ap[)lying,  Priming.         413 

?alcined  zinc  sulphate,  1  part;  white  zinc  oxide,  97  parts.  Grind  the  sulphates  and 
icetate  to  impalpable  powder,  sift  through  a  metallic  sieve.  Dust  3  parts  of  this  powder 
3ver  97  of  zinc  oxide,  spread  out  over  a  slab  or  board,  thoroughly  mix,  and  grind.  Tlie 
resulting  white  powder,  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  J  or  1  per  cent,  with  zinc-white,  will 
enormously  increase  the  drying  property  of  this  body,  which  will  become  dry  in  10  or 
12  hours. 

In  using  driers,  observe  that  you  (1)  do  not  employ  them  needlessly  with  pigments 
which  dry  well  in  oil  colour,  (2)  nor  in  excess,  which  would  retard  the  drying,  (3)  nor 
add  them  to  the  colour  until  about  to  be  used,  (4)  nor  use  more  than  one  drier  to  the 
■iame  colour,  (5)  nor  use  any  at  all  in  the  finishing  coat  of  light  colours. 

GrindiiKj. — In  working  any  form  of  grinding-i oilers,  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
clean  them  thorouglily  immediately  after  use.  If  the  paint  be  allowed  to  dry  upon  the 
surface  of  the  rollers,  it  is  difficult  of  removal,  and  interferes  with  the  perfect  action  of 
the  machine.  Should  the  working  parts  become  clogged  with  solidified  oil,  a  strong 
jolution  of  caustic  soda  or  potash  will  remove  it.  By  means  of  the  same  solutions, 
porcelain  rollers  may  be  kept  quite  white,  even  if  used  for  mixing  coloured  paints. 
Although  the  colour  of  most  pigments  is  improved  by  grinding  them  finely  in  oil,  there 
xre  some  which  suffer  in  intensity  when  their  size  of  grain  is  reduced.  Chrome  red,  for 
instance,  owes  its  deep  colour  to  the  crystals  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  when  these 
ire  reduced  to  extremely  fine  fragments,  the  colour  is  considerably  modified. 

Storing. — When  paint  is  not  intended  fjr  immediate  use,  it  is  packed  in  metallic  kegs 
For  exportation  to  hot  climates,  the  rim  of  the  lid  is  soldered  down,  a  practice  which 
effectually  prevents  access  of  atmospheric  oxygen.  White-lead  paint  is  frequently 
p;icked  in  wooden  kegs ;  these  prevent  the  discoloration  sometimes  caused  by  iron  kegs. 
When  paint  is  mixed  ready  for  use,  it  will,  if  exposed  to  tiie  air,  become  covered  with  a 
ikin,  which  soon  attains  sufficient  thickness  to  exclude  atmospheric  oxygen,  and  prevent 
my  further  solidification  of  the  oil.  The  paint  may  be  still  better  protected  by  pouring 
water  over  it,  or  it  may  be  placed  in  air-tight  cans.  It  it  has  been  allowed  to  stand  for 
some  time,  it  must  be  well  stirred  before  using,  as  the  pigments  have  a  tendency  not 
only  to  separate  from  the  oil,  but  also  to  settle  down  according  to  their  specific  gravity. 

Applying. — Of  whatever  nature  the  surface  may  be  to  which  the  paint  is  to  be 
applied,  great  care  must  be  taken  that  it  is  perfectly  dry.  Wood  especially,  even  when 
qjpurently  dry,  may  on  a  damp  day  contain  as  much  as  20  per  cent,  of  moisture.  A  film  of 
paint  applied  to  the  surface  of  wood  in  this  condition  prevents  the  moisture  from  escaping, 
and  it  remains  enclosed  until  a  warm  sun  or  artificial  heat  converts  it  into  vapour,  which 
raises  the  paint  and  causes  blisters.  Moisture  enclosed  between  two  coats  of  paint  has  the 
same  effect.  Paint  rarely  blisters  when  applied  to  wood  from  which  old  paint  has  been 
burnt  ofi';  this  is  probably  due  to  the  drying  of  the  wood  during  the  operation  of  burning. 

Priming. — The  first  coat  of  paint  applied  to  any  surface  is  termed  the  "priming- 
coat."  It  usually  consists  of  red-lead  and  boiled  and  raw  linseed-oil.  Exiierience  has 
shown  that  such  a  priming  not  only  dries  quickly  itself,  but  also  accelerates  the  drying 
of  the  next  coat.  The  latter  action  must  be  attributed  to  the  oxygen  contained  in  the 
red-lead,  only  a  small  portion  of  which  is  absorbed  by  the  oil  with  which  it  is  mixed. 
Kail,  of  Heidelberg,  prepares  a  substitute  for  boiled  oil  by  mixing  10  parts  whipped 
bluod,  just  as  it  is  furnished  from  the  slaughter-houses,  with  1  part  of  air-slaked  lime 
sifted  into  it  through  a  fine  sieve.  The  two  are  well  mixed,  and  left  standing  for  24 
hours.  The  dirty  portion  that  collects  on  top  is  taken  off,  and  the  solid  portion  is  broken 
loose  from  the  lime  at  the  bottom;  the  latter  is  stirred  up  with  water,  left  to  settle,  and 
the  water  poured  off  after  the  lime  has  settled.  The  clear  liquid  is  well  mixed  up  with 
the  solid  substance  before  mentioned.  This  mass  is  left  standing  fi)r  10  or  12  days. 
ufter  which  a  solution  of  potash  permanganate  is  added,  which  decolorizes  it  and  pre- 
vents jjutrefaction.  Finally  the  mixture  is  stirred  up,  diluted  with  more  water  to  give 
it  the  conbistence  of  very  thin  size,  filtered,  a  few  drops  of  oil  of  lavender  added,  and  the 


414  Painting — Priming,  Drying,  Filling. 

preparation  preserved  in  closed  vessels.  It  is  said  to  keep  a  long  time  without  (•liange. 
A  single  coat  of  tl)is  liquid  ■will  suffice  to  prepare  wood  or  paper,  as  well  as  lime  or  bard 
plaster  walls,  for  painting  with  oil  colours.  This  substance  is  cheaper  than  linseed-oil,. 
and  closes  the  pores  of  the  surface  so  perfectly  that  it  takes  much  less  paint  to  cover  it 
than  when  primed  with  oil. 

Drying. — The  drying  of  paint  is  to  a  great  extent  dependent  upon  the  temperature. 
Below  the  freezing-point  of  water,  paint  will  remain  wet  for  weeks,  even  when  mixed 
Avith  a  considerable  proportion  of  driers ;  while,  if  exposed  to  a  heat  of  120°  F.  (49°  C), 
the  same  paint  will  become  solid  in  a  few  hours.  The  drying  of  paint  being  a  process 
of  oxidation  and  not  evaporation,  it  is  essential  that  a  good  supply  of  fresh  air  should  be 
provided.  "When  a  film  of  fresh  paint  is  placed  with  air  in  a  closed  vessel,  it  does  not 
absorb  the  whole  of  the  oxygen  present ;  but  after  a  time  the  drying  process  is  arrested, 
and  the  remaining  oxygen  appears  to  have  become  inert.  Considerable  quantities  of 
volatile  vapours  are  given  off  during  the  drying  of  paint ;  these  are  due  to  the  decompo- 
sition of  the  oil.  When  the  paint  has  been  thinned  down  by  turpentine,  the  whole  of 
this  liquid  evaporates  on  exposure  to  the  air.  There  must,  therefore,  be  a  plentiful 
access  of  air,  to  remove  the  vapours  formed,  and  aiford  a  fresh  supply  of  active  oxygen. 
The  presence  of  moisture  in  the  air  is  rather  beneficial  than  injurious  at  this  stage. 
Especially  in  the  case  of  paints  mixed  witli  varnish,  moist  air  appears  to  counteract  the 
tendency  to  crack  or  shrink.  Under  the  erroneous  impression  that  the  drying  of  paint  is 
a  species  of  evaporation,  open  iires  are  sometimes  kept  up  in  fresldy-painted  rooms.  It 
is  only  when  the  temperature  is  very  low  that  any  benefit  can  result  from  this  practice  r 
as  a  rule,  it  rather  retards  than  hastens  the  solidification  of  the  oil,  which  cannot  take 
place  rapidly  in  an  atmosphere  laden  with  carbonic  acid.  The  first  coat  of  paint  should 
be  thoroughly  dry  before  the  second  is  applied.  Acrylic  acid  is  formed  during  the  oxi- 
dation of  linseed-oil,  and  unless  this  be  allowed  to  evaporate,  it  may  subsequently 
liberate  carbonic  acid  from  the  white-lead  present  in  most  paints,  and  give  rise  to 
blisters.  Sometimes  a  second  priming-coat  is  given  ;  but  usually  the  second  coat 
applied  contains  the  pigment.  This,  as  soon  as  dry,  is  again  covered  by  another  coat, 
and  subsequently  by  two  or  more  finishing-coats,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work. 

FiUing. — Before  the  first  coat  is  applied  to  wood,  all  holes  should  be  filled  up.  The 
filling  usually  employed  is  ordinary  putty ;  this,  however,  sometimes  consists  of  whiting 
ground  up  with  oil  foots  of  a  non-drying  character,  and  when  the  films  of  paint  are  dry, 
the  oil  from  the  putty  exudes  to  the  surface,  causing  a  stain.  The  best  filling  for  ordinary 
purposes  is  whiting  ground  to  a  paste  with  boiled  linseed-oil.  For  finer  work,  and  for 
filling  cracks,  red-lead  mixed  with  the  same  vehicle  may  be  employed.  For  porous 
hard  woods,  use  boiled  oil  and  corn  starch  stirred  into  a  very  thick  paste  ;  add  a  little 
japan,  and  reduce  with  turpentine.  Add  no  colour  for  light  ash ;  for  dark  ash  and 
chestnut,  use  a  little  raw  sienna ;  for  walnut,  burnt  umber  and  a  slight  amount  of 
Venetian  red  ;  for  bay  wood,  burnt  sienna.  In  no  case  use  more  colour  than  is  required 
to  overcome  the  white  appearance  of  the  starch,  unless  you  wish  to  stain  the  wood.  This 
filler  is  worked  with  brush  and  rags  in  the  usual  manner.  Let  it  dry  48  hours,  or  until 
it  is  in  condition  to  rub  down  with  No.  0  sandpaper,  without  much  gumming  up ;  and  if 
an  extra  fine  finish  is  desired,  fill  again  with  the  same  materials,  using  less  oil,  but  more 
japan  and  turpentine.  The  second  coat  will  not  shrink,  being  supported  by  the  first. 
When  the  second  coat  is  hard,  the  wood  is  ready  for  finishing  up  by  following  the  usual 
methods.     This  formula  is  not  intended  for  rosewood. 

Coats. — There  is  no  advantage  in  laying  on  the  paint  too  thickly.  A  thick  film  takes 
longer  to  dry  thoroughly' than  two  thin  films  of  the  same  aggregate  thickness.  Paint  is 
thinned  down  or  diluted  with  linseed-oil  or  turpentine.  The  latter  liquid,  when  used  in 
excess,  causes  the  paint  to  dry  with  a  dull  surface,  and  has  an  injurious  effect  upon  its 
stability.  Sometimes  the  last  coat  of  paint  is  mixed  with  varnish,  in  order  to  give  it 
greater  brilliancy.    In  this  case,  special  care  must  be  taken  that  the  previous  coats  have 


Painting— Coats,  Brushes,  Surface.  415 

thoroughly  soliilificJ,  or  cracks  in  the  final  coat  may  subsequently  appear.  TIio  same 
remark  applies  when  the  surface  of  the  paint  is  varnished.  The  turi)entine  with  wliicli 
the  varnish  is  mixed  has  a  powerful  action  upon  the  oil  contained  in  the  paint  if  Iho 
latter  is  not  thoroughly  oxidized.  The  exterior  of  the  paiiit  is  tlius  softened,  and  the 
parnish  is  enabled  to  shrink  and  crack,  especially  in  warm  weather. 

Brushes. — The  bristles  are  frequently  fastened  by  glue  or  size,  which  is  not  per- 
ceptibly acted  upon  by  oil,  and  if  brought  into  contact  with  this  liquid  ;iloiio  there 
would  be  no  complaints  of  loose  hairs  coming  out  and  spoiling  the  work.  It  is  a  common 
practice  to  leave  the  brushes  in  a  jjaint-pot,  in  which  the  paint  is  covered  with  water  to 
beep  it  from  drying.  The  brushes  are  certainly  kept  soft  and  pliant  in  this  way;  but 
xt  the  same  time  the  glue  is  softened,  and  the  bristles  come  out  as  soon  as  the  brush  is 
used.  After  use,  brushes  should  be  cleaned,  and  placed  in  linseed-oil  until  again 
required,  when  they  will  be  found  in  good  condition.  Treated  in  this  way,  they  will 
svear  so  much  better  that  the  little  additional  trouble  entailed  is  amply  repaid.  When 
brushes  will  not  again  be  required  for  some  time,  the  oil  remaining  in  them  should  be 
ivashed  out  by  means  of  turpentine,  after  which  they  may  be  dried  without  deterioration. 
On  no  account  should  oil  be  allowed  to  dry  in  a  brush,  as  it  is  most  difficult  to  remove 
ifter  oxidation  has  taken  place.  The  best  means  are  steeping  in  benzoline  for  a  few 
Jays,  or  in  turpentine,  with  occasional  washing  in  soda-water  and  with  soft-soap,  avoiding 
too  violent  rubbing. 

Surface. — When  the  surface  to  be  painted  is  already  covered  with  old  paint,  this 
should  be  either  removed  or  rubbed  down  smooth  before  applying  the  new.  When  the 
:hickness  of  the  old  coat  is  not  great,  rubbing  down,  accompanied  by  a  careful  scraping 
)f  blisters  and  defective  parts,  will  suffice.  When  the  thickness  of  the  old  paint  necessi- 
:ate3  its  removal,  it  may  either  be  burned  off,  or  softened  by  a  solution  of  caustic  alkali, 
md  afterwards  scraped.  The  burning  process  is  the  most  effective,  and  leaves  the 
ivood  in  a  fit  condition  to  receive  the  fresh  coat  of  paint ;  but  it  is  not  applicable  in  the 
?ase  of  fine  mouldings.  When  caustic  potash  or  soda  is  used,  the  paint  is  left  in  contact 
svith  it  for  some  time,  when  the  linoleic  acid  of  the  oxidized  linsced-oil  becomes 
saponified,  and  can  easily  be  scraped  or  scrubbed  oflfthe  surface  of  the  wood.  Whenever 
m  alkali  is  employed,  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that  the  wood  should  afterwards 
be  thoroughly  washed  several  times  with  clean  water,  in  order  to  remove  every  trace  of 
the  solvents.  Any  soda  or  potash  remaining  in  the  pores  of  the  wood  would  not  only 
retain  moisture  and  cause  blistering,  but  would  also  have  an  injurious  action  upon  the 
pellicle  of  the  paint  subsequently  applied,  and  in  many  cases  upon  the  pigment  itself. 
The  remarks  already  made  as  to  the  necessity  of  an  absolutely  diy  surface  should  be 
borne  in  mind  in  this  instance.  When  the  surface  of  the  paint  is  to  be  protected  by  a 
3oat  of  varnish,  the  latter  should  not  be  applied  until  the  whole  of  the  oil  contained  in 
the  paint  has  solidified.  The  wrinkling  of  varnish  upon  paint  is  frequently  erroneously 
ittributed  to  the  bad  quality  'of  the  varnish,  when  the  real  cause  is  the  incomplete 
Dxidation  of  the  paint  itself.  Following  are  some  recipes  for  removing  and  cleaning  old 
painted  sm-faces: — (1)  Dissolve  2  oz.  soft  soaj),  4  oz.  potash,  in  boiling  water,  add  J  lb. 
quicklime.  Apply  hot,  and  leave  for  12-24  hours.  This  will  enable  the  old  paint  to  be 
washed  off  with  hot  water.  (2)  Cleaning  old  paint  is  effected  by  washing  with  a 
solution  of  pearlash  in  water.  If  the  surface  is  greasy  it  should  be  treated  with  fresh 
quicklime  mixed  in  water,  washed  off,  and  reapplied  repeatedly.  (3)  Extract  of 
Lethirium  is  a  ready-made  preimration  which  removes  old  paint  very  quickly.  For  this 
purpose  the  pure  extract  must  be  thinly  brushed  over  the  surface  twice  or  thrice.  To 
remove  a  single  coat  of  paint  the  extract  is  diluted  with  30  times  its  bulk  of  water.  To 
clean  painted  surfaces  it  is  diluted  with  200  or  300  parts  of  water.  The  extract  must 
be  carefully  washed  off  with  vinegar  and  water  before  laying  on  another  coat  of  paint. 
'4)  Wet  the  place  with  naphtha,  repeating  as  often  as  is  required ;  but  frequently  one 
application  will  dissolve  the  paint.     As  soon  as  it  is  softened,  rub  the  surface  clean. 


416  Painting — Kaotting,  Water-colours,  Smell. 

Chloroform,  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  spirit  ammonia,  has  been  employed  very 
iiuccessfuUy  to  remove  the  stains  of  dry  paint  from  wood,  silk,  and  other  substances. 
( 5)  Mix  1  oz.  pearlash  with  3  oz.  quicli  stone  lime,  by  slaking  the  lime  in  water  and 
then  adding  the  pearlasli,  making  the  mixture  about  the  consistence  of  paint.  Lay  the 
above  over  the  whole  of  the  work  required  to  be  cleaned,  with  an  old  brush ;  let  it  remain 
14  or  16  hours,  when  the  paint  can  be  easily  scraped  oft". 

Knotting. — Knotting  is  the  material  used  by  painters  to  cover  over  the  surfaces  of 
Ivuots  in  wood  before  painting.  The  object  is  to  prevent  the  exudation  of  turpentine, 
•&C.,  from  the  knots,  or,  on  the  otlier  hand,  to  prevent  the  knots  from  absorbing  the 
paint,  and  thus  leaving  marks  on  the  painted  surface.  Ordinary  knotting  is  often 
.applied  in  2  coats.  "  First  size  "  knotting  is  made  by  grinding  red  lead  in  water  and 
mixing  it  with  strong  glue  size.  It  is  used  hot,  dries  in  about  10  minutes,  and  prevents 
•exudation.  "Second"  knotting  consists  of  red  lead  ground  in  oil,  and  thinned  with 
boiled  oil  and  turpentine.  Patent  knotting  is  chiefly  shellac  dis.^olved  in  naplitha. 
Following  is  a  recipe  for  a  similar  knotting : — Add  together  J  pint  japanners'  gold  size, 

1  teaspoonful  red  lead,  1  pint  vegetable  naphtha,  7  oz.  orange  shellac.  This  mixture  is 
to  be  kept  in  a  warm  place  whilst  the  shellac  dissolves,  and  must  be  frequently  shaken. 
Sometimes  hot  lime  is  used  for  killing  knots.  It  is  left  on  them  for  about  2-1  hours,  then 
tcraped  off,  and  the  surface  coated  with  size  knotting ;  or  if  this  does  not  kill  the  knots, 
they  are  then  painted  with  red  and  white  lead  ground  in  oil,  and  when  dry  rubbed 
.■smooth  with  pumice.  Sometimes  after  application  of  the  lime  the  knots  are  passed  over 
with  a  hot  iron,  and  then  rubbed  smooth.  When  the  knots  are  very  bad  they  may  be 
cut  out,  or  covered  with  silver  leaf. 

Water-colours. — The  manufacture  of  water-colour  paints  is  more  simple  than  that  of 
oil-paints,  the  pigments  being  first  ground  extremely  fine  and  then  mixed  witli  a 
solution  of  gum  or  glue.  The  paste  produced  in  this  manner  is  allowed  to  dry,  after 
having  been  stamped  into  the  form  of  cakes.  As  soon  as  the  hardened  mass  is  rubbed 
down  with  water,  the  gum  softens  and  dissolves,  and  if  the  proportion  of  water  be  not 
too  great,  the  pigment  will  remain  suspended  in  the  solution  of  gum,  and  can  be 
■applied  in  the  same  manner  as  oil-paint.  To  facilitate  the  mixing  with  water,  glycerine 
is  sometimes  added  to  the  cake  of  paint,  which  then  remains  moist  and  soft. 

Eemoving  Smell. — (1)  Place  a  vessel  of  lighted  charcoal  in  the  room,  and  throw  on  it 

2  or  3  handfuls  of  juniper  berries  ;  shut  the  windows,  the  chimney,  and  the  door  close ; 
24  hours  afterwards  the  room  may  be  opened,  when  it  will  be  found  that  the  sickly, 
imwholesome  smell  will  be  entirely  gone.  (2)  Plunge  a  handful  of  hay  into  a  pail  of 
water,  and  let  it  stand  in  the  room  newly  painted. 

2)/sco?ora^ioM.— Light-coloured  paints,  especially  those  having  white-lead  as  a  basis, 
aapidly  discolour  under  difl"erent  circumstances.  Thus  white  paint  discolours  when 
•excluded  from  the  light ;  stone  colours  lose  their  tone  when  exjiosed  to  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  even  when  that  is  only  present  in  very  small  quantity  in  the  air  ;  greens  fade 
or  darken,  and  vermilion  loses  its  brilliancy  rapidly  in  a  smoky  atmosphere  like  that  of 
London.  Ludersdorf  thinks  that  the  destructive  change  is  principally  due  to  a  property 
in  linseed-oil  which  cannot  be  destroyed.  The  utility  of  drying  oils  for  mixing  pig- 
jnents  depends  entirely  on  the  fact  that  they  are  converted  by  the  absorption  of  ox3'gen 
into  a  kind  of  resin,  which  retains  the  colouring  pigment  in  its  semblance  ;  but  during 
this  oxidization  of  the  oil — the  drying  of  the  paint — a  process  is  set  up  which,  especially 
in  the  absence  of  light  and  air,  soon  gives  the  whitest  paint  a  yellow  tinge.  Ludersdorf 
therefore  proposes  to  employ  an  already  formed  but  colourless  resin  as  the  binding 
material  of  the  paint,  and  he  selects  two  resins  as  being  specially  suitable^one, 
.saudarach,  soluble  in  alcohol ;  the  other,  dammar,  soluble  in  turpentine.  The  sandarach 
must  be  carefully  picked  over,  and  7  oz.  is  added  to  2  oz.  Venice  turpentine  and  24  oz. 
-dcohol  of  sp.  gr.  0*833.  The  mixture  is  put  in  a  suitable  vessel  over  a  slow  fire  or 
.spirit-lamp,  and  heated,  stirring  diligently,  until  it  is  almost  boiling.    If  the  mixture  be 


Painting — Discoloration  ;  Miscellaneous  Paints. 


417 


kept  at  tliis  tompcraturo,  with  frequent  stirring,  fur  an  hour,  tlio  resin  will  bo  dissolved, 
and  the  varnish  is  ready  for  use  as  soon  as  cool.  Tlie  Venice  turpentine  is  necessary  to 
prevent  too  rapid  drying,  and  more  dilute  alcohol  cannot  be  employed,  because  sandarach 
docs  not  dissolve  easily  in  weaker  alcohol,  and,  furthermore,  the  alcohol,  by  evaporation, 
would  soon  become  so  weak  that  the  resin  would  be  precipitatid  as  a  powder.  When 
tliis  is  to  be  mixed  with  whitedead,  the  latter  must  first  be  finely  ground  in  water,  and 
dried  again.  It  is  then  rubbed  with  a  little  turpentine  on  a  slab,  no  more  turpentine 
being  taken  than  is  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  it  to  be  worked  with  the  muUer  ;  1  lb. 
of  the  white-lead  is  then  mixed  with  exactly  J  lb.  of  varnish,  and  stirred  up  for  use.  It 
must  be  applied  rapidly,  because  it  dries  so  quickly.  If  when  dry  the  colour  is  wanting 
in  lustre,  it  indicates  the  use  of  too  much  varnish.  In  such  cases,  the  article  painted 
should  be  rubbed,  when  perfectly  dry,  with  a  woollen  cloth  to  give  it  a  gloss.  The 
dammar  varnish  is  made  by  heating  8  oz.  dammar  in  16  oz.  turpentine  oil  at  165°  to 
190°  F.  (7i°  to  88°  C),  stirring  diligently,  and  keeping  it  at  this  temperature  until  all  is 
dissolved,  which  requires  about  an  hour.  The  varnish  is  then  decanted  from  any  im- 
purities, and  preserved  for  use.  The  second  coat  of  the  pure  varnish,  to  which  half  its 
weight  of  oil  of  turpentine  has  been  added,  may  be  applied.  It  is  still  better  to  apply  a 
coat  of  sandarach  varnish  made  with  alcohol,  because  dammar  varnish  alone  does  not 
possess  the  hardness  of  sandarach,  and  when  the  article  covered  with  it  is  handled  much, 
does  not  last  so  long. 

Miscellaneous  Paints. — Under  this  head  the  following  few  varieties  deserve  notice  : — 
Cement  paint  for  carton-pierre. — Composed  of  2  parts  washed  graphite,  2  red-lead, 
16  freshly-prepared  cement,  16  barium  sulphate,  4  lead  protoxide,  2  alcoholized  white 
litharge.  The  jjaint  must  be  put  on  as  soon  as  the  roofing  is  securely  fastened,  choosing 
the  dry  season  and  a  simny  day.  Care  must  be  taken  to  put  it  on  well  over  the  joints  ; 
it  is  recommended  that  an  extra  coating  should  be  given  to  the  portions  that  overlap 
each  other,  so  as  to  render  them  water-tight.  As  a  rule,  two  coats  are  put  on.  The  first, 
whilst  still  wet,  is  covered  with  an  even  layer  of  fine  dry  sand  sprinkled  over  it  through 
a  sieve.  This  is  done  bit  by  bit,  as  the  roof  is  jminted,  so  as  to  prevent  the  workmen 
stepping  on  the  wet  paint.  The  second  coat  is  put  on  about  a  week  later,  the  sand 
which  has  not  stuck  fast  being  first  swept  off.  The  second  coat  is  not  sanded.  It  is 
merely  intended  to  combine  with  the  under-coat  and  form  a  durable  waterproof  surface, 
which  will  prevent  the  evaporation  of  the  tar-oil,  the  usual  cause  of  the  failure  of  carton- 
pierre  roofing,  and  present  a  good  appearance  as  well. 

Coloured  paints. — Coloured  lead  paints  are  produced  by  adding  a  suitable  pigment  to 
a  white-lead  paint  until  the  required  tint  is  obtained.  A  few  of  the  most  common  tints 
produced  by  mixing  2  or  more  colours  may  be  mentioned.  The  colours  used  are  generally 
divided  into  classes.  The  following  list  shows  the  pigments  added  to  white-lead  paint 
to  produce  compound  colours.  The  same  pigments,  except  tho.se  containing  lead,  may 
be  used  with  a  zinc- white  basis  for  coloured  zinc  paint : — 
Stone  colour    ..   Burnt  umber. 

Kaw  umber. 

Yellow  ochre. 

Kaw  umber  and  lampblack.  ) 

Yellow  ochre  and  lampblack.  / 
Drabs       ..      ..   Burnt  umber. 

Burnt  umber  and  yellow  ochre  for  a  warm  tint. 
Bufi's        ..      ..   Yellow  ochre. 

Yellow  ochre  and  Venetian  red. 
Greys       ..      ..   Lampblack. 

Indian  red— indigo— for  a  warm  shade. 
Brown      ..      ..   Burnt  sienna,  indigo. 
[.  Lake,  Prussian  blue  (or  indigo)  and  yellow  ochre. 

2  E 


o 

a 
a 

o 
O 


For  darker  shades. 


418 


Painting — Miscellaneous  Paints, 


o 

<D    t 


a 
P 


f  Yellows    ..      ..   Chrome  yellow. 
Green       ..      ..   Prussian  blue,  chrome  yellow. 

Indigo,  burnt  sienna  (or  raw  umber). 

Prussian  blue,  raw  umber. 

Avoid  arsenical  greens. 
Salmon    ..      ..  Venetian  red. 

Vermilion. 
Fawn       ..      ..   Stone  ochre  and  vermilion 

Sky-blue..      ..   Prussian  blue. 
Pea-green        ..   Brunswick  green. 

French  green. 

Prussian  blue,  chrome  yellow. 


Copper  paint. — Bessemer's  copper  paint  gives  a  glossy  and  elegant  covering  to 
metal,  wood,  or  porcelain ;  when  united  with  oils,  it  assumes  an  antique  green 
appearance. 

Floors,  paint  for. — A  paint  for  floors,  which  economizes  the  use  of  oil  colours  and 
varnish,  is  described  in  the  German  technical  jiress  as  having  been  comi^osed  by  Mareck. 
It  is  remarked  that  this  paint  can  also  be  used  on  wood,  stone,  &c.  For  flooring,  the 
following  mixture  has  been  found  applicable:  2^  oz.  good,  clear  joiners'  glue  is  soaked 
overnight  in  cold  water.  It  is  dissolved,  and  then  is  added  (being  constantly  stirred) 
to  thickish  milk  of  lime  heated  to  boiling-poiut,  and  prepared  from  1  lb.  quicklime. 
Into  boiling  lime  is  poured  (the  stirring  being  continued)  as  much  liuseed-oil  as 
becomes  united  by  means  of  saponification  with  the  lime,  and  when  the  oil  no  longer 
mixes  no  more  is  poured  in.  If  there  happens  to  be  too  much  oil  added,  it  must 
be  combined  by  the  addition  of  some  fresh  lime  paste.  For  the  quantity  of  lime 
previously  indicated,  about  ^  lb.  oil  is  required.  After  this  white,  thickish  foundation 
paint  has  cooled,  a  colour  is  added  which  is  not  affected  by  lime,  and  in  case  of  need 
the  paint  is  diluted  with  water,  or  by  the  addition  of  a  mixture  of  lime  water  with 
some  linseed-oil.  For  yellowish-brown  or  brownish-red  shades  about  j  the  entire  bulk 
is  added  of  a  brown  solution  obtained  by  boiling  shellac  and  borax  with  water.  This 
mixture  is  specially  adapted  for  painting  floors.  The  paint  should  be  applied  uniformly, 
and  is  described  as  covering  the  floor  most  effectually,  and  uniting  with  it  in  a  durable 
manner.  But  it  is  remarked  that  it  is  not  suitable  for  employment  in  cases  where 
a  room  is  in  constant  use,  as  under  such  circumstances  it  would  jirobably  have 
to  be  renewed  in  some  places  every  8  months.  The  most  durable  floor  paint  is 
said  to  be  that  composed  of  linseed-oil  varnish,  which  only  requires  to  be  renewed 
every  6  or  12  months.  It  penetrates  into  the  wood  and  makes  it  water  resisting; 
its  properties  being  thus  of  a  nature  to  compensate  for  its  higher  cost  in  proportion 
to  other  compositions  used  for  a  similar  purpose.  Its  use  is  particularly  recom- 
mended in  schools  and  workrooms,  as  it  lessens  dust  and  facilitates  the  cleaning  of 
the  boards. 

Gold  paint. — Do  not  mix  the  gold  size  and  powder  together,  but  go  over  the  article 
to  be  gilded  with  the  size  alone,  giving  an  even  and  moderate  coating.  Let  it  dry  (which 
will  not  take  long)  till  it  is  just  sticky,  or,  as  gilders  call  it,  "  tacky."  Then  over  a 
sheet  of  smooth  writing-paper  dust  on  the  dry  gold  powder  by  means  of  a  stout,  soft, 
sable  brush. 

Iron  paint. — The  '  Photographisches  Wochenblatt '  mentions  that  Spangenberger 
has  a  paint  composed  of  pulverized  iron  and  linseed-oil  vamish.  It  is  intended 
for  painting  damp  walls,  kettles,  outer  walls,  or  any  place  or  vessel  exposed  to  the 
action   of  the  open   air  and  weather.      Should   the   article   be   exposed   to   frequent 


Painting — Miscellaneous  Paints.  419 

changes  of  temperature,  linseed-oil  varnisli  and  amber  varnish  should  be  mixed 
with  the  paint  intended  for  the  first  2  coats,  witliout  the  addition  of  any  artificial 
drying  medium.  The  first  coat  should  be  applied  rather  thin,  the  second  a  little 
thicker,  and  the  last  in  a  rather  fluid  state.  It  is  not  necessary  to  free  iron  from 
rust,  grease,  &c.,  by  means  of  acid  before  applying  tl\c  paint,  as  a  superficial  cleaning 
is  sufiicieut.  The  paint  is  cfjually  adapted  as  a  weathcr-jiroof  coating  for  iron,  wood, 
and  stone. 

Iron,  paint  for. — The  value  of  red-lead  as  a  preservative  for  iron  has  been  generally 
accepted.   "Wrought  iron  requires  a  hard  and  elastic  paint,  which  will  liold  itself  together 
even  if  the  scale  beneath  gives  way.      The  following  ex^ieriments,  made   under  the 
ausijices  of  the  Dutch  State  railroads,  may  be  instructive.     Iron  plates  were  prepared 
for  painting  as  follows  :  16  plates  were  pickled  in  acid  (hydrochloric),  then  neutralized 
with  lime  (slaked),  rinsed  in  hot  water,  and  while  warm  rubbed  with  oil.     The  same 
number  of  plates  were  cleared  of  scale,  so  far  as  it  could  be  removed  by  brushing  and 
scraping.     Plates  from  each  set  were  then  painted  alike — namely,  4  with  coal-tar  and 
4  with  iron  oxide  A  ;  another  set  with  iron  oxide  B,  and  the  remaining  set  with  rcd-lcad. 
They  were  then  exposed  3  years,  and  the  results  observed  were  as  follows :  The  coal-tar 
on  the  scrubbed  plates  was  quite  gone,  that  put  on  the  pickled  j^lates  was  inferior  to  the 
others.     The  iron  oxide  A  on  the  scrubbed  plates  was  inferior  to  the  other  two,  while  on 
the  pickled  plate  it  held  well.     The  oxide  B  was  found  superior  to  that  of  A,  but 
inferior  to  red-lead,  while  the  plates  covered  with  red-lead  stood  equally  well  on  both 
prepared  plates,  and  were  suj^erior  to  all  others.     From  these  results  it  is  evident  that 
pickling  the  iron  removes  all   the  black  oxide,  while  scrubbing  does  not.    It  is  also 
shown  that  the  red-lead  unites  with  oil  to  form  a  hard,  oxy-linseed-oil  acid  soap,  a 
harder  soap  than  that  given  by  any  other  combination.     The  red-lead  is  shown  by  those 
experiments  not  to  give  way  under  the  scaling ;  it  is  more  adherent  to  the  surface,  more 
clastic  and  cohesive.     On  the  Cincinnati  Southern  Eailroad,  experience  extending  over 
some  years  has  shown  that  red-lead  has  proved  the  most  durable  paint  in  the  many 
miles  of  iron  trestle  and  bridgowork.     It  is  found  that  the  iron  oxide  is  washed  away 
by  the  rain  and  perishes  in  spots,  although  a  valuable  paint  if  frequently  renewed.     Ked- 
lead,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  expensive  than  iron  oxide,  and  is  difficult  to  be  obtained 
pure.     Keferring  to  white-lead  as  a  material  for  painting  iron,  one  authority  observes 
that  white-lead  should  not,  if  possible,  be  used  in  priming  iron,  nor  in  any  priming 
coat ;  moreover,  it  is  a  less  desirable  overcoat  than  iron  oxide.      The  class  of  iron 
paints  compoimded  of  ores  of  natural  iron  rust,  combined  with  clay  or  some  other  form 
of  silica,  are  very  useful,  as  they  contain  no  water  nor  sulphuric  acid.     Magnetic  oxide^ 
or  pure  iron  oxide,  is  an  excellent  protection  for  iron,  says  one  writer  ;  it  is  impossible  to 
scrape  it  off.      It  is  also  of  value  in  woodwork,  and  resists  the  action  of  salt  water 
and  sulphurous   gases,  so  destructive  to  most  paints.     There  is  no  doubt   the  great 
protective  element  in  paint   is  the   oil,  and  the   conditions   required   for   success  are 
stated  to  be  to  prevent  the  drying  part  of  the  oil  from  becoming  hard  dry ;  the  soft- 
keeping,  non-drying  acids  must  be  kept  from  flying  away  in  such  a  quantity  as  to 
reduce  the  oil  to  a  brittle  mass.      In  other  words,  the  elastic  qualities  of  the  oil  must 
be  protected  from  the  action  of  the  oxygen.       According  to  Louis  Matern,  rod-lead 
liossesses  the  following  advantages  for  tiie  preservation  of  the  iron,  which  is  the  main 
object  to  be  gained  :— (1)  It  dries  easily  with  raw  linseed-oil,  without  an  oil-destroying 
drier.     All  known  driers  decompose  oil.     (2)  After  drying,  it  remains  elastic,  giving 
way  both  to  the  extension  and  contraction  of  the  iron,  without  causing  the  paint  to 
crack.      (3)    It  imparts  no  oxygen  to  iron,  even  when  constantly  exposed  to  damp. 
(4)  It  hardens,  where  it  has  been  spread  thickly,  without  shrivelling,   forming  the 
toughest  and  most  perfect,  insoluble  combination  of  all  paints. 

Lead  paints. — For  white-lead  paint,  the  best  pure  white-lead  is  chosen,  kept  secure 

2  E  2 


420  Painting — Miscellaneous  Paints. 

from  tlie  air.  It  possesses  good  covering  power,  but  blackens  in  contact  with  air  con- 
taining sulpliurettetl  hydrogen,  and  is  injurious  to  those  using  it.  Coloured  lead  paints 
consist  of  a  basis  of  -white-lead  with  a  certain  qua'^+ity  of  colouring  pigment,  separately 
ground  in  oil,  and  added  to  the  2  last  coats.  When  the  white-lead  is  bought  'dry,  it 
must  be  ground  up  with  raw  linseed-oil  by  means  of  a  stone  muller  on  a  marble  slab. 
The  thick  paste  thus  produced  is  thinned  and  softened  by  adding  a  little  oil  and  turps 
and  working  well  with  a  palette  knife.  The  colouring  pigments  are  added  at  this 
stage,  and  the  consistence  is  rendered  creamy  by  adding  more  oil  and  turps ;  the  whole 
is  finally  passed  through  a  canvas  strainer.  Just  before  use,  it  is  thinned  down  to  a 
working  consistence  by  adding  more  oil  and  turps,  and  the  driers  are  then  introduced. 

Lime  paints. — (a)  For  deal  floors,  wood,  stone,  and  brick  work.  Dissolve  15  dr.  good 
glue  by  boiling  with  thickish  milk  of  lime,  which  contains  1  lb.  caustic  lime.  Then  add 
linseed-oil  just  sufiicient  to  form  a  soap  with  the  lime.  This  mixture  can  be  used  for 
making  up  any  colour  which  is  not  altered  by  lime.  A  solution  of  shellac  in  borax  can 
be  added  for  brown-red  or  brown-yellow  cclours,  and  is  very  suitable  in  painting  deal 
floors.  With  a  coating  of  varnish  or  lake,  the  substances  thus  painted  assume  a  fine 
lustre.     They  can  bo  jjolished  with  linseed-oil  or  turpentine. 

(&)  A  lime  paint  which  will  bear  washing.  3  parts  flint,  3  marble  fragments  and 
sandstone,  2  calcined  white  china-clay,  and  2  slaked  lime,  all  in  powder,  furnish  a  paint 
to  which  chosen  colours,  that  may  be  employed  with  lime,  are  added.  This  paint,  by 
repeated  applications,  becomes  as  hard  as  stone,  without  losing  porosity. 

Silicated. — When  the  surface  to  be  painted  is  of  a  mineral  nature,  such  as  the  exterior 
of  a  house,  the  pigments  may  be  mixed  with  a  vehicle  consisting  chiefly  of  water-glass,. 
or  soda  or  iwtash  silicate.  Tliis  method  of  painting  requires  some  care,  and  a  knowledge 
of  the  chemical  nature  of  the  pigments  used.  Some  colours  are  completely  destroyed 
by  the  alkali  contained  in  the  water-glass.  Among  those  pigments  which  are  not  altered 
by  the  alkali  may  be  mentioned  lime  carbonate,  baryta  white,  zinc  white,  cadmium 
yellow,  Naples  yellow,  baryta  chromate,  clirome  red,  red  ultramarine,  blue  ultramarine, 
cobalt  blue,  cobalt  green,  chrome  green,  ivory  black.  When  a  wall  is  to  be  painted,  it 
!»hould  first  be  prepared  with  a  mortar  composed  of  pure  fat  lime  and  clean  sharp  sand. 
The  water  used  should  also  be  free  from  saline  impurities,  as  these  might  subsequently 
efiloresce  and  destroy  the  surface  of  the  paint.  When  the  surface  of  this  plaster  is 
dry,  a  weak  solution  of  water-glass  should  be  applied,  and  the  operation  repeated 
several  times.  A  strong  solution  cannot  be  used,  because  it  forms  a  thin  skin  on 
the  surface  of  the  plaster,  which  closes  the  pores,  and  prevents  the  penetration  of  the 
water-glass.  The  pigments  are  rubbed  down  with  a  very  weak  solution  of  water- 
glass,  and  applied  in  the  ordinary  manner.  When  thoroughly  dry,  the  painted  surface 
is  treated  with  a  warm  solution  of  potash  silicate  applied  in  the  form  of  a  spray. 
Soda  silicate  may  also  be  used,  but  the  soda  carbonate  which  is  then  formed  is 
liable  to  cause  efflorescence.  A  pigment  fixed  on  the  surface  of  a  wall  in  this  manner 
is  as  durable  as  the  wall  itself,  and  can  be  exposed  to  the  weather  without  any  fear  of 
deterioration. 

Steatite  paint. — In  the  United  States  this  is  made  from  a  native  hydrated  magnesia 
silicate,  and  is  applied  to  shijDs'  bottoms,  to  walls  for  preventing  dampness,  and  to  roofs 
fur  making  them  fireproof. 

Tin  roofing,  paint  for. — Perhaps  the  best  paint  for  a  tin  roof  is  made  from  common 
Spanish  brown,  Venetian  red,  or  yellow  ochre,  mixed  with  either  pure  raw  linsced-oil, 
or  equal  parts  linseed  and  fish  oils ;  the  only  partial  drying  of  the  latter  causing  a 
degree  of  elasticity  in  the  coat  of  paint,  which  prevents  its  cracking  during  the 
expansion  and  contraction  of  the  metal. 

Transparent  paints. — If  in  a  position  to  coat  the  glass  before  putting  in  frame, 
excellent  eficcts  may  be  got  by  using  ordinary  shellac  varnish  (made  with  bleached 


Painting — Composition  of  Paiuts.  421 

shellac)  lintcJ  -with  aniline  dye.  Tlie  glass  must  be  slightly  warmed  before  applying 
the  varnish.  The  strongest  spirit  of  wine  should  be  used  for  dissolving  the  shellac  and 
the  powdered  (not  liquid)  aniline  colours.  SufUcient  of  the  colour  must  be  added  to 
the  varnish  to  give  the  required  tint :  1  part  of  shellac  to  8  of  spirit  is  a  good 
proportion.  Methylated  spirit  will  do.  The  varnish  sliould  be  ponied  on  and  placed 
evenly  over  the  glass  (not  painted  on),  and  the  superfluous  quantity  returned  to  the 
bottle. 

Tungsten  paints. — The  mineral  colours  from  tungsten  are  obtained  by  decomposing 
soluble  tungstatcs  by  means  of  salts  of  the  metals  yielding  insoluble  phosphates.  Tlio 
tungstate  of  nickel  produces  a  light  green,  tungstate  of  chromium  a  dark  grey,  tun^state 
of  cobalt  a  violet  or  indigo  blue,  and  tungstate  of  barium  a  bright  white;  colour,  Tungstic 
acid  alone  gives  a  fine  light  greenish-yellow.  All  these  colours  may  be  employed  for 
water-  or  oil-colour  paints  ;  the  last  is  a  really  desirable  and  probably  quite  unchange- 
able colour. 

Window-paint. — Mix  with  white-lead,  boiled  oil  or  varnish,  and  a  small  quantity  of 
driers  (no  turps,  which  hardens  for  the  time,  being  a  volatile  oil,  and  therefore  objection- 
ivble  in  this  case) ;  paint  this  over  the  glass  thinly,  and  stipple  it.  If  you  have  not  a 
proper  brush,  make  a  large  pledget  of  cotton  wool  or  tow,  cover  it  with  a  clean  bit  of 
linen  rag,  and  quickly  dab  it  over  the  paint. 

Zinc,  paint  for. — The  difficulty  of  making  oil  colours  adhere  to  zinc  is  well  known. 
Some  time  since.  Prof.  Buttger  published  a  process  which  consists  in  applying  with 
a  hard  brush  a  mordant  composed  of  1  part  copper  chloride,  1  copper  nitrate,  1  sal- 
ammoniac,  and  G4  water,  to  which  is  added  afterwards  1  hydrochloric  acid.  The  zinc 
immediately  becomes  intensely  black,  which  changes  in  drying  (12  to  24  hours)  to  a 
dirty  whitish  grey,  on  which  oil  colours  may  be  laid,  and  to  which  they  will  adhere 
firmly. 

Composition  of  Taints. — The  composition  of  paiuts  should  be  governed — (1)  by  the 
nature  of  the  material  to  be  painted  :  thus  the  paiuts  respectively  best  adapted  for  wood 
and  iron  differ  considerably ;  (2)  by  the  kind  of  surface  to  be  covered — a  porous  surface 
requires  more  oil  than  one  that  is  impervious  ,•  (3)  by  the  nature  and  appearance  of  the 
work  to  bo  done  :  delicate  tints  require  colourless  oil,  a  flatted  surface  must  be  painted 
without  oil  (which  gives  gloss  to  a  shining  surface),  paints  for  surfaces  intended  to  be 
varnished  must  contain  a  minimum  of  oil ;  (4)  by  the  climate  and  the  degree  of 
exposure  to  which  the  work  will  be  subjected :  for  outside  work  boiled  oil  is  used, 
because  it  weathers  better  than  raw  oil,  turps  is  avoided  as  much  as  possible,  because  it 
evaporates  and  does  not  last ;  if,  however,  the  work  is  to  be  exposed  to  the  sun,  turps  is 
necessary  to  jirevent  the  jiaint  from  blistering ;  (5)  the  skill  of  the  painter  atTccts  the 
composition  ;  a  good  workman  can  lay  on  even  coats  with  a  smaller  quantity  of  oil  and 
turps  than  one  who  is  unskilful ;  extra  turps,  especially,  are  often  added  to  save  labour ; 
(6)  the  quality  of  the  materials  makes  an  important  diff"erence  in  the  proportions  used: 
thus  more  oil  and  turps  will  combine  with  pure  than  with  impure  whitedead ;  thick  oil 
must  be  used  in  greater  quantity  than  thin ;  when  paint  is  purchased  ready  ground  in 
oil,  a  soft  paste  will  require  less  turps  and  oil  for  thinning  than  a  thick ;  (7)  the  diffurent 
coats  of  paint  vary  in  their  composition :  the  first  coat  laid  on  to  new  work  requires  u 
good  deal  of  oil  to  soak  into  the  material ;  on  old  work,  the  first  coat  requires  turpL-ntino 
to  make  it  adhere ;  the  intermediate  coats  contain  a  proportion  of  turpentine  to  make 
them  work  smoothly  ;  and  to  the  final  coats  the  colouring  materials  are  added,  the 
remainder  of  the  ingredients  being  varied  according  as  the  surface  is  to  be  glossy 
or  flat. 

The  exact  proportions  of  ingredients  best  to  be  used  in  mixing  paints  vary  according 
to  their  quality,  the  nature  of  the  work  required,  the  climate,  and  other  considerations. 
The  composition  of  paint  for  diflerent  coats  also  varies  considerably.    T/ie  proportions 


422 


Painting — Composition  ;  MeasuriDg. 


given  in  the  following  table  must  only  be  taken  as  an  approximate  guide  wlien  the 
materials  are  of  good  quality  : — 

Table  showing  the  Cojiposition  of  the  different  Coats  of  White  Paint,  and  the 
Quantities  required  to  cover  100  yd.  of  newly-worked  Pine. 


Inside  worl; 
coats  not  flatted. 


Priming 
2ud  coat 
3rd  coat 
4th  coat 


Insnle  worli, 
4  coats  and  flatting. 

Priming 
2nd  coat 
3rd  coat 
4th  coat 
Flatting 


Outside  icorJc, 
4  coats  not  flatted. 

Priming 
2nd  coat 
3rd  coat 
4th  coat 


lb. 


u 


lb. 
IG 
15 
13 
lo 


IG 
12 
12 
12 
i) 


ISi 
15 
15 
15 


o 


pt. 

G 

?>h 
oi 

2i 


2 


2 

2 
2 

91 


U 

U 


u 


Kemakks. 


lb. 

X 
4 

X 

■t 
1 

•1 
1. 

■i 


1-8 

1-10 

1-10 

1-10 

1-10 


1-S 
1-10 
1-10 
1-10 


Sometimes  more  red-lead  is  used 
and  less  drier. 

*  Sometimes  just  enough  red- 
lead  is  used  to  give  a  flesh- 
coloured  tint. 


When  the  finished  colour  is  not 
to  be  pure  white,  it  is  better 
to  have  nearly  all  the  oil  boiled 
oil.  All  boiled  oil  does  not 
work  well.  For  pure  white, 
a  larger  pro2iortion  of  raw  oil 
is  necessary,  because  boiled  oil 
is  too  dark. 


For  every  100  sq.  yd.,  besides  the  materials  enumerated  in  the  foregoing,  2h  lb. 
white-lead  and  5  lb.  putty  will  be  required  for  stopping.  The  area  which  a  given 
quantity  of  paint  will  cover  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  surface  to  which  it  is 
applied,  tlie  proportion  of  the  ingredients,  and  tlie  state  of  the  weather.  When  the 
work  is  required  to  dry  quickly,  more  turpentine  is  added  to  all  the  coats.  In 
repainting  old  work,  two  coats  are  generally  required,  the  old  paint  being  considered  as 
priming.  Sometimes  another  coat  may  be  deemed  necessary.  For  outside  old  work 
exposed  to  the  sun,  both  coats  should  contain  1  pint  turpentine  and  4  pints  boiled  oil, 
the  remaining  ingredients  being  as  stated  in  the  foregoing  table.  The  extra  turpentine 
is  used  to  prevent  blistering.  In  cold  weather  more  turpentine  should  be  used  to  make 
the  paint  flow  freely. 

Measuring  Painters'  Work. — Surface  painting  is  measured  by  the  superficial  yd., 
girting  every  part  of  the  work  covered,  always  making  allowance  for  the  deep  cuttings 
in  mouldings,  carved  work,  railings  or  other  v/ork  that  is  difiicult  to  get  at.  Where 
work  is  very  high,  and  scaffolding  or  ladders  have  to  be  employed,  allowances  must  be 
made.  The  following  rules  are  generally  adopted  in  America  in  the  measurement  of 
work: — Surfaces  under  6  in.  in  width  or  girt  are  called  6  in. ;  from  6  to  12  in.,  12  in.  ; 
over  12  in.,  measured  superficial.  Openings  are  deducted,  but  all  jambs,  reveals,  or 
castings  are  measured  girt.  Sashes  are  measured  solid  if  more  tlian  2  lights.  Doors, 
shutters,  and  panelling  are  measured  by  the  girt,  running  the  tape  in  all  quirks,  angles, 


Painting— Painters'  Cream  ;  Wall  Painting.  423 

or  comers.  Sash  doors  measure  solid.  Glazing  in  both  windows  and  doors  is  always 
extra.  The  tape  should  bo  run  close  in  over  the  battens,  on  batten  doors,  and  if  tho 
stuff  is  beaded,  add  1  in.  in  width  for  each  bead.  Venetian  blinds  are  measured 
double.  Dentels,  brackets,  medallions,  ornamented  ironwork,  balusters,  lattice  w<jrk, 
palings,  or  turned  work,  should  all  bo  measured  double.  Cliaiiging  colours  on  baso 
boards,  panels,  cornices,  or  other  work,  one-fourth  extra  measurement  should  be  allowed 
for  each  tint.  Add  5  per  cent,  to  regular  price  for  knotting,  puttying,  cleanin"-,  and 
sandpapering.  For  work  done  above  the  ground  floor,  charge  as  follows :— Add  5  per 
cent,  for  each  storey  of  12  ft.  or  loss,  if  interior  work ;  if  exterior  work,  add  1  per  cent, 
for  each  ft.  of  height  above  the  first  12  ft. 

Painters'  Cream. — This  is  a  preparation  sometimes  employed  by  painters  when  they 
are  obliged  to  leave  work  unfinished  for  a  length  of  time.  Cover  the  already  painted 
parts  with  it ;  it  will  preserve  the  freshness  of  the  colours,  and  can  be  easily  removed  on 
returning  to  the  work.  It  is  made  as  follows : — Take  J  oz.  best  mastic,  finely  powdered, 
and  dissolve  it  over  a  gentle  fire,  in  3  oz.  very  clear  nut-oil.  Pour  the  mixture  into  a 
marble  mortar,  with  2  dr.  pounded  sugar  of  lead  at  the  bottom.  Stir  with  a  wooden 
pestle,  and  keep  adding  water  in  small  quantities  till  the  whole  has  tlie  appearance  and 
thickness  of  cream,  and  refuses  to  admit  more  water,  so  as  to  mix  freely. 

Wall  Painting. — If  a  plastered  wall  be  new,  and  has  not  been  whitewashed,  it  will 
do  to  size  it  with  glue  water;  but  if  it  has  been  kalsomined  or  whitewashed,  which  is 
often  the  case,  no  glue  sizing  should  ever  touch  it.  Any  preparation  of  tliat  kind  is 
liable,  sooner  or  later,  to  peel  off  and  spoil  the  surface  for  any  future  finish.  A  safer 
way  is  to  take  oil  and  coat  the  whole  surface  before  painting,  which  makes  a  fast  imiou 
of  any  wash  to  the  wall.  On  such  a  base  oil  paints  will  adhere  perfectly.  But  the 
principal  trouble  in  painting  walls  is  found  in  the  defective  character  of  the  plastering. 
If  one  is  building  a  house,  he  can  place  the  studding  12  in.  from  centre  to  centre,  so 
that  strong  laths  will  not  spring  and  break  up  the  mortar  at  every  pressure.  The  latlis, 
too,  should  be  spread  J  in.  apart,  and  the  mortar  have  12  lb.  of  hair  to  the  barrel  of  lime. 
This  will  make  a  wall  that  will  stand  like  the  walls  of  a  house  plastered  100  years  ago. 
The  reason  why  the  plastering  falls  off  from  our  modern  houses  is  because  the  laths  are 
laid  so  close  that  the  immediate  swelling  cuts  off  the  clinch,  and  the  mortar  is  usually 
too  sandy,  and  has  but  6  lb.  of  hair.  On  such  a  surface  are  laid  3  coats,  when  the 
clinch  will  fail  to  hold  1.  Professional  lathers  or  masons  themselves  ought  to  lay  the 
laths  and  be  sure  of  a  large  spread ;  then  if  the  mortar  is  strong  or  rich,  with  plenty  of 
hair,  there  can  be  no  falling  ofi".  If  the  work  is  well  done,  the  ceiling  as  well  as  the  side 
walls  may  be  painted  to  advantage.  When  any  portion  becomes  soiled  or  smoked,  it 
will  then  be  an  easy  matter  to  wash  it  off.  Rooms  once  thoroughly  prepared  in  that 
way  last  for  a  lifetime,  and  always  look  substantial  and  neat.  In  case  of  cracks,  make 
some  putty  of  the  same  colour  as  the  paint  and  fill  up. 

The  following  remarks  are  condensed  from  an  interesting  paper  on  mural  j)aiuting 
by  Kev.  J.  A.  Eivington,  read  before  the  Society  of  Arts. 

Fresco-painting,  properly  so-called,  is  the  process  of  painting  in  water-colours  upon 
wet  mortar  containing  lime.  In  this  process,  the  action  of  the  carbonic  acid  in  tho 
atmosphere  converts  the  lime  of  the  mortar  into  carbonate  of  lime,  and  this  latter  it  is 
which  forms  the  preservative  or  fixing  medium  for  the  colours.  The  carbonic  acid  is 
driven  out  of  the  limestone  or  chalk  originally  by  the  process  of  burning,  and  the  lime 
remains.  When  slaked,  the  lime  is  converted  into  a  pulp  of  hydrate  of  lime.  In  tliis 
form  it  exists  in  the  mortar,  and  greedily  absorbs  the  water  with  which  tlio  colours  are 
applied.  This  water,  together  with  that  already  in  tho  mortar,  dissolves  a  portion  of 
the  hydrate  of  lime,  and  after  a  time  this  solution  finds  its  way,  through  the  supervening 
layer  of  colour,  to  the  surface,  where  it  absorbs  carbonic  acid  gas  from  tho  atmosphere. 
By  this  means  it  becomes  converted  into  carbonate  of  lime,  and  lies  upon  the  surface  of 
the  painting  in  the  form  of  a  thin  cryatallic  film,  protecting  and  securing  it  to  such  a 


424  Painting — Wall  Painting. 

detree  that  it  will  admit  of  being  washed,  provided  no  great  amount  of  friction  be 
emijloyed. 

Experiment  has  shown  that  in  fresco-painting  the  colour  does  not  sink  farther  into 
the  ground  than  in  the  case  of  any  water-colour  laid  on  a  dry  ground.  On  the  contrary, 
the  pigment  becomes  saturated  with  the  solution  of  hydrate  of  lime  which  exudes  from 
the  mortar,  and  which  can  only  become  converted  into  a  film  of  carbonate  of  lime  on  the 
surface ;  beneath  tliis,  the  adherence  of  the  pigment  to  the  mortar  is  very  slight,  as  may 
be  easily  proved  when  the  crystallic  film  has  been  scraped  off,  or  dissolved  away  by  the 
application  of  an  acid,  or  even  removed,  as  is  sometimes  possible,  by  merely  rubbing 
the  surface  with  the  moistened  finger.  After  the  removal  of  the  protecting  film  of 
carbonate  of  lime  by  some  such  means,  the  pigment  gives  way  readily  when  rubbed 
with  the  finger,  and  with  even  still  greater  readiness  if  moisture  be  also  applied.  A 
very  striking  illustration  of  this  is  aftbrded  by  the  fate  of  the  frescoes  executed  about 
18  or  20  years  ago  on  the  exterior  of  the  new  Pinakothek  in  Munich.  On  the  northern 
and  eastern  sides,  the  hail  and  rain  have  destroyed  and  washed  away  not  only  the 
protecting  film  of  carbonate  of  lime,  but  also  almost  every  vestige  of  colour.  The 
tendency  to  peel  off  in  flakes,  which  paintings  executed  in  fresco  have  often  shown, 
admits  likewise  of  a  very  simple  explanation. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  greedy  absorption  by  the  mortar  of  the  water  contained  in 
the  pigments,  the  particles  of  the  latter  adhere  mechanically  to  the  surface  of  the  mortar 
by  capillary  attraction,  and  that  so  closely  as  to  permit  of  a  second  layer  being  very 
shortly  after  laid  upon  the  first,  without  mixing  with  it  in  any  way.  Similarly,  the 
second  layer  will  admit  of  a  third  being  superimposed.  All  3  layers  now  become 
saturated  with  the  solution  of  hydrate  of  lime,  and  are  united  by  a  real  process  of 
cohesion.  This  process  is,  however,  only  in  the  highest  degree  perfect  where  the  super- 
imposed layers  have  been  applied  before  the  hydrate  of  lime  has  completely  penetrated 
the  pigments.  In  those  cases  where  it  has  so  penetrated,  and  the  crystallic  film  has 
already  partly  formed,  the  saturation  cannot  be  so  perfect ;  and  where  colours  have  been 
laid  on  after  the  film  is  fully  developed,  these  can  only  adhere  to  the  surface  in  a  very 
imperfect  degree.  It  follows  that  damp,  or  other  causes,  are  sufficient  to  induce  them 
to  peel  ofl'  very  readily  from  the  more  firmly  attached  layers  beneath. 

The  more  or  less  inefficient  modern  substitutes  for  fresco  are  infinitely  less  deserving 
of  respect.  Most  of  them,  if  not  all,  such  as  wax  colour,  casein,  as  employed  abroad,  do 
not  profess  to  be  capable  of  resisting  the  influence  of  weather,  when  exposed  to  the  open 
air.  They  are,  therefore,  only  comparatively  permanent,  even  when  used  for  interior 
decoration,  and  may  be  dismissed  without  further  mention. 

Gambler  Parry's  process  of  "  spirit  fresco "  appears  to  possess  merits  beyond  such 
methods  as  are  employed  abroad,  but,  like  them,  it  is  not  intended  for  exposure  to  the 
open  air,  and  cannot  enter  into  competition  with  Keim's  j^rocess.  It  is,  perhaps,  un- 
necessary to  remark  that  the  only  sure  guarantee  for  the  permanence  of  any  painting 
must  rest  its  claims  on  a  thoroughly  scientific  observance  of,  and  adherence  to,  the  laws 
of  chemistry.  Unless  the  painting  is  executed  under  conditions  which  can  be  proved  to 
comply  with  the  demands  of  chemical  laws,  its  permanence  is  a  mere  matter  of  hap- 
hazard experiment,  and  a  perfectly  open  question,  which  even  the  test  of  time  itself  can 
hardly  settle  conclusively,  since,  without  a  thoroughly  scientific  basis,  there  is  no  real 
guarantee  that  the  conditions  will  not  vary.  A  substitute  for  fresco-painting  has  been 
adopted  of  late  years  in  this  country,  for  paintings  on  a  small  scale,  by  the  employment 
of  oil  colours,  with  a  matt  medium  to  destroy  the  gloss  peculiar  to  oil  pigments,  and  to 
impart  the  dead  surface  so  necessary  to  mural  decorative  paintings.  Very  little  con- 
sideration is  required  to  show  that  this  method  present?,  perhaps,  the  least  guarantee 
of  any  process,  for  the  permanence  of  the  painting.  In  oil  colom-s,  it  is  the  oil  which,  by 
filling  the  pores  of  the  pigments,  serves  at  once  as  a  preservative  and  binding  medium, 
while  the  varnish  forms  an  additional  protection  against  atmospheric  iufluence.    The 


Painting — Wall  Paiutinn:.  425 


o" 


■various  mediums  used  to  destroy  the  clmracteristic  etfect  of  oil,  cfTect  this  bj-  expelling 
or  neutrulizing  it.  The  volatile  elements  of  the  mediums  theu  evaporate,  leaving  tlio 
pores  open  for  the  chemical  action  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  or  nny 
other  deleterious  agent  iu  the  atmospliere,  to  destroy  the  colour,  while  little  or  nothing 
remains  to  bind  the  substance  of  the  pigments  together.  The  comparatively  rapid  ruia 
■of  such  paintings  is  the  only  possible  result. 

Keim's  process  claims  attention  as  being  the  result  of  nearly  12  years'  thfiroughly 
scientific  labour  and  research  on  the  part  of  the  inventor,  and  is  based  on  the  btereo- 
chrome  process  of  Schlotthauer  and  Fuchs,  dillering  however  fmm  tliat  in  such  important 
particulars  as  to  constitute,  practically,  an  entirel}'  new  process  of  itself. 

In  1S4S,  Prof.  Schlotthauer,  of  the  Munich  Academy,  who  had  for  some  time  been 
engaged  iu  experiments  with  a  view  to  discovering  some  permanent  process  for  mural 
paintings,  turned  his  attention  to  the  substance  known  as  water-glass  (sodium  silicate), 
the  invention  of  the  chemist  Fuchs.  The  result  was  the  adoption  of  the  stereo-chrome 
process.  In  this  process  the  surface  to  be  painted  on  consisted  of  an  ordinary  mortar  of 
lime  and  sand,  impregnated  with  water-glass.  Upon  this  surface  the  painting  was 
executed  in  water-colour,  and  was  then  fixed  by  water-glass  thrown  against  the  surface 
in  the  form  of  a  fine  spray,  the  water-glass  in  this  case  forming  the  fixative  for  the 
painting.  In  practice,  it  toon  became  evident  that  a  simple  spraying  of  water-glass, 
applied  to  heterogeneous  pigments,  without  reference  to  their  peculiar  properties  as 
regards  chemical  composition,  cohesive  caixibility,  &c.,  was  not  sufficient  to  ensure  their 
permanence.  Certain  colours  iu  particular,  as  ultramarine,  umber,  and  black,  were 
observed  to  be  always  tlie  first  to  detach  themselves  iu  the  form  of  powder,  or  by  scaling 
off  from  the  painting;  thus  p  iuting  to  the  fact  that  their  destruction  was  not  owing  to 
any  accidental  defect  in  tiie  manner  of  their  application,  but  to  some  radical  unsuit- 
ability  arising  from  the  chemical  conditions  of  the  process. 

In  Keim's  process  regard  is  paid  in  the  first  instance  to  the  ground  upon  which  the 
painting  is  to  be  executed.  A  careful  study  of  the  best  examples  of  the  fresco  paintings 
of  former  times,  convinced  him  that  the  painting  ground  was  a  feature  of  supreme  im- 
portance. The  wall  to  be  treated  must  contain  no  damp  or  decaying  stones  or  bricks, 
and  the  latter  must  have  been  sufficiently  baked,  otherwise  they  will  develop  an  efflo- 
rescence most  injurious  to  the  process.  If  the  wall  be  already  covered  with  stucco  or 
mortar,  this  will  serve  as  the  first  ground,  provided  it  be  in  a  thoroughly  sound  and  dry 
condition,  and  it  will  tiieu  be  sufficient  to  clean  and  level  it  before  applying  the  second, 
or  painting  ground.  If  not,  the  stucco  must  be  cleared  off,  the  bricks  laid  bare,  and 
the  mortar  between  the  bricks  j^icked  out  to  a  depth  of  about  f  in. 

This  more  thorough  preparation  is  always  preferable  in  a  work  of  greater  importance, 
or  where  special  pains  are  advisable  to  secure  durability,  as,  for  instance,  when  under- 
taking the  exterior  decoration  of  a  building.  Upon  this  surface  a  thin  squirting  is  cast, 
comjjosed  of  the  following  mortar — coarse  quartz  sand,  infusorial  earlli,  and  powdered 
marble,  mixed  in  certain  proportions.  Of  this  mixture  4  parts  are  taken  to  1  ot  quick- 
lime, slaked  with  distilled  water.  Upon  this  squirting-cast,  the  object  of  which  is  to 
secure  adhesion  to  the  surface  of  the  wall,  follows  mortar  of  ordinary  consistency,  com- 
posed of  the  same  ingredients,  to  fill  up  all  inequalities  and  produce  a  smooth  surface, 
and  upon  this,  again,  the  second  or  painting  ground  is  applied. 

Tiie  painting  ground  is  composed  of  the  finest  white  quartz  sand,  marble  sand, 
artificially  prejiared,  and  free  from  dust,  marble  meal,  and  calcined  fossil  meal  (infusorial 
earth).  The  sand  composed  of  these  materials,  carefully  mixed  in  the  proper  proportions, 
is  mixed  with  quicklime  slaked  with  distilled  water,  in  the  proportion  of  S  parts  sand  to 
1  of  slaked  lime.  This  mortar  is  applied  to  the  wall  as  thin  as  possible,  not  exceeding 
•^  to  I  in.  in  depth. 

For  work  executed  on  the  exterior  of  buildings,  Kcim  recommends  the  employment 
of  pumice  sand,  iu  addition  to  the  other  ingredients  of  the  mortar.    When  coated  witii 


426  Painting — Wall  Painting. 

a  stucco  of  this  composition,  the  wall  presents  so  hard  a  surface  as  to  admit  of  sparks 
being  struck  from  it  with  a  steel.  It  is  absolutely  essential  that  throughout  the  work, 
only  distilled  or  filtered  rain-water  be  employed.  The  reason  for  this  is  to  obviate  any 
possibility  of  the  water  containing  lime,  as  that  would  affect  the  solution  employed  for 
fixing  so  as  to  impair  the  effect  of  the  painting. 

In  this  process  Keira  not  only  is  careful  to  follow  the  best  examples  of  antiquity  in 
the  manner  in  which  the  stucco  is  laid  on  the  wall,  but  ho  has  adopted  the  use  of  a 
mortar  composed  of  carefully  selected  materials,  in  preference  to  that  of  an  ordinary 
kind,  such  as  was  employed  in  the  stereo-chrome  process.  The  object  of  this  is  to 
attain  a  far  higher  degree  of  durability.  The  nature  of  the  sand  selected  for  this 
purpose  is  eminently  calculated  to  ensure  this.  Marble  sand,  such  as  he  employs 
(calcium  carbonate  in  crystalline  form),  has  been  proved  by  experiment  to  add  very 
greatly  to  the  firmness  of  the  mortar,  containing  many  advantages  above  qxiartz  sand, 
such  as  greater  porosity  for  the  absorption  of  the  colours  and  fixing  liquid,  &c.  Again, 
the  infusorial  earth  mixed  with  it  (a  form  of  silica)  has  a  double  effect  in  consolidating 
the  mass.  First,  it  acts  mechanically,  cementing  and  binding  together,  with  the  lime, 
the  coarser  particles.  Secondlj',  it  forms,  to  some  extent,  with  the  lime,  a  calcium 
silicate,  such  as  afterwards  results  from  the  addition  of  the  water-glass.  The  presence 
of  this  silicate  within  the  mortar  adds,  in  a  very  high  degree,  to  its  hardness  and  power 
of  resistance  to  chemical  and  mechanical  influences. 

When  the  mortar  is  perfectly  dry,  down  to  the  stone  or  brick  of  the  wall,  it  is  treated 
to  a  solution  of  hydro-fluo-silicic  acid,  to  remove  the  thin  crust  of  crystallic  lime  car- 
bonate which  has  formed  on  the  surface,  and  thus  to  open  the  pores.  It  is  then  soaked 
with  2  applications  of  potash  water-glass  (potassium  silicate)  diluted  with  distilled 
water,  and  when  dry,  the  ground  will  be  found  hard,  but  perfectly  absorbent,  and  ready 
for  painting. 

The  surface  layer  of  mortar,  or  painting  ground,  can  be  prepared  in  various  degrees 
of  coarseness  of  grain  to  suit  the  artist's  requirements.  The  more  smooth  and  polished, 
however,  the  surface  is  made,  the  greater  are  the  difficulties  in  the  subsequent  process  of 
fixing,  owing  to  the  absorbent  qualities  of  such  a  ground  being  necessarily  less  perfect. 
The  ground  can  also  be  prepared  in  any  tint  or  colour  that  may  be  desired,  and  can  be 
applied  to  any  suitable  substance,  if  needed  for  a  removable  decoration.  Stone,  tile, 
slate,  wire-gauze,  glass,  and  canvas  form  eflicieut  substitutes  for  the  wall  in  such  cases. 
If  applied  to  canvas,  it  can  in  this  form  be  fixed  to  wood  panels,  millboard,  ceilings,  &c., 
and  admits  of  being  rolled  with  perfect  safety.  The  advantage  of  this  to  the  artist  is 
sufficiently  obvious.  If  a  ceiling,  for  instance,  has  to  be  decorated  by  this  process,  it 
can  be  painted  with  the  same  convenience  as  an  ordinary  picture  in  the  studio.  After 
it  is  fixed,  it  can  be  rolled  up,  taken  to  its  destination  and  fastened  on  to  the  ceiling, 
either  temporarily  or  permanently,  at  the  cost  of  very  little  expenditure  of  time  or 
labour.  Similarly  (unless  it  were  permanently  fastened  up),  the  ceiling  would  admit  of 
being  removed  for  the  purpose  of  being  cleaned. 

As  to  the  colours  used  in  this  process.  Certain  pigments  only  are  admissible,  in 
order  to  ensure  permanence,  and  regard  must  be  had  to  the  purity  of  these,  and  to  their 
absolute  freedom  from  adulteration.  All  the  colours  found  available  for  the  stereo- 
chrome  process  can  be  employed  ;  these  are,  for  the  most  part,  composed  of  natural 
earths  or  metallic  oxides,  since  experience  has  proved  that  the  most  permanent  colours 
are  those  derived  from  such  sources.  In  their  preparation,  due  account  has  been  taken 
of  the  well-known  law  in  optics,  which  teaches  that  colour  does  not  lie  in  the  substances 
themselves,  but  in  tho  rays  of  light,  which  are  divided,  reflected,  or  absorbed  by  the 
substances  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  the  effect  of  colour  upon  the  eye.  Substances, 
therefore,  which  readily  undergo  change,  whether  by  reason  of  their  affinity  to  other 
substances  with  which  they  are  brought  into  contact,  or  by  the  action  of  the  light  itself, 
which  often  causes  molecular  change,  mu=t,  whenever  such  change  takes  place,  lose  or 


Painting — Wall  Paiuti^^^  427 


o' 


modify  their  original  colour,  since  nnder  their  altered  conditions  they  absorb  or  reflect 
the  ray  of  light  in  a  ditfcrcnt  manner. 

It  is  clearly  then  of  the  greatest  importance  that  each  pigment  should  remain 
chemically  unatfected  by  the  substance  of  the  jjainting  ground  on  •.vhich  it  is  laid,  and 
by  the  substance  of  any  other  pigment  employed,  as  well  as  by  that  of  the  material 
used  for  fixing  them.  To  meet  this  end,  the  colours  in  this  process  arc  treated  before- 
hand with  alkaline  solutions  (of  potash  or  ammonia),  to  anticipate  any  change  of  hue 
which  might  result  from  the  use  of  tlic  alkaline  liquids  which  form  the  fixative.  In 
addition  to  this,  tliey  are  farther  i^reiiared  with  certain  other  substances,  such  as  zinc 
oxide,  baryta  carbonate,  felsj^ar,  powdered  glass,  &c.,  as  reqinred  l)y  tlie  peculiar 
properties  of  each,  in  order  to  obviate  any  other  danger  of  chemical  change  taking  place. 

The  colours  found  available  present  a  very  full  scale.  They  are  38  in  number,  and 
there  are  several  other  colours  which  could  be  added  if  required.  They  consist,  speaking 
in  general  terms,  of  4  varieties  of  white,  G  of  ochre,  2  of  sienna,  10  of  red,  2  uf  brown 
umber,  2  of  Naples  yellow,  2  of  ultramarine,  5  of  green,  3  of  black,  and  cobalt  blue. 
Cadmium  will  shortly  be  added  to  them.  The  whites  are,  perhaps,  in  unnecessary 
profusion.  Zinc  white,  for  its  opaque  qualities,  and  baryta  white  for  purposes  where 
great  oi^acity  is  not  desirable,  would  bo  probably  found  quite  enough  in  practice. 

Zinc  white  is  especially  valuable  in  this  process,  forming  a  silicate  in  combination 
with  the  fixing  solution,  and  thus  adding  greatly  to  the  hardness  and  durability  of  any 
colours  with  which  it  is  mixed. 

Baryta  white  is  useful  for  giving  a  lighter  tone  to  colours  without  greatly  detracting 
from  their  transparent  qualities,  and  is  on  this  account  useful  in  glazing,  where  zinc 
white  would  be  too  opaque. 

The  reds  are  chiefly  oxides.  The  chrome  is  a  lead  siib-chromate.  This  colour  is 
prepared  in  dry  powder  instead  of  in  a  moist  paste,  as  in  the  case  of  the  others.  Tiie 
reason  for  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  colour  depends  on  the  size  of  the  crystals,  which 
would  be  destroyed  by  further  grinding,  with  the  result  of  the  pigments  assuming  an 
orange  hue.  It  will  therefore  only  admit  of  being  mixed  with  water  by  the  means  of 
the  brush. 

The  lake  is  only  suitable  for  interior  decoration,  and  has  been  prepared  by  Keim, 
under  protest,  for  artists  who  found  themselves  unable  to  forego  its  use.  He  does  not 
guarantee  its  permanence  if  exposed  to  weather  in  the  open  air.  He  has  proposed  au 
ultramarine  red  as  an  eificient  substitute. 

The  colour  named  mennig  is  a  lead  oxide. 

The  umber  is  an  iron  and  manganese  oxide,  combined  witli  silica. 

The  Naples  yellow  is  a  compound  of  lead  oxide  and  antimony,  or  lead  antimoniate. 

The  ultramarine  is  artificial,  and  consists  of  silica,  alumina,  and  sodium  sulphate. 

The  cobalt  blue  is  cobalt  protoxide,  compounded  with  alumina. 

The  cobalt  green  is  cobalt  protoxide,  in  combination  with  zinc  oxide. 

The  green  earth  consists  chiefly  of  silicic  iron  protoxide.  It  also  contains  magnesia 
alumina,  and  potash. 

The  chrome  oxide  green  is  chromium  osy-hydrate. 

Over  no  part  of  his  process  has  Keim  expended  more  labour  and  thought  than  in  the 
preparation  of  the  colours.  From  the  various  nature  of  the  properlies  possessed  by  some 
of  the  pigments,  it  was  found  that  their  capacity  for  absorbing  the  alkaline  silicate  with 
which  they  were  fixed  varied  very  greatly.  There  was  also  a  marked  ditfercnce  in  the 
degree  of  mechanical  cohesive  capacity  which  they  respectively  possessed.  To  equalize 
them  in  these  respects,  without  which  the  fixing  would  have  been  a  work  of  great 
difficulty  and  uncertainty,  alumina,  magnesia,  and  silica  hydi-ate  were  added  as  re- 
quired. The  result  is,  that  all  the  colours  are  equally  acted  upon  by  the  fixing  solution, 
and  all  attain  an  equal  degree  of  durability  after  fixing,  both  as  regards  the  mechanical 
and  chemical  action  of  this  process  upon  them. 


428  Painting — ^Yall  Paintiiifx. 


o* 


It  is  significant  of  the  success  which  has  attendeil  Keim's  thorough  appreciation  of 
the  requirements  of  the  pigments,  that  his  Labours  in  this  direction  have  so  perfectly 
adapted  them  to  the  chemical  condition  of  the  ground  as  to  show  that,  to  a  very  appre- 
ciable extent,  fixation  will  be  found  to  have  alreadj'  taken  place  before  even  the 
application  of  the  solution  employed  for  that  purpose. 

In  1878,  a  large  mural  painting  was  executed  by  this  process  on  the  exterior  of  the 
parish  church  at  Eichelberg,  near  Eegeusburg.  Before  its  completion,  and  therefore 
before  any  of  the  fixing  solution  had  been  applied  to  it,  it  was  drenched  by  a  heavy 
storm  of  rain.  Contrary  to  anticipation,  it  was  found  that  the  painting,  so  far  from 
being  in  any  degree  washed  away,  had  held  perfectly  firm,  and  even  in  some  places 
seemed  to  be  as  hard  as  if  already  fixed.  Keim's  exiilanatiou  of  this  unexpected  result, 
which  he  subsequently  confirmed  by  experiments,  was,  that  a  chemical  cohesion  had 
already  taken  place  by  the  action  of  the  alkali  set  free  in  the  mortar  upon  the  silicates 
in  tlie  pigments. 

Again,  when  it  was  determined  to  execute  the  mural  paintings  in  the  Franciscan 
Monastery,  at  Lechfeld,  in  1879,  it  was  desired  to  wash  off  a  i^ainting  executed  in  this 
process  a  year  previously,  which  had  never  been  fixed.  Neither  water,  nor  even  a 
tolerably  strong  solution  of  acetic  acid,  had  the  slightest  efi'ect  upon  it. 

So  far  from  approaching  in  any  degree  the  difiiculties  or  inconveniences  possessed  to 
a  greater  or  smaller  extent  by  fresco-painting,  or  any  of  its  more  modern  substitutes,  this 
process  is  even  far  pleasanter  and  easier  to  work  in  than  oils  or  water-colours.  Every 
variety  of  treatment  is  possible,  and  it  adapts  itself  to  any  individual  style  of  painting. 
It  presents  perfect  facility  for  transparent  glazing  as  a  water-colour  ;  and  for  painting  in 
body  colour  it  even  surpasses  the  capabilities  of  oil  colours  in  its  power  of  opaque 
treatment. 

The  most  delicate  tints,  when  laid  over  darker  tones,  do  not  in  the  slightest  degree 
darken  over  them,  as  they  are  apt  to  do  in  oils,  but  keep  their  full  value  perfectly. 
Retouching  and  correction  can  be  effected  with  the  greatest  ease,  and  to  an  almost  un- 
limited extent.  The  system  admits  also  of  great  economy.  To  begin  with,  the  pigments 
are  by  no  means  expensive,  in  spite  of  the  labour  expended  on  their  prei^aratiou,  and  a 
very  sparing  use  of  them  is  sufllcient  to  meet  all  possible  requirements  in  painting,  a  far 
less  amount  requiring  to  be  expended  than  in  other  processes.  This  is  due  mainly  to 
their  being  ground  so  exceedingly  fine,  so  that  they  need  only  be  very  thinly  laid  on  ; 
in  fact,  this  consideration  has  always  to  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the  thinner  the  coat  of 
painting  is,  the  greater  the  degree  of  security  that  can  be  attained  by  the  fixing.  More- 
over, there  need  be  no  waste  of  pigment  at  the  end  of  the  day's  work,  as  in  oils.  Tlie 
jmlettes  employed  for  the  process  are  constructed  with  small  pans  to  hold  the  pigments. 
If  any  paint  remains  after  the  work  is  finished,  it  can  either  be  replaced  in  the  bottle,  or 
it  can  be  kept  moist  in  the  pan  with  distilled  water  for  the  next  day's  work.  Even  if  a 
considerable  amount  of  the  pigment  should  by  inadvertence  have  been  allowed  to  become 
dry,  all  that  need  be  done  is  to  grind  it  up  again  with  a  little  distilled  water,  a  task 
involving  no  labour.  The  process  has  the  further  recommendation  of  great  cleanliness, 
distilled  water  being  the  only  medium  used  in  painting.  The  porous  nature  of  the 
ground,  and  its  peculiar  texture,  have  had  great  fascination  for  those  who  have  made 
practical  acquaintance  with  the  working  of  it. 

The  last  stage  in  the  process  is  the  work  of  fixing.  In  the  stereo-chrome  process  the 
fixing  medium  employed  was  potash  silicate,  thoroughly  saturated  with  silica,  in  com- 
bination with  suthcient  sodic  silicate  to  prevent  it  from  opalescing.  The  chief  defect  of 
this  lay  in  the  fact  that  it  was  often  apt  to  produce  spots  upon  the  painting.  Keim  has 
substituted  potash  silicate  treated  with  caustic  ammonia  and  caustic  potash.  The  action 
of  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  atmosphere  and  in  the  water  during  the  process,  leads  to  the 
formation  of  carbonated  alkali,  which  makes  its  way  to  the  surface,  and  would  form, 
when  dry,  a  whitish  film  over  the  painting.     To  obviate  this  danger,  as  well  as  to 


Graining.  42f) 

expedite  the  process  of  converting  the  potash  silicate  witli  the  basic  oxides  rxistin"  in 
the  substance  of  the  painting  into  silicate,  the  fixing  solution  is  treated  further  with 
ammonia  carbonate.  The  effect  of  this  upon  potash  silicate  is  that  silica  is  precipi- 
tated in  a  fine  gelatinous  form,  and  ammonia  set  ficc.  Tliis  latter  volatilizes,  and  potash 
carbonate  is  formed,  -which  is  easily  removed  by  svashing  alter  the  completion  of  tho- 
fixing. 

Having  regard  to  the  value  of  heat  in  accelerating  tlie  action  of  chemical  processes,, 
the  fixing  solution  is  employed  hot,  with  tlic  advantage  of  obtaining  a  quicker  and  more 
perfect  formation  of  silicate  than  was  possible  in  the  stereo-chrome  process,  where  the 
solution  was  applied  cold. 

The  effect  of  the  fixing  is  not  very  difficult  to  understand.  It  has  been  already 
pointed  out,  in  speaking  of  the  pigments,  that  the  result  of  their  being  treated  with 
certain  substances  is  to  efi'ect  the  formation  of  silicate,  both  in  the  constituent  parts  of 
the  pigments  themselves,  as  well  as  of  those  in  combination  with  the  painting-ground. 
The  additional  presence  of  the  fixing  solution  intensifies  this  process  to  the  greatest 
extent.  The  free  alkali  of  the  solution  acts  upon  certain  of  the  substances  which  have 
been  added  to  the  pigments — such  as  zinc  oxide,  alumina  hydrate,  and  silica  hydrate — 
at  first  by  dissolving  them.  By  the  action  of  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  atmosphere,  these 
solutions  are  again  decomposed  by  parting  with  the  hydrates,  which,  through  this  pro- 
cess, are  converted  into  silicates.  The  pure  colours  are  enclosed  in  these  silicates ; 
whenever  that  is,  the  pigments  themselves  do  not  take  imrt  in  tlie  formation  of 
silicate. 

The  hardening  process  of  mortar  has  been  described — in  speaking  of  fresco-painting 
— to  be  due  to  the  formation  of  a  crust  of  lime  carbonate  upon  the  surface.  The  action 
of  the  fixing  solution  in  Keim's  process,  when  applied  before  and  after  the  painting,  is 
to  form,  in  addition,  a  calcium  silicate  with  tho  particles  of  lime,  the  presence  of  which 
within  the  mortar  increases  beyond  comparison  the  hardness  and  durability  of  the  whole  ; 
calcium  silicate,  no  less  than  lime  carbonate,  being,  as  is  well  known,  a  constituent  of 
some  of  the  hardest  marbles. 

Briefly  described,  then,  the  effect  of  the  fixative  as  it  sinks  into  the  groimd,  which 
has  already  absorbed  the  pigments,  is  to  convert  the  painting  into  a  veritable  casting, 
uniting  Avith  colours  and  ground  in  one  hard  homogeneous  mass  of  artificial  stone,, 
partaking  of  the  nature  of  marble  in  its  power  of  resistance  to  mechanical  disturbance, 
partaking  of  the  nature  of  glass  in  the  impervious  front  it  presents  to  the  chemical 
action  of  the  atmosi^here. 

The  finished  painting  has  proved  itself  absolutely  impervious  to  all  tests.  It  will 
admit  of  any  acid,  even  in  a  concentrated  form,  being  poured  over  it  (save,  of  ccurse,. 
hydrofluoric  acid).  Caustic  potash,  also,  has  no  effect  upon  it ;  indeed  nothing  can  be 
employed  with  greater  advantage  than  this  for  cleansing  the  painting  when  its  condition 
requires  that  process.  Soap  and  water  may  be  applied  with  a  hard  brush,  as  vigorously 
as  desired.  The  surface  is  so  hard  as  to  present  a  perfect  resistance  if  scratched  with 
the  finger-nail.  The  hardness  and  durability  of  the  finished  painting  have  been  sub- 
jected to  very  severe  trials  abroad.  It  has  defied  the  elements  in  very  bad  climates, 
having  been  exposed  to  the  weather  on  the  exterior  of  buildings  for  some  years.  In 
Munich  a  specimen  of  the  process  was  subjected  to  incessant  tests  for  2  years,  and,  at 
the  end,  was  as  fresh  and  uninjured  as  at  tlie  begiiming. 

Graining. — This  branch  of  the  painter's  art  consists  in  imitating  the  grain,  knots, 
&c.,  of  different  woods.  The  following  is  an  outline  of  the  process.  If  there  are  any 
knots  or  sappy  places  in  the  article,  they  should  be  covered  with  one  or  two  coats  of  glue 
size,  or  parchment  size,  to  prevent  them  showing  through.  The  work  is  then  ready  for 
the  paint,  three  diflerent  shades  being  necessary.  Tliese  are  called  the  ground  colour, 
the  stippling  colour,  and  the  graining  or  oil  colour,  and  they  are  laid  in  the  order 
named.    An  infinite  number  of  combinations  of  colours  is  possible,  obtained  by  the  use 


430  Graining — Colours  ;  Tools  ;  Styles. 

of  various  colouring  pigments  in  the  different  coats,  and  no  two  grainers  agree  as  to 
the  precise  proportion  of  the  ingredients  to  be  used  in  imitating  ditfercnt  vrood.s ;  the 
learner  can  vary  the  proportions  to  suit  his  taste,  as  experience  dictates,  and  to  suit  the 
work  in  hand.  The  ground  colour  is  used  to  represent  the  lightest  part  of  tlie  grain  of 
the  wood,  the  stippling  colour  the  intermediate  shades,  and  the  graining  colour  the 
darkest  parts ;  a  close  study  of  natural  woods  will,  therefore,  be  necessary  to  determine 
the  colour  and  depth  of  each.  The  proper  ground  being  selected,  apply  one  or  more 
coats — as  many  as  are  necessary  to  thoroughly  cover  the  surface.  As  soon  as  the  ground 
colour  is  hard,  the  stijipling  coat  may  be  applied.  This  is  prepared  by  mixing  the  dry 
pigments  without  oil,  with  either  very  thin  gum-water,  stale  beer,  or  vinegar  containing 
a  small  portion  of  dissolved  fish-glue.  The  pigments  to  be  used  are  usually  about  the 
same  as  those  used  for  the  ground  colour,  but  of  different  proportions  to  produce  a  deeper 
shade.  Apply  the  stippling  colour,  and  before  it  dries  beat  it  softly  with  the  side  of 
the  stippler,  the  long  elastic  hairs  of  which,  disturbing  the  surface  of  the  laid  coat,  cause 
the  lighter  coat  beneath  to  become  indistinctly  visible,  and  produce  the  effect  of  the 
jjores  of  wood.  Next  apply  the  graining  colour  ;  as  soon  as  it  is  laid,  take  the  rubber 
and  with  it  wipe  out  the  larger  veins  to  be  shown,  after  each  stroke  wiping  the  paint 
from  the  rubber  with  a  cloth,  held  in  the  other  hand,  for  that  purpose.  Some  grainers 
use  a  small  sponge  for  veining,  and  others  a  small  piece  of  cloth  over  the  thumb,  but  the 
rubber  is  probably  the  most  convenient.  When  the  veins  have  been  put  in,  to  imitate 
iis  closely  as  possible  the  markings  of  natural  wood,  the  various  steel  combs  are  brought 
into  use,  and  the  edges  of  the  veins,  and  sometimes  other  portions  of  the  work,  combed 
with  them,  to  soften  the  abrupt  transition  from  the  dark  to  the  lighter  shades.  The 
blender  is  also  now  brought  into  use,  and  wherever  the  work  ma}'  require  it,  the  colours 
are  still  more  softened  and  blended  by  its  soft  hairs.  AVlien  too  much  colour  has  been 
removed  in  veining,  or  when  a  certain  figure,  such  as  a  knot,  is  required,  the  work  is 
touched  up  with  a  fine  brush,  and  again  softened  witli  the  blender.  When  dry  a  coat 
of  transparent  varnish  should  be  applied,  having  considerable  oil  to  render  it  durable, 
as  grained  work  is  frequently  washed.  Eeady-made  graining  colours  are  recommended 
as  best  and  cheapest. 

Colours. — In  ground  colours  the  essential  condition  is  to  have  them  light  enough ; 
the  same  tint  will  do  for  ash,  chestnut,  maple,  light  oak  and  satinwood,  but  a  deeper 
tone  is  needed  for  black  walnut.  The  most  important  point  is  to  have  the  ground 
smooth  and  uniform.  Graining  colours  should  be  chosen  from  the  very  best  qualities 
of  umber,  sienna,  and  Vandyke  brown,  according  to  the  demands  of  the  work. 

Tools. — The  implements  employed  by  the  grainer  comprise,  in  addition  to  the 
ordinary  painters'  tools  (a  dusting  brush  and  2  or  ?>  flat  fitches)  for  applying  the  graining 
colours  to  the  groundwork,  a  badger-hair  blending  brush  or  softener,  a  set  of  combs, 
overgraining  brushes  suited  for  maple  and  oak,  and  a  camels'-hair  cutting  brush  for 
maple.  You  may  add  a  large  cotton  rag,  a  sponge,  a  lining  tool,  a  veining  horn,  and 
combing  and  graining  rollers.  The  combs  may  be  of  steel  or  leather.  A  set  of  steel 
combs  contains  3  of  each  size — 1-in.  wide,  2-in.,  3-in.,  and  4-in.,  of  fine,  medium,  and 
coarse  teeth.     A  cloth  put  round  a  steel  comb  is  often  substituted  for  a  leather  comb. 

Styles  of  GKAI^■I^■G. — The  various  styles  of  graining  differ  according  to  the  kind 
of  wood  which  it  is  intended  to  imitate.  These  may  be  considered  in  alphabetic  order, 
premising  that  as  oak  is  the  wood  most  commonly  copied,  the  fullest  details  will 
be  found  under  that  head. 

Ash. — Ash  graining  differs  from  light  oak  almost  solely  in  the  absence  of  the 
dapples  found  in  the  commoner  wood.  The  ground  colour  is  prepared  in  the  same  way, 
and  the  same  system  of  combing  and  wiping  is  followed.  Excellent  ash-graining 
colour  can  generally  be  purchased  to  greater  advantage  than  it  can  be  made  up. 

Chestnut. — It  is  difficult  to  get  the  ground  colour  for  chestnut  sufficiently  yellow : 
the  best  compoiition  is  white-lead,  yellow  ochre,  and  orange  chrome.     The  graining 


Graixixg— Styles.  431 

colour  is  composed  of  burnt  timlicr  with  small  qnantities  of  burnt  sienna  and  Vandyke 
brown.     The  operatiLins  followed  resemble  those  with  oak,  a  coarse  comb  bein^'  used. 

Mahogany.— This  wood  demands  a  bright  ground  colour,  which  may  be  obtained  by 
using  deep  orange  chrome  yellow  and  royal  red,  or  vermilion,  or  orange  mineral.  Burnt 
sienna  with  a  little  Vandyke  brown  constitute  the  graining  colour.  The  style  of  grain 
varies.  Generally  in  panels  "crotching"  is  resorted  to.  The  cutter  is  used  to  "take 
out  the  lights;  and  the  fine  lines  arc  put  in  with  the  overgrainer,  used  almost  in  its 
normal  condition,  without  being  broken  up  into  teeth,  the  linos  running  in  a  wavv 
pattern  across  the  panel,  like  an  inverted  letter  V-  On  the  stiks  and  rails  of  tlie  door, 
the  blender  is  drawn  over  the  fresh  graining  colour  in  a  scries  of  jerky  strokes  3  or  4  in! 
long.  When  the  first  distemper  colour  is  dry,  a  very  thin  coat  of  "  quick  rubbing " 
varnish  is  put  on ;  this  should  be  dry  in  a  day  or  so,  when  a  glazing  colour  of  tin;  same 
composition  as  the  original  graining  coat  is  rubbed  in,  and  stippled  with  the  blender.  A 
finishing  coat  of  hard-drying  coach-body  varnish  is  flowed  on  with  a  thick  badger  brush. 

Maple.— Th\s  is  imitated  in  water-colours  or  distemper  on  a  very  smooth  ground, 
using  a  white  containing  the  smallest  possible  addition  of  raw  sienna  for  the  ground 
colour,  and  raw  sienna  mixed  with  a  little  Vandyke  brown  and  burnt  sienna  for  the 
graining  colour.  Fine  sandpaper  is  employed  for  smoothing  the  ground,  and  the 
graining  colour  is  applied  in  very  small  quantity  to  a  patch  at  a  time.  The  best  way 
of  taking  out  the  lights  is  by  means  of  the  cutter  already  mentioned,  drawn  lengthwise 
over  the  work;  blending  follows  in  a  crosswise  direction.  The  overgrain  colour  is 
applied  by  a  piped  tool  in  which  the  pencils  are  separated,  this  being  drawn  longi- 
tudinally in  an  undulating  manner.  Putting  in  the  birds'  eyes  may  be  done  by  patting 
the  wet  work  with  the  finger-tips,  or  by  a  piece  of  cloth  rolled  into  a  point. 

Oali,  light.— The  best  ground  colour  is  white-lead  tinted  with  raw  sienna  or  golden 
ochre.  This  is  jn-eserved  in  a  covered  vessel,  and  sufficient  only  taken  out  to  cover  the 
area  immediately  wanted.  This  need  be  but  a  very  small  quantity ;  it  is  thinned  before 
use  by  adding  oil  and  turpentine  and  just  enough  boiled  oil  to  delay  the  drying,  so  that 
the  glazing  coat  can  be  applied  on  the  following  day.  To  hasten  the  drying,  a  little 
Japan  size  or  drier  is  added.  Instead  of  completing  small  sections  of  work,  it  is  better 
to  prepare  a  large  surface  with  ground  colour,  so  that  it  may  commence  to  set  before 
"  wiping  out."  This  wiping  out  must  precede  the  combing  on  veins  aud  sap-wood,  but 
follow  it  on  dapples. 

The  complete  mode  of  procedure  for  light  oak  graining  a  panel  door  is  as  follows. 
Apply  the  ground  colour  ;  when  dr^-,  smooth  the  surface  with  fine  sandjjaper.  Eub  in 
the  graining  colour  luiiformly  with  a  medium  stiff  sash-brush ;  and  stipple  the  beads, 
corners,  and  mouldings  with  a  dry  brush.  Commence  on  the  panels,  and  make  opposite 
ones  correspond ;  wipe  out  in  streaks  lengthwise  with  a  cotton  cloth,  and  then  go  over 
■with  combs  of  progressive  fineness.  Take  out  the  lights  to  show  the  dapples,  either  bj- 
the  veining  horn  or  by  a  cotton  cloth  wrapped  around  the  thumb.  Next  comb  the 
mouldings  plainly.  The  most  work  is  usually  put  on  the  rails  and  stiles;  begin  with 
the  middle  stiles,  and  finish  them  before  proceeding  to  the  rails,  which  may  be  done  all 
together.  On  the  sap-wood  or  veined  work,  use  the  coarse  comb  as  much  as  possible, 
and  the  wiping  rag  as  little,  remembering  that  here  the  wiping  out  precedes  the 
combing.  Allow  the  work  to  dry,  rub  down  slightly  with  fine  worn  sandpaper,  and 
apply  the  glazing  coat.  This  is  best  ground  up  in  water,  the  colours  being  a  combina- 
tion of  raw  and  burnt  sienna  and  Vandyke  brown,  mixed  very  thin,  and  used  iu  very 
small  quantity. 

The  tone  may  be  varied  to  correct  the  appearance  of  the  under  coat ;  and  as  some 
parts  of  the  work  will  require  it  thinner  than  others,  it  is  well  to  have  the  colour  on  a 
palette,  and  thin  it  to  requirements  by  welting  the  brush.  Hub  in  the  glazing  colour 
with  a  stiff  brush,  and  remove  any  streaks  by  softening  with  a  blender.  Deal  with 
only  one  panel  at  a  time,  or  the  glazing  will  dry  ahead  of  you.     Put  iu  the  top  grain 


432  Graining— Styles.    Marbling. 

with  an  overgrainer  dij^ped  into  thin  colour  and  then  parted  into  a  series  of  pencils  by 
passing  a  comb  through  it;  draw  it  lengthwise  with  a  light  hand,  and  soften  down 
the  result  with  a  blender.  Eemember  that  the  panels  should  be  the  lightest  coloured 
portion  of  the  door,  and  the  mouldings  the  darkest,  while  the  rails  and  stiles  occupy  an 
intermediate  place  in  this  respect. 

To  grain  light  work  in  distemper,  which  is  not  often  done,  proceed  as  follows.  Lay 
on  a  coat  of  size  and  whiting ;  then  a  ground  colour  consisting  of  wliite-lead  and  golden 
ochre  mixed  with  fine  boiled  oil ;  when  this  has  dried  (say  in  2  days),  add  the  graining- 
colour,  consisting  of  raw  and  burnt  sienna  and  Vandyke  brown,  ground  in  water,  and 
mixed  witli  the  same  quantity  of  smooth  flour  paste ;  thin  tliis  down  with  water,  brush 
it  on,  and  comb  one  portion  and  have  the  other  stippled  by  the  whitewash  brush  to  aiford 
contrast ;  when  all  is  dry,  apply  a  heavy  flowing  coat  of  elastic  varnish. 

Oah,  dark. — This  diff"ers  from  light  oak  graining  only  in  the  colours.  The  ground 
colour  may  be  composed  of  white-kad,  royal  red,  and  golden  ochre  or  chrome  orange^ 
The  graining  colour  has  the  same  constituents  as  for  light  oak,  only  in  other  proportions. 

Boseicood. — For  rosewood  graining,  the  ground  is  rubbed  in  with  crimson  vermilion^ 
then  smoothed,  and  glazed  with  a  coat  of  crimson  lake  or  rose  pink  before  putting  in  the 
grain.  This  is  done  with  best  ivory  black,  which  can  be  bought  ground  in  quick- 
drying  vehicles,  and  needs  letting  down  with  raw  linseed-oil.  The  graining  coat  is- 
blended  witli  the  badger-hair  pencil  as  fast  as  it  is  laid  on.  When  quite  dry,  a  very 
thin  glazing  coat  of  black  is  added. 

Satimvood. — This  is  grained  in  distemper,  using  the  same  ground  and  graining^ 
colours  as  for  bird's-eye  maple,  taking  out  the  lights  witli  a  cutter,  and  putting  on  the- 
overgrain  as  in  mahogany. 

Walnut. — The  ground  colour  may  consist  of  wliite-lead,  golden  ochre,  black,  and 
royal  red,  without  fear  of  making  it  too  bright.  The  graining  colour  should  be  preceded 
by  a  coat  of  deep  black  and  Vandyke  brown  ground  in  water;  and  before  it  has  set, 
this  is  stippled  by  dabbing  with  a  dry  bristle  brush.  On  this  is  laid  the  walnut  oil- 
graining  colour,  procurable  at  the  shops,  previously  thinned  with  turpentine  and  boiled 
oil.  When  the  graining  coat  has  partially  set,  the  veins  and  figures  are  put  in,  prefer- 
ably with  a  fine  hair  pencil,  and  softened  with  the  blender.  This  last  having  dried, 
say  in  a  day  or  two,  a  glazing  coat  of  deep  black  and  Vandyke  brown  is  put  on  and 
finished  as  in  light  oak. 

Hints. — To  prevent  a  graining  coat  from  "  cissing  "  at  a  water-colour  overgraining 
coat,  that  is  repelling  the  water  by  antagonism  of  the  oil,  rub  the  grain  with  a  sponge 
dipped  into  a  thin  paste  of  fullers"  earth  or  whiting,  which  will  prepare  an  absorbent 
surface  for  the  water  colour. 

Tlie  two  kinds  of  graining,  distinguished  as  distemper  graining  and  oil  graining, 
differ  in  the  following  respects.  In  distemper  graining,  the  older  branch  of  the  art, 
the  colours  are  thinned  with  stale  beer,  size,  &c.,  and  the  varnishing  coat  can  be  added 
quickly ;  it  is  best  adapted  to  hard  close-grained  woods.  In  oil  graining,  the  colours 
are  thinned  with  raw  or  boiled  linseed-oil,  turpentine,  &c.,  and  are  better  suited  to  the 
soft  coarse-grained  woods. 

Marbling. — The  decoration  of  painted  surfaces  so  as  to  imitate  natural  marbles 
bears  a  close  relation  to  graining  in  imitation  of  woods.  It  varies  according  to  the  figure 
of  the  marble  simulated,  the  principal  kinds  being  as  follows. 

Black  and  Gold.— The  ground  colour  is  black,  laid  on  very  smooth,  and  slightly 
oded ;  the  marble  colour  will  be  composed  of  white,  ochre,  orange  chrome,-  Indian  red, 
and  black,  in  varying  proportions.  The  marble  colour  is  rubbed  in  in  disconntcted 
irregular  patches  by  a  large  pencil,  fine  irregular  lines  being  added  both  connecting 
the  patches  and  crossing  the  general  direction.  An  overgraining  of  dark  and  light  lead 
colour  may  occupy  the  spaces  between  the  fine  lines,  and  a  glazing  of  white  touches  will 
help  to  develop  the  patches. 


Maebling.    Staining.  433 

BJfich  BardiUa.—VsG  light  lead  colour  as  a  groimd,  and  put  in  a  confused  mass  of 
fine  lines  in  black  by  the  aid  of  a  feather;  soften  with  a  badger  blender,  and,  when  dry, 
glaze  with  thin  white  of  unequal  strength. 

DerhysMi-e  Spar.— Use  light  grey  for  a  ground  colour,  and  glaze  it  with  a  thin  mixture 
of  black  and  Vandyke  brown,  with  a  little  Indian  red  at  intervals.  To  simulate  the 
fossils,  use  a  stick  with  a  piece  of  rag  round  it,  then  glaze  witli  the  same  colours,  and 
bring  out  tlie  fossils  by  solid  white  and  edging  with  fine  black. 

Dove. — Tlio  ground  colour  is  a  bluish  lead.  Put  in  streaks  of  black  and  white 
(ground  in  oil)  alternately  by  dipping  a  featlier  into  turpentine  and  then  into  the  colour  ; 
soften  with  a  blender,  add  a  few  white  touches,  and  soften  agaiii. 

Egyptian  green. — The  ground  colour  is  black.  Glaze  over  this  witli  a  very  dark  "•reen 
from  Prussian  l)lue  and  chrome  yellow,  with  a  sash  tool ;  on  this  streak  with  a  li'diter 
•green  on  a  feather,  with  a  little  Indian  red  interspersed,  all  in  one  direction ;  cross  tliis 
with  curling  streaks  of  thin  white,  blend  well,  allow  to  dry,  glaze  witli  Italian  pink  and 
Antwerp  blue,  bring  up  the  light  streaks  witli  touches  of  white,  and  finally  blend  again. 

Granites.— The  chief  varieties  are  grey  and  red  (Aberdeen).  Rub  in  the  ground 
colour  of  liglit  grey  for  the  former,  or  salmon  tint  for  the  latter.  The  marbling  colours 
will  be  thill  black  for  the  former,  and  black,  red,  and  white  for  the  latter.  These  colours 
are  put  on  in  dots  and  splashes,  either  by  stippling  with  a  coarse  sponge  dipped  in  the 
colour,  or  by  springing  the  colour  from  a  short,  stiff,  broad  brush. 

Italian  jasj^er. —Oil  a  ground  of  liglit  green  drab ;  rub  in  subcircular  patches  of  a 
mixture  of  Victoria  lake  and  Indian  red  ;  between  these  put  in,  with  a  featlier  dipped  in 
turpentine,  successive  tints  of  olive  green  (white,  raw  sienna,  and  blue  black),  and  grey 
(white,  Prussian  blue,  and  ivory  black),  blending  well.  The  olive  and  grey  tints  are 
glazed  with  white,  and  the  dark  with  crimson  lake  ;  and  a  final  touching  up  is  given 
with  very  thin  white  on  a  feather. 

Eoyal  red. — On  an  oiled  ground  of  bluish  grey,  rub  in  a  mixture  of  ochre  and  Indian 
red.     Cover  part  of  tlie  work  with  a  rich  brown  made  from  ivory  black  and  Indian  red 
and  scatter  patches  of  black  about  by  a  paper  pad  dipped  into  the  colour.     Repeat  the 
patching  with  light  blue  and  with  white  ;  then  wipe  out  a  few  irregular  lines  so  as  to 
show  up  the  grey  ground  colour.     Finally,  glaze  partially  with  black  and  Indian  red. 

St.  Ann's. — Resembles  black  and  gold,  the  ground  being  black,  the  veins  white,  and 
the  spaces  lead  colour  ;  the  coloured  patches  are  less  in  size  and  more  numerous. 

Sienna. — The  ground  colour  is  buft',  made  with  ochre.  The  various  marbling  tints 
are  made  from  the  following  ingredients : — A  mixture  of  Indian  red  and  ivory  black  for 
dark  veins,  with  a  few  varying  shades  by  the  addition  of  white ;  a  selection  of  graduated 
tints  from  white,  Indian  red,  and  Prussian  blue.  The  glaze  is  made  from  raw  sienna 
and  ochre,  with  a  trace  of  crimson  lake  at  intervals.  First  put  in  the  buif  ground,  and 
on  this  a  pronounced  irregular  vein  across  the  work  of  the  first  marbling  colour,  applied 
on  a  feather  dipped  in  turpentine ;  lead  a  few  veinlets  from  the  main  vein,  and  put  in 
others  with  the  second  marbling  colour,  also  on  a  turpentined  feather;  soften  with  a 
badger  blender ;  on  the  dry  surface  rub  a  little  linseed-oil  with  a  silk  rag ;  touch  up 
with  thin  white  on  a  feather ;  soften  as  before  ;  add  the  glaze  colour,  and  touch  up  the 
main  vein  with  ivory  black  on  a  pencil. 

Verd  antique.— Cover  an  oiled  black  ground  with  dark  green  made  from  chrome 
yellow  and  Prussian  blue  ;  add,  with  a  feather,  patchesof  lighter  green,  with  occasionally 
a  little  Indian  red,  interspersed  with  irregular  blotches  of  black  and  white;  on  the  dry 
surface,  put  a  green  glazing  coat  of  Italian  pink  and  Antwerp  green ;  again  touch  up 
the  whites,  and  give  them  a  fine  black  margin. 

STAINING. — There  are  many  cases  where  an  article  constructed  of  wood  may  be 
more  conveniently  and  suitably  finished  by  staining  and  polishing  than  by  painting. 
The  practice  of  staining  woods  is  much  less  common  in  America  and  England  than  on 
the  Continent,  where  workmen,  familiar  with  thedififerent  washes,  produce  the  most 

2  F 


434  Staining — Black. 

delicate  tones  of  colour  and  shade.  Wood  is  often  stained  to  imitate  darker  and  dearei* 
varieties,  but  more  legitimately  to  improve  tlie  natural  appearance  hj  heightening  antl 
bringing  out  the  original  markings,  or  b}-  giving  a  definite  colour  witliout  covering  the 
surface  and  hiding  the  nature  of  the  material  by  coats  of  paint.  The  best  woods  for 
staining  are  those  of  close  even  texture,  as  pear  and  cherry,  birch,  beech,  and  maple, 
thougli  softer  and  coarser  kinds  may  be  treated  with  good  effect.  The  wood  should  be 
dried,  and  if  an  even  tint  is  desired,  its  surface  planed  and  sandpapered.  All  the 
stains  should,  if  possible,  be  applied  hot,  as  they  thus  penetrate  more  deeply  into  the 
pores.  If  the  wood  is  to  be  varnished,  and  not  subjected  to  much  handling,  almost  any 
of  the  brilliant  mordants  used  in  wool  and  cotton  dyeing  may  be  employed  in  an 
alcoholic  solution;  but  when  thus  coloured  it  has  an  unnatural  appearance,  and  is  best 
used  on  small  surfaces  onlj-,  for  inlaying,  &c.  The  ebonized  wood,  of  late  years  so 
much  in  vogue,  is  in  many  respects  the  most  unsatisfactory  of  the  stains,  as  the  natural 
character  and  markings  are  completely  blotted  out,  and  it  shows  the  least  scratch  or 
rubbing.  Sometimes,  in  consequence  of  the  quality  of  the  wood  under  treatment,  it 
must  be  freed  from  its  natural  colours  by  a  preliminary  bleaching  process.  To  this 
end  it  is  saturated  as  completely  as  possible  with  a  clear  solution  of  ITJ  oz.  chloride  of 
lime  and  2  oz.  soda  crystals,  in  10^  pints  water.  In  this  liquid  the  wood  is  steeped  for 
J  hour,  if  it  does  not  appear  to  injure  its  texture.  After  this  bleaching,  it  is  immersed 
in  a  solution  of  sulphurous  acid  to  remove  all  traces  of  chlorine,  and  then  washed  in 
pure  water.  The  sulphurous  acid,  wl  ich  may  cling  to  the  wood  in  spite  of  washing, 
does  not  appear  to  injure  it,  nor  alter  the  colours  which  are  ajiplied. 

Blaeh. — (1)  Obtained  by  boiling  together  blue  Brazil-wood,  powdered  gall-apples, 
and  alum,  in  rain  or  river  water,  until  it  becomes  black.  This  liquid  is  then  filtered 
through  a  fine  organzine,  and  the  objects  j^ainted  with  a  new  brash  before  the  decoction 
has  cooled,  and  this  repeated  until  the  wood  appears  of  a  fine  black  colour.  It  is  then 
coated  with  the  following  liquid  : — A  mixture  of  iron  filings,  vitriol,  and  vinegar  is  heated 
(without  boiling),  and  left  a  few  days  to  settle.  Even  if  tlie  wood  is  black  enough,  yet 
for  the  sake  of  durability,  it  must  be  coated  with  a  solution  of  alum  and  nitric  acid,  mixed 
with  a  little  verdigris ;  then  a  decoction  of  gall-apples  and  logwood  dyes  is  used  to 
give  it  a  deep  black.  A  decoction  may  be  made  of  brown  Brazil-wood  with  alum  in 
rain-water,  without  gall-apples ;  the  wood  is  left  standing  in  it  for  some  days  in  a 
moderately  warm  place,  and  to  it  merely  iron  filings  in  strong  vinegar  are  added,  and 
both  are  boiled  with  the  wood  over  a  gentle  fire.  For  this  purpose  soft  pear-wood 
is  chosen,  which  is  preferable  to  all  others  for  black  staining. 

(2)  1  oz.  nut-gall  broken  into  small  pieces,  put  into  barely  },  pint  vinegar,  which 
must  be  contained  iu  an  open  vessel ;  let  stand  for  about  i  hour ;  add  1  oz.  steel 
filings ;  the  vinegar  will  then  commence  efiervescing ;  cover  up,  but  not  sufficient  to 
exclude  all  air.  The  solution  must  then  stand  for  about  2h  hours,  when  it  will  be 
ready  for  use.  Apply  the  solution  with  a  brush  or  piece  of  rag  to  the  article,  then  let 
it  remain  until  dry  ;  if  not  black  enough,  coat  it  until  it  is — each  time,  of  course,  letting 
it  remain  sufSeicntly  long  to  dry  thoroughly.  After  the  solution  is  made,  keep  it  in 
a  closely-corked  bottle. 

(3)  1  gal.  water,  1  lb.  logwood  chips,  i  lb.  black  copperas,  I  lb.  extract  of  logwood, 
i  lb.  indigo  blue,  2  oz.  lampblack.  Put  these  into  an  iron  pot  and  boil  them  over  a 
slow  fire.  When  the  mixture  is  cool,  strain  it  tlirough  a  cloth,  add  i  oz.  nut-gall.  It 
is  then  ready  for  use.     This  is  a  good  black  for  all  kinds  of  cheap  work. 

(1)  250  parts  of  Campeachy  wood,  2000  water,  and  30  copper  sulphate  ;  the  wood 
is  allowed  to  stand  2-1  hours  iu  this  liquor,  dried  in  the  air,  and  finally  immersed  in 
iron  nitrate  liquor  at  4°  B. 

(5)  Boil  8|  oz.  logwood  in  70  oz.  water  and  1  oz.  blue  stone,  and  steep  the  wood  for 
24  hours.  Take  out,  expose  to  the  air  for  a  long  time,  and  then  steep  for  12  hours  iu 
a  beck  of  iron  nitrate  at  i°  B.     If  the  black  is  not  fine,  steep  again  in  logwood  liquor. 


Staining— Black.  435 

(C)  It  is  customary  to  employ  the  clear  liquid  obtained  by  treatin;?  2  parts  powdered 
galls  with  15  parts  wine,  and  mixing  the  liltcred  liquid  with  a  solution  of  iron  proto- 
sulphate.     Eeimann  recommends  the  use  of  water  in  the  place  of  wine. 

(7)  Almost  any  wood  can  be  dyed  black  by  the  following  means : — Take  logwood 
extract  such  as  is  found  in  commerce,  powder  1  oz.,  and  boil  it  in  3J  pints  water :  wlicu 
the  extract  is  dissolved,  add  1  dr.  potash  yellow  chromate  (not  the  bichromate),  and 
agitate  the  whole.  The  operation  is  now  finished,  and  the  liquid  will  serve  equally 
well  to  write  with  or  to  stain  wood.  Its  colour  is  a  very  fine  dark  purple,  which  becomes 
a  pure  black  when  applied  to  the  wood. 

(8)  For  black  and  gold  furniture,  procure  1  lb.  logwood  chips,  add  2  qt.  water,  boil 
1  hour,  brush  the  liquor  in  hot,  when  dry  give  anotlier  coat.  Now  procure  1  oz.  green 
copperas,  dissolve  it  in  warm  water,  well  mix,  and  brush  the  solution  over  the  wood:  it 
will  bring  out  a  fine  black  ;  but  the  wood  should  be  dried  outdoors,  as  the  black  sets 

better.     A  common  stove  brush  is  best.     If  polish  cannot  be  used,  proceed  as  follows : 

Fill  up  the  grain  with  bhick  glue— i.  e.  thin  glue  and  lampblack— brushed  over  the 
parts  accessible  (not  in  the  carvings)  ;  when  dry,  paper  down  with  fine  paper.  Now 
procure,  say,  a  gill  of  French  polish,  in  which  mix  1  oz.  best  ivory  black,  or  gas-black 
is  best,  well  shake  it  until  quite  a  thick  pasty  mass,  procure  J  pint  brown  hard  varnish 
pour  a  portion  into  a  cup,  add  enough  black  polish  to  make  it  quite  dark,  then  varnish 
the  work ;  two  thin  coats  are  better  than  one  thick  coat.  Tlie  first  coat  may  be  glass- 
papered  down  where  accessible,  as  it  will  look  better.  A  coat  of  glaze  over  the  whole 
gives  a  London  finish.  N.B. — Enough  varnish  should  be  mixed  at  once  for  the  job  to 
make  it  all  one  colour — i,  e.  good  black.     (^Sinillier.) 

(0)  For  table. — Wash  the  surface  of  table  with  liquid  ammonia,  applied  with  a  pirce  of 
rag ;  the  varnish  will  then  peel  otf  like  a  skin  ;  afterwards  smooth  down  with  fine  sand- 
paper. Mix  J  lb.  lampblack  with  1  qt.  hot  water,  adding  a  little  glue  size ;  rub  this 
stain  well  in  :  let  it  dry  before  sandpapering  it;  smooth  again.  Mind  you  do  not  work 
through  the  stain.  Afterwards  apply  the  following  black  varnish  with  a  broad  fine 
camel-hair  brush  : — Mix  a  small  quantity  of  gas-black  with  the  varnish.  If  one  coat  of 
varnish  is  not  sufScient,  apply  a  second  one  after  the  first  is  dry.  Gas-black  can  bo 
obtained  by  boiling  a  pot  over  the  gas,  letting  the  pot  nearly  touch  the  burner,  when  a 
fine  jet  black  will  form  on  the  bottom,  which  remove,  and  mix  with  the  varnish.  Copper 
vessels  give  the  best  black :  it  mny  be  collected  from  barbers'  warming  pots. 

(10)  Black-board  wash,  or  "  lic^uid  slating." — («)  4  pints  95  per  cent,  alcohol,  8  oz. 
shellac,  12  dr.  lampblack,  20  dr.  ultramarine  blue,  4  oz.  powdered  rottenstone,  6  oz. 
powdered  i^umice.  (5)  1  gal.  95  per  cent,  alcohol,  1  lb.  shellac,  8  oz.  best  ivory  black, 
5  oz.  finest  flour  emery,  4  oz.  ultramarine  blue.  Make  a  perfect  solution  of  the  shellac 
in  the  alcohol  before  adding  the  other  articles.  To  apply  the  slating,  have  the  surface 
smooth  and  perfectly  free  from  grease  ;  Avell  shake  the  bottle  containing  the  prepara- 
tion, and  pour  out  a  small  quantity  only  into  a  dish,  and  apply  it  with  a  new  flat  varnish 
brush  as  rapidly  as  possible.  Keep  the  bottle  well  corked,  and  shake  it  up  each  time 
before  pouring  out  the  liquid,  (c)  Lampblack  and  flour  of  emery  mixed  with  spirit 
varnish.  No  more  lampblack  and  flour  of  emery  should  be  used  than  are  suflicicnt  to 
give  the  required  black  abrading  surface.  The  thinner  the  mixture  the  better.  Lamp- 
black should  first  be  ground  with  a  small  quantity  of  sjnrit  varnish  or  alcohol  to  fne 
it  from  lumps.  The  composition  should  be  applied  to  the  smoothly-planed  sarface  of  a 
board  with  a  common  paint-brush.  Let  it  become  thoroughly  dry  and  hard  before  it 
is  used.  Kub  it  down  with  pumice  if  too  rough.  (cZ)  i  gal.  shellac  varnish,  5  oz. 
lampblack,  3  oz.  powdered  iron  ore  or  emery  ;  if  too  thick,  thin  with  alcohol.  Give 
3  coats  of  the  composition,  allowing  each  to  dry  before  putting  on  the  next ;  the  first 
may  be  of  shellac  and  lamiiblack  alone,  (e)  To  make  1  gal.  of  the  paint  for  a  black- 
board, take  10  oz.  pulverized  and  sifted  pumice,  6  oz.  powdered  rottenstone  (infusorial 
silica),  f  lb.  good  lampblack,  uud  alcohol  enough  to  form  with  these  a  thick  paste, 

2  F  2 


436  Staining — Black,  Blue. 

■whicli  mnst  be  well  rubbed  and  ground  togetlier.  Then  dissolve  14  oz.  shellac  in  the 
remainder  of  the  gallon  of  alcohol  by  digestion  and  agitation,  and  finally  mix  this 
varnish  and  the  paste  together.  It  is  applied  to  the  board  with  a  brush,  care  being 
taken  to  'keep  the  paint  well  stirred  so  that  the  pumice  will  not  settle.  Two  coats  are 
usually  necessary.  The  first  sliould  be  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly  before  the  second  is 
put  ou,  the  latter  being  applied  so  as  not  to  disturb  or  rub  oft"  any  portion  of  the  first. 
One  gallon  of  this  paint  will  ordinarily  furnish  2  coats  for  GO  sq.  yd.  of  black-board. 
When  the  paint  is  to  be  put  on  plastered  walls,  the  wall  should  be  previously  coated 
with  glue  size — 1  lb.  glue,  1  gal.  water,  enough  lampblack  to  colour;  put  on  hot. 
( f)  Instead  of  the  alcohol  mentioned  in  6,  take  a  solution  of  borax  in  water  ;  dissolve 
the  shellac  in  this  and  colour  with  lampblack,  (g)  Dilute  soda  silicate  (water-glass) 
with  an  equal  bulk  of  water,  and  add  sufficient  lampblack  to  colour  it.  The  lamp- 
black should  be  ground  with  water  and  a  little  of  the  silicate  before  being  added  to  the 
rest  of  the  liquid. 

(11)  17"5  oz.  Brazil-wood  and  0"525  oz.  alum  are  boiled  for  1  liour  in  2*75  lb. 
water.  The  coloured  liijuor  is  then  filtered  from  the  boiled  Brazil-wood,  and  applied 
several  times  boiling  hot  to  the  wood  to  be  stained.  This  will  assume  a  violet  colour. 
This  violet  colour  can  be  easily  changed  into  black  by  preparing  a  solution  of  2  •  1  oz. 
iron  filings,  and  1'05  oz.  common  salt  in  17*5  oz.  vinegar.  The  solution  is  filtered,  and 
aijplied  to  the  wood,  which  will  then  acquire  a  beautiful  black  colour. 

(12)  8-75  oz.  gall-nuts  and  2-2  lb.  logwood  are  boiled  in  2*2  lb.  rain-water  for 
1  hour  in  a  copper  boiler.  The  decoction  is  then  filtered  through  a  cloth,  and  applied 
several  times  while  it  is  still  warm  to  the  article  of  wood  to  be  stained.  In  this 
manner  a  beautiful  black  will  be  obtained. 

(13)  This  is  prepared  by  dissolving  0-525  oz.  logwood  extract  in  2-2  lb.  hot  rain- 
water, and  by  adding  to  the  logwood  solution  0'035  oz.  potash  chromate.  "When  this  is 
applied  several  times  to  the  article  to  be  stained,  a  dark  brown  colour  will  first  be 
obtained.  To  change  this  into  a  deep  chrome-black,  the  solution  of  iron  filings,  common 
salt,  and  vinegar,  given  under  (11)  is  applied  to  the  wood,  and  the  desired  colour  will  be 
produced. 

(14)  Several  coats  of  alizarine  ink  are  applied  to  the  wood,  but  every  coat  must  be 
thoroughly  dry  before  the  other  is  put  on.  AYhen  the  articles  are  dry,  the  solution  of 
iron  filings,  common  salt,  and  vinegar,  as  given  in  (11),  is  applied  to  the  wood,  and  a 
very  durable  black  will  be  obtained. 

(15)  According  to  Herzog,  a  black  stain  for  wood,  giving  to  it  a  colour  resembling 
ebony,  is  obtained  by  treating  the  wood  with  two  fluids,  one  after  the  other.  The  first 
fluid  to  be  used  consists  of  a  very  concentrated  solution  of  logwood,  and  to  0'35  oz.  of 
this  fluid  are  added  0'017  oz.  alum.  The  other  fluid  is  obtained  by  digesting  iron 
filings  in  vinegar.  After  the  wood  has  been  dipped  in  the  first  hot  fluid,  it  is  allowed 
to  dry,  and  is  then  treated  with  the  second  fluid,  several  times  if  necessary. 

(16)  Sponge  the  wood  with  a  solution  of  aniline  chlorhydrate  in  water,  to  which  a 
small  quantity  of  copper  chloride  is  added.  Allow  it  to  dry,  and  go  over  it  with  a  solu- 
tion of  potassium  bichromate.  Eepeat  the  process  2  or  3  times,  and  the  wood  will  take  a 
fine  black  colour. 

Blue. — (1)  Powder  a  little  Prussian  blue,  and  mix  to  the  consistency  of  paint  with 
beer ;  brush  it  on  the  wood,  and  when  dry  size  it  with  glue  dissolved  in  boiling  water ; 
apply  lukewarm,  and  let  this  dry  also ;  then  varnish  or  French  polish. 

(2)  Indigo  solution,  or  a  concentrated  hot  solution  of  blue  vitriol,  followed  by  a  dip 
in  a  solution  of  washing  soda. 

(3)  Prepare  as  for  violet,  and  dye  with  aniline  blue. 

(4)  A  beautiful  blue  stain  is  obtained  by  gradually  stirring  0'52  oz.  finely-powdered 
indigo  into  4' 2  oz.  sulphuric  acid  of  GO  per  cent.,  and  by  exposing  this  mixture  for  12 
Lours  to  a  temperatuie  of  77°  F.  (25°  C).    The  mass  is  then  poured  into  11-13 '2  lb. 


Staining — Brown;  Ebonizing.  437 

rain-water,  and  filtered  ibrough  felt.  This  filtered  water  is  applied  several  times  to  tlu' 
Avood,  until  the  desired  colour  has  been  obtained.  The  more  the  solution  is  diluted  with 
water,  the  lighter  will  bo  the  colour. 

(5)  1-05  oz.  finest  indigo  carmine,  dissolved  in  8 -7")  oz.  water,  applied  several  times 
to  the  articles  to  be  stained.     A  very  fine  blue  is  in  this  manner  obtained. 

(tj)  3-5  oz.  French  verdigris  arc  dissolvid  iu  3-5  oz.  urine  and  S'l')  oz.  wine  vinegar. 
The  solution  is  filtered  and  applied  to  the  article  to  be  stained.  Then  a  solution  of  2- 1  oz. 
potash  carbonate  in  8*75  oz.  rain-water  is  prepared,  and  the  article  coloured  with  tins 
verdigris  is  brushed  over  with  this  solution  uutil  the  desired  blue  colour  makes  its 
appearance. 

(7)  The  newest  processes  of  staining  wood  blue  are  those  with  aniline  colours.  The 
following  colours  may  be  chosen  for  the  staining  liquor  : — Bleu  do  Lyon  (reddish  blue), 
bleu  de  lumiere  (pure  blue),  light  blue  (greenish  blue).  These  colours  are  dissolved  in 
the  proportion  of  I  part  colouring  substance  to  30  of  spirit  of  wine,  and  the  wood  is 
treated  with  the  solution. 

Brou-n. — (1)  Various  tones  may  be  produced  by  mordanting  with  potash  chromate, 
and  applying  a  decoction  of  fustic,  of  logwood,  or  of  peachwood. 

(2)  Sulphuric  acid,  more  or  less  diluted  according  to  the  intensity  of  the  colour  to  bo 
produced,  is  applied  with  a  brush  to  the  wood,  previously  cleaned  and  dried.  A  lighter 
or  darker  brown  stain  is  obtained,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  acid.  When  the 
acid  has  acted  sufficiently,  its  further  action  is  arrested  by  the  application  of  ammonia. 

(3)  Tincture  of  iodine  yields  a  fine  brown  coloration,  which,  however,  is  not  perma- 
nent unless  the  air  is  excluded  by  a  thick  coating  of  polish. 

(4)  A  simple  brown  wasli  is  J  oz.  alkanet  root,  1  oz.  aloes,  1  oz.  dragons'  blood, 
digested  in  1  lb.  alcoliol.  This  is  applied  after  the  wood  has  been  washed  with  aqua 
regia,  but  is,  like  all  the  alcoholic  washes,  not  very  durable. 

Ebonizing. — (1)  Boil  1  lb.  logwood  cbips  1  hour  in  2  qt.  water;  brusli  the  hot  liquor 
over  the  work  to  be  stained,  lay  aside  to  dry  ;  when  dry  give  another  coat,  still  usin"-  it 
hot.  When  the  second  coat  is  dry,  brush  the  following  liquor  over  the  work : — 1  oz.  "-reen 
copperas  to  1  qt.  hot  water,  to  be  used  when  the  copperas  is  all  dissolved.  It  will  bring 
out  an  intense  black  when  dry.  For  staining,  the  work  must  not  be  dried  by  fire,  but  in 
the  sunshine,  if  possible ;  if  not,  in  a  warm  room,  away  from  the  fire.  To  jiolish  this 
work  first  give  a  coating  of  very  thin  glue  size,  and  when  quite  dry  paper  oft'  very  lightly 
with  No.  0  paper,  only  just  enough  to  render  smooth,  but  not  to  remove  the  black  stain. 
Then  make  a  rubber  of  wadding  about  the  size  of  a  walnut,  moisten  the  rubber  with 
French  polish,  cover  the  whole  tightly  with  a  double  linen  rag,  put  one  drop  of  oil  on 
the  siuface,  and  rub  the  work  with  a  circular  motion.  Should  the  rubber  stick  it 
requires  more  polish.  Previous  to  putting  the  French  polish  on  the  wadding  pledget, 
it  ought  to  be  mixed  with  the  best  drop  black,  in  the  proportion  of  J  oz.  droj)  black  to  a 
gill  of  French  polish.  AVhen  the  work  has  received  one  coat,  set  it  aside  to  dry  for  about 
an  hour.  After  the  first  coat  is  laid  on  and  thoroughly  dry,  it  should  be  partly  papered 
off  with  No.  0  paper.  This  brings  the  surface  even,  and  at  the  same  time  fills  up 
the  grain.  Now  give  a  second  coat  as  before.  Allow  24  hours  to  elapse,  again  paper  oft', 
and  give  a  final  coat  as  before.  Now  comes  "spiriting  off."  Great  care  must  be  used 
here,  or  the  work  will  be  dull  instead  of  bright,  A  clean  rubl)er  must  be  made,  as 
l)reviously  described,  but  instead  of  being  moistened  with  poli.sh  it  must  be  wetted  with 
spirits  of  wine  placed  in  a  linen  rag  screwed  into  a  tight  even-surfaced  ball,  just  toTiched 
on  the  face  with  a  drop  of  oil,  and  then  rubbed  lightly  and  quickly  in  circular  sweeps  all 
over  the  work  from  top  to  bottom.  One  application  of  spirits  is  usually  enough  if 
sufficient  has  been  placed  on  the  rubber  at  the  outset,  but  it  is  better  to  use  rather  too 
little  than  too  much  at  a  time,  as  an  excess  will  entirely  remove  the  polish,  when  the 
work  will  have  to  be  polished  again.  Should  this  be  the  case,  paper  off  at  once,  and 
commence  as  at  first.     It  is  the  best  way  in  the  end.     (^SinUher.) 


438  Staining — Ebonizing. 

(2)  Lauber  dissolves  extract  of  logwood  in  boiling  water  until  the  solution  indicates 
0°  Beaume'.  5  pints  of  the  solution  is  then  mixed  with  2^  pints  pyroligneous  iron 
mordant  of  10°,  and  h  pint  acetic  acid  of  2°,  The  mixture  is  heated  fur  J  hour,  and  is 
then  ready  for  use. 

(3)  To  imitate  black  ebony,  first  wet  the  wood  with  a  solution  of  logwood  and  copperas, 
boiled  together  and  laid  on  hot.  For  tliis  purpose,  2  oz.  logwood  chips  with  li  oz. 
copperas,  to  1  qt.  water,  will  be  required.  When  the  work  has  become  dry,  wet  the 
surface  again  with  a  mixture  of  vinegar  and  steel  filings.  This  mixture  may  be  made 
by  dissolving  2  oz.  steel  filings  in  h  pint  vinegar.  When  the  work  has  become  dry 
again,  sandpaper  down  until  quite  smooth.  Then  oil  and  fill  in  with  powdered  drop- 
black  mixed  in  the  filler.  Work  to  be  ebonized  should  be  smooth  and  free  from  holes,  &c. 
The  work  may  receive  a  liglit  coat  of  quick-drying  varnish,  and  then  be  rubbed  with 
finely-pulverized  pumice  and  linseed-oil  until  very  smootli. 

(4)  1  gal.  strong  vinegar,  2  lb.  extract  of  logwood,  h  lb.  green  copperas,  J  lb.  China 
blue,  and  2  oz.  nut-gall.  Put  these  in  an  iron  pot,  and  boil  them  over  a  slow  fire  till 
they  are  well  dissolved.  When  cool,  tlie  mixture  is  ready  for  use.  Add  to  the  above  | 
pint  iron  rust,  whicli  may  be  obtained  by  scraping  rusty  hoops,  or  preferably  by  steeping 
iron  filings  in  a  .solution  of  acetic  acid  or  strong  vinegar. 

(5)  Common  ebony  stain  is  obtained  by  preparing  two  baths  ;  the  first,  applied  warm, 
consists  of  a  logwood  decoction,  to  every  quart  of  which  1  dr.  alum  is  added;  the 
second  is  a  solution  of  iron  filings  in  vinegar.  After  the  wood  has  dried  from  the  first, 
the  second  is  applied  as  often  as  is  required.  For  the  first-named  bath,  some  substitute 
16  oz.  gall-nut,  4  oz.  logwood  dust,  and  2  oz.  verdigris,  boiled  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
water.  A  peculiar  method  of  blackening  walnut  is  in  use  in  Nurnberg.  On  one  of  the 
Pegnitz  Islands  there  is  a  large  griuding-mill,  turned  by  the  stream,  where  iron  tools 
are  sharpened  and  polished.  The  wood  is  buried  for  a  week  or  more  in  the  slime 
formed  by  the  wheels ;  when  dug  out  it  is  jet  black,  and  so  permeated  by  silica  as  to  be 
in  effect  petrified.  Another  way  to  ebonize  flat  surfaces  of  soft  work  is  to  rub  very  fine 
charcoal  dust  into  the  pores  with  oil.  This  works  beautifully  with  the  European  linden 
and  American  whitewood.  A  brown  mahogany-like  stain  is  best  used  on  elm  and 
walnut.  Take  a  pint  decoction  of  2  oz.  logwood  in  which  i  oz.  barium  chloride  has  been 
dissolved.  This  gives  also,  when  diluted  with  soft  water,  a  good  oak  stain  to  ash  and 
chestnut.  But  the  most  beautiful  and  lasting  of  the  browns  is  a  concentrated  solution  of 
potash  permanganate  (mineral  chameleon).  This  is  decomposed  by  the  woody  fibre,  and 
forms  hydrated  manganese  oxide,  which  is  permanently  fixed  by  the  alkali. 

(6)  For  the  fine  black  ebony  stain,  apple,  pear,  and  hazel  wood  are  the  best  woods  to 
use ;  when  stained  black,  they  are  most  complete  imitations  of  the  natural  ebony.  For 
the  stain  take— gall-apple,  14  oz.;  rasped  logwood,  3|  oz. ;  vitriol.  If  oz. ;  verdigris. 
If  oz.  For  the  second  coating  a  mixture  of  iron  filings  (pure),  3J  oz.,  dissolved  in 
strong  wine  vinegar;  IJ  pint  is  warmed,  and  when  cool  the  wood  already  blackened 
is  coated  2  or  3  times  with  it,  allowing  it  to  dry  after  each  coat.  For  articles  which 
are  to  be  thoroughly  saturated,  a  mixture  of  If  oz.  sal-ammoniac,  with  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  steel  filings,  is  to  be  placed  in  a  suitable  vessel,  strong  vinegar  poiu-ed 
upon  it,  and  left  for  14  days  in  a  gently-heated  oven.  A  strong  lye  is  now  put  into  a 
suitable  pot,  to  which  is  added  coarsely-bruised  gall-apples  and  blue  Brazil  shavings, 
and  exposed  for  the  same  time  as  the  former  to  the  gentle  heat  of  an  oven,  which  will 
then  yield  a  good  liquid.  The  woods  are  now  laid  in  the  first-named  stain,  boiled 
for  a  few  hours,  and  left  in  it  for  3  days  longer ;  they  are  then  placed  in  the  second 
stain  and  treated  as  in  the  first.  If  the  articles  are  not  then  thoroughly  saturated, 
they  may  be  once  more  placed  in  the  first  bath,  and  then  in  the  second.  The  polish 
used  for  wood  that  is  stained  black  should  be  "  white  "  (colourless)  polish,  to  which  a 
very  little  finely-ground  Prussian  blue  should  be  added. 

(7)  Wash  with  a  concentrated  aqueous  solution  of  logwood  extract  several  times ; 


Staiking — Ebonizing;  Floors.  439 

then  -with  a  solution  of  iron  acetate  of  U°  B.,  wliicli  is  repeated  until  a  deep  Lhick  is 
produced. 

(S)  Beech,  pear-tree,  or  holly  steeped  in  a  strong  liquor  of  logwood  or  galls.  Let 
the  wood  dry,  and  wash  over  with  solution  of  iron  sulphate.  Wash  with  clean  water, 
and  repeat  if  colour  is  not  dark  enough.  Polish  cither  witli  black  or  common  French 
polish. 

(9)  Oak  is  immersed  for  48  hours  in  a  hot  saturated  solution  of  alum;  and  then 
Ijrushed  over  several  times  with  a  logwood  decoction  prepared  as  follows: — Boil  1  part 
best  logwood  with  10  of  water,  filter  through  linen,  and  evaporate  at  a  gentle  heat  until 
the  volume  is  reduced  one-half.  To  every  quart  of  this  add  10  to  15  drops  of  a 
saturated  solution  of  indigo,  completely  neutral.  After  applying  this  dye  to  tiio  wood, 
rub  the  latter  with  a  saturated  and  filtered  solution  of  verdigris  in  hot  concentrated 
acetic  acid,  and  repeat  the  operation  until  a  black  of  the  desired  intensity  is  obtained. 
Oak  thus  stained  is  said  to  be  a  close  as  well  as  handsome  imitation  of  ebony. 

(10)  1  lb.  logwood  chips,  3  joints  water  ;  boil  to  1  pint;  apply  hot  to  wood  ;  let  dry; 
then  give  another  coat ;  let  dry  slowly  ;  sandpaper  smooth ;  mix  1  gill  vinegar  with  3 
tablespoonfuls  iron  or  steel  filings  :  let  stand  5  hours,  then  brush  on  wood ;  let  dry ;  then 
give  another  coat  of  the  firtt.  This  sends  the  vinegar  deeper  into  the  wood  and  makes 
ii  denser  black ;  after  which  paper  smooth.  Then  jjolish  with  white  French  polish,  as 
the  white  brings  out  the  black  purer  than  common  French  polish.  The  woods  observed 
to  take  on  the  stain  best  are  pear-tree,  plane-tree,  and  straight-reeded  birch ;  mahogany 
docs  not  stain  nearly  so  well  as  the  former  woods. 

(11)  Get  1  lb.  of  logwood  chips  and  boil  them  down  in  enough  water  to  make  a  good 
dark  colour ;  give  the  furniture  3  or  4  coats  with  a  sponge  ;  then  put  some  rusty  nails  or 
old  iron  into  a  bottle  with  some  vinegar,  and  when  it  begins  to  work  give  the  furniture  a 
coat  of  the  vinegar.  This,  if  you  have  well  darkened  it  with  the  first,  will  give  you  a 
good  black.  Oil  and  polish  in  the  usual  way,  rubbing  down  first  with  fine  jiaper  if 
required.  A  quicker  way  is  to  give  the  wood  a  coat  of  size  and  lampblack,  and  then 
use  gas-black  in  j'our  polish  rubber. 

(12)  Make  a  strong  decoction  of  logwood  by  boiling  1  lb.  in  1  qt.  water  for  about 
1  hour  ;  add  thereto  a  piece  of  washing  soda  as  large  as  a  hazel-nut.  Apply  hot  to 
the  wood  with  a  soft  brush.  Allow  to  dry,  then  paint  over  the  wood  witli  a  solution  of 
iron  sulphate  (1  oz.  to  the  pint  of  water).  Allow  this  to  dr)'^,  and  repeat  the  logwood 
and  iron  sulphate  for  at  least  3  times,  finishing  off  with  logwood.  Once  more  allow  to 
dry  thoroughly,  then  sandpaper  off  very  lightly  (so  as  not  to  remove  the  d)'e)  with 
No.  0  jjajjer.  Now  make  a  very  thin  glue  size,  boil  in  it  a  few  chips  of  logwood  and 
a  crystal  or  two  of  iron  suljshate,  just  sufficient  to  make  it  inky  black.  Paint  this 
lightly  over  the  work,  allow  to  dry  once  more,  again  sandpaper  lightly,  and  finally 
cither  varnish  with  good  hard  white  varnish,  or  polish  with  French  polish  and  drop 
black. 

Floors. — (1)  Get  the  wood  clean,  have  some  Vandyke  brown  and  burnt  sienna 
gTound  in  water,  mix  it  in  strong  size,  put  on  with  a  whitewash  or  new  paint-brush  as 
evenly  as  you  can.     When  dr}-,  give  2  coats  of  copal  or  oak  varnish. 

(2)  If  the  floor  is  a  new  one,  have  the  border  well  washed.  Polish  with  glass- 
paper,  rubbing  always  with  the  grain  of  the  wood.  Tarnish  with  good  oak  varnish, 
put  colouring  matter  into  the  varnish  to  suit  your  taste,  but  umber  is  best ;  if  the 
floor  is  old  and  blackened,  paint  it. 

(3)  If  old  floors,  you  will  not  make  much  of  staining  anything  but  black.  The 
floor  is  to  be  well  washed  (lime  and  soda  is  best — no  soap),  the  dye  painted  on,  and, 
when  dry,  sized  over  and  varnished  with  clastic  oak  varnish. 

(4)  Take  J  lb.  logwood  chips,  boil  them  briskly  for  i  hour  in  about  5  qt.  rain-water, 
and  strain  through  muslin.  To  this  liquor  add  C  oz.  annatto  (in  the  form  of  cake — 
not  the  roll) ;  add  also  1  lb.  of  yellow  wax  cut  up  in  very  small  pieces.    Place  these 


440  Staining — Floors. 

over  the  fire,  and  let  the  wax  melt  gently,  stirring  it  all  the  while.  Wiien  melted,  take 
the  mixture  off  the  fire  ;  do  not  let  it  boil.  Then  witli  a  paint-brush  lay  it  on  tlie  fioor 
as  hot  as  possible,  brushing  it  always  the  way  of  the  grain.  Next  day  polish  with  a 
hard  flat  brush  made  of  hair,  wliich  may  have  a  strap  nailed  to  the  buck  of  it  in  which, 
to  insert  the  foot.  The  floor  is  afterwards  kept  bright  with  beeswax  alone,  a  little 
of  which  is  melted  and  put  on  the  brush.  Take  care  that  the  floor  is  thoroughly  dry- 
before  commencing  operations. 

(5)  Melt  some  glue  size  in  a  bottle ;  next  get  a  piece  of  rag,  roll  it  into  a  ball  so 
that  it  will  fit  the  hand  nicely,  cover  this  witli  a  bit  of  old  calico  to  make  a  smootli 
face ;  dip  this  into  the  size,  and  rub  in  a  bit  of  brown  umber  ;  then  go  ahead  with  your 
floors,  working  the  stuff  light  or  dark  as  required.  Keep  the  motion  with  the  grain  of 
wood  ;  when  dry,  stiffen  with  polishers'  glaze. 

(6)  Take  Judson's  dyes  of  tlie  colour  required,  mix  according  to  the  instructions 
given  with  each  bottle,  and  apply  with  a  piece  of  rag,  previously  trying  it  on  a  piece 
of  wood  to  see  if  colour  would  suit ;  rub  with  sandpaper  to  get  off  any  roughness  that 
may  be  raised  with  the  damp,  and  varnish  with  fine  pale  hard  varnish,  then  slightly 
sandpaper  and  varnisli  ngain.  Another  method  is  to  boil  1  lb.  logwood  in  an  old 
boiler,  then  apply  with  a  piece  of  rug  where  the  stain  is  required;  vhen  thorouglily 
dry,  sandpaper  as  before,  and  well  rub  with  beeswax  to  polish.  This  last  process  looks 
best  when  finislied,  but  it  requires  a  lot  of  elbow  grease  for  a  few  months,  and  is 
extremely  durable.  To  prevent  the  stain  running  where  you  do  not  want  it,  paste 
some  stout  jjaper, 

(7)  As  a  general  rule,  1  qt.  of  the  staining  liquid  will  be  found  sufficient  to  cover 
about  16  sq.  yd.  of  flooring ;  but  ditfereut  kinds  of  woods  absorb  in  difterent  pro- 
portions, soft  woods  requiring  more  for  the  same  space  than  hard  woods.  The  colours- 
of  the  stains  are  various,  so  that  one  may  either  choose  ebony,  walnut,  mahogany, 
rosewood,  satinwood,  oak,  medium  oak,  or  njaple,  according  to  the  paleness  or  depth  of 
colour  desired.  Besides  this,  4  lb.  of  size  and  2J  pints  of  the  best  varnish  are  required 
to  finish  the  IG  yd.  above  mentioned.  The  necessary  purchases  are  comi^leted  by  a 
good-sized  painters'  brush  and  a  smaller  one.  The  work  can  then  be  commenced.  If 
the  wood  is  uneven,  it  must  be  planed,  and  rubbed  down  to  a  smooth  surface ;  whilst 
the  cracks  and  spaces  between  the  boards,  if  very  wide,  may  be  disposed  of  by  a  process 
called  "slipping,"  by  which  pieces  of  wood  are  fitted  in.  The  floor  must  next  be 
carefully  washed,  and  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly.  The  actual  staining  may  now  be 
proceeded  with.  Tlie  liquid  is  poured  out  into  a  basin,  and  spread  all  over  the  floor 
with  the  aid  of  the  large  brush,  the  small  one  being  used  to  do  the  corners  and  along 
the  wainscoting,  so  tliat  it  may  not  be  smeared.  It  is  always  best  to  begin  staining 
at  the  farthest  corner  from  the  doorway,  and  so  work  round  so  that  one's  exit  may  not 
be  impeded.  It  is  also  a  good  plan  to  work  with  the  window  open,  if  there  is  no 
danger  of  much  dust  flying  in,  as  the  staining  dries  so  much  quicker.  After  the  floor 
is  quite  covered,  the  stainer  may  rest  for  about  an  hour  whilst  the  drying  is  going  on, 
during  which  there  is  only  one  thing  relative  to  the  work  in  hand  which  need  be 
attended  to.  This  is  the  size,  which  should  be  put  in  a  large  basin  with  h  pint  of  cold 
water  to  each  pound,  and  then  stood  in  a  warm  place  to  dissolve.  Before  re-com- 
mencing work  also  the  brushes  must  be  washed,  and  this  is  no  great  trouble,  as  a 
little  lukewarm  water  will  take  out  all  trace  of  the  stain  and  clean  them  quite  sufficiently. 
The  sizing  is  then  laid  on  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  the  staining,  always  being 
careful  to  pass  the  brush  lengthwise  down  the  boards.  If  the  size  froths  or  sticks 
unpleasantly,  it  must  be  a  little  more  diluted  with  warm  water,  and  sometimes,  if  the 
sediment  from  it  is  very  thick,  it  is  all  the  better  for  being  strained  through  a  coarse 
muslin.  The  sizing  takes  rather  longer  than  the  varnish  to  dry,  2  or  more  hours  being 
necessary,  even  on  a  warm,  dry  day.  Not  until  it  is  quite  dry,  however,  can  the  last 
finish  be  put  to  the  work  with  the  varnish.    For  this  it  is  alwnys  safest  to  get  the  very 


Staining — Green,  Grey,  Mahogany.  441 

best,  and  to  lay  it  on  rather  liberally,  tliongh  very  evenly,  and  over  every  single  inclir 
as  the  staining  will  soon  rnb  olf  when  not  jirotcctcd  by  it.  The  best  way  to  ascertain 
whether  it  is  varnished  all  over  is  to  kneel  down  and  look  at  the  floor  sideways,  with 
one's  eyes  almost  on  a  level  with  it. 

Green.— (1)  Mordant  the  wood  with  red  lienor  at  1°  B.  This  is  prepared  by  dissolvin"- 
separately  in  water  1  part  sugar  of  lead  and  -i  of  alum  free  from  iron  ;  mix  the  solutions, 
and  then  add  ^'^  part  of  soda  crystals,  and  let  settle  ovcruiglit.  The  clear  licpior  is 
decanted  oft'  from  the  sediment  of  lead  sulphate,  and  is  then  diluted  with  water  till  it 
marks  1°  B.  The  wood  when  mordanted  is  dyed  green  with  berry  liquor  and  indif^o 
extract,  tlie  rehxtive  proportions  of  which  determine  the  tone  of  the  green. 

(2)  Verdigris  dissolved  in  4  parts  water. 

(3)  4 "2  oz.  copper,  cut  up  finely,  are  gradually  dissolved  in  13  oz.  nitric  acid  (aqua- 
fortis), and  the  articles  to  be  stained  are  boiled  in  this  solution  until  they  have  assumed 
a  fine  green  colour. 

Greij. — (1)  Greys  may  be  produced  by  boiling  17  oz.  orchil  paste  for  -J-  hour  in 
7  pints  water.  The  wood  is  first  treated  with  this  solution,  and  then,  before  it  is  dry, 
steeped  in  a  beck  of  iron  nitrate  at  1°  B.  An  excess  of  iron  gives  a  yellowisli  tone; 
otherwise  a  blue  grey  is  produced,  which  may  be  completely  converted  into  blue  by 
means  of  a  little  potash. 

(2)  1  part  silver  nitrate  dissolved  in  50  of  distilled  water ;  wash  over  twice;  then 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  and  afterwards  with  water  of  ammonia.  The  wood  is  allowed 
to  dry  in  the  dark,  and  then  finished  in  oil  and  jjolished. 

Mahogany.— (X)  Boil  \  lb.  madder  and  2  oz.  logwood  chips  in  1  gal.  water,  and 
brush  well  over  while  hot.  When  dry,  go  over  with  pearlash  solution,  2  dr.  to  the  quart. 
By  using  it  strong  or  weak,  the  colour  can  be  varied  at  pleasure. 

(2)  !Soak  1  lb.  stick  varnish  in  2  qt.  water  until  all  the  colour  is  dissolved  out ;  strain 
oif  the  water,  and  add  to  the  residue  25  dr.  powdered  madder.  Set  the  mixture  over  the 
fire  until  it  is  reduced  to  f  of  its  original  volume.  Then  mix  ttjgether  25  dr.  cochineal^ 
25  dr.  kermes  berries,  1  pint  spirits  of  wine,  and  ^  oz.  pearlash,  out  of  which  the  colour 
has  been  washed  by  soaking  in  a  gill  of  soft  water.  Add  this  mixture  to  the  decoction 
of  madder  and  varnish,  stirring  well  together,  and  adding  so  much  aquafortis  as  will 
bring  the  red  to  the  desired  shade. 

(3)  Dark  Mahogany. — Introduce  into  a  bottle  15  gr.  alkanet  root,  30  gr.  aloes,  30  gr. 
powdered  dragons'  blood,  and  500  gr.  95  per  cent,  alcohol,  closing  the  mouth  of  the  bottle 
with  a  piece  of  bladder,  keeping  it  in  a  warm  place  for  3  or  4  days,  with  occasional 
shaking,  then  filtering  the  liquid.  The  wood  is  first  mordanted  with  nitric  acid,  and 
when  dry  washed  with  the  stain  once  or  ofteuer,  according  to  the  desired  shade ;  then, 
the  wood  being  dried,  it  is  oiled  and  polished. 

(4)  Light  Mahogany. — Same  as  dark  mahogany,  but  the  stain  being  only  applied 
once.  The  veins  of  true  mahogany  may  be  imitated  by  the  use  of  iron  acetate  skilfully 
applied. 

(5)  The  following  process  is  recommended  in  WiederhoUV s  Trade  Circular : — The 
coarse  wood  is  first  coated  with  a  coloured  size,  which  is  prepared  by  tliorouglily  mixing 
up,  in  a  warm  solution,  I  part  commercial  glue  in  G  of  water,  a  sulficieut  quantity  ot 
the  commercial  mahogany  brown,  which  is  in  reality  an  iron  oxide,  and  in  colour 
stands  between  so-called  English  red  and  iron  oxide.  This  is  best  effected  by  adding 
in  excess  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  dry  colour  with  the  warm  solution  of  glue,  and 
thoroughly  mixing  the  mass  by  means  of  a  brush  until  a  uniform  paste  is  obtained,  in 
which  no  more  dry  red  particles  are  seen.  A  trial  coat  is  then  laid  upon  a  piece  of 
wood.  If  it  is  desired  to  give  a  light  mahogany  colour  to  the  object,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  add  less,  and  for  a  darker  colour  more,  of  the  brown  body-colour.  When  the  coat  is 
dry,  it  may  be  tested,  by  rubbing  witli  the  fingers,  whether  the  colour  easily  separates 
or  not.     In  the  former  case,  more  glue  must  be  added  until  the  dry  trial  coat  no  longer 


442  Staining — Mahogany,  Oak. 

perceptibly  rubs  off  with  the  hands.  Having  ascertained  in  this  way  the  right  con- 
dition of  the  size  colour  with  respect  to  tiut  and  strength,  it  is  then  warmed  slightly, 
and  worked  through  a  hair  sieve  by  means  of  a  brush.  After  this,  it  is  rubbed  upon 
the  wood  surface  with  the  brush,  which  lias  been  carefully  washed.  It  is  not  necessary 
to  keep  the  colour  warm  during  the  painting.  Should  it  become  thick  by  gelatinizing, 
it  may  be  laid  on  the  wood  with  the  brush,  and  dries  more  rapidly  than  when  the  colour 
is  too  thin.  If  the  wood  is  joorous  and  absorbs  much  colour,  a  second  coat  may  be 
laid  on  the  first  when  dry,  which  will  be  sufficient  in  all  cases.  On  drying,  the  size 
colour  appears  dull  and  unsiglitly,  but  the  following  coat  cbanges  immediately  the 
appearance  of  the  surface.  This  coat  is  si^irit  varnish.  For  its  production  3  parts 
spirits  of  wine  of  90°  are  added  in  excess  to  1  part  of  red  acaroid  resin  in  one  vessel, 
and  in  another  10  parts  shellac  with  40  of  spirits  of  wine  of  80°.  By  repeated 
agitation  for  3  or  4  days,  the  spirit  dissolves  the  resin  completely.  The  shellac  solution 
is  then  poured  carefully  from  the  sediment,  or,  better  still,  filtered  through  a  fine  cloth, 
when  it  may  be  observed  that  a  sliglit  milky  turbidity  is  no  detriment  to  its  use.  The 
resin  solution  is  best  filtered  into  the  shellac  solution  by  jjouriug  through  a  funnel 
loosely  packed  with  wadding.  When  filtered,  the  solutions  of  both  resins  are  mixed 
by  agitating  the  vessel  and  letting  the  varnish  stand  a  few  days.  The  acaroid  resin 
colours  the  shellac,  and  imimrts  to  it  at  the  same  time  the  degree  of  suppleness  usually 
obtained  by  the  addition  of  Venetian  turpentine  or  liuseed-uil.  If  the  varnish  is  to  be 
employed  as  a  coat,  the  upper  layers  are  poured  off  at  once  from  the  vessel.  One  or 
two  coats  suffice,  as  a  rule,  to  give  the  object  an  exceedingly  pleasing  effect.  The  coats 
dry  very  quicddy,  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  ajjply  the  second  coat  until  the  first  is 
completely  dry. 

(6)  7'5  oz.  madder,  8 "75  oz.  rasped  yellow  wood,  are  boiled  for  1  hour  in  5"5  lb. 
water,  and  the  boiling  liquor  is  applied  to  the  articles  until  the  desired  colour  has  been 
l^roduced. 

(7)  I'Oo  oz.  powdered  turmeric,  1"05  oz.  powdered  dragons'  blood,  are  digested  in 
8 '75  oz.  of  SO  percent,  strong  alcohol,  and  when  the  latter  seems  to  be  thoroughly 
coloured  it  is  filtered  through  a  cloth.  The  filtrate  is  heated  and  applied  warm  to  the 
article. 

(8)  17*5  oz.  madder,  8-75  oz.  ground  logwood,  are  boiled  for  1  hour  in  5-5  lb.  water. 
This  is  filtered  while  still  warm,  and  the  warm  liquor  is  applied  to  the  wood.  When 
this  has  become  dry,  and  it  is  desired  to  produce  a  darker  mahogany  colour,  a  solution 
of  0*525  oz.  potash  carbonate  in  4 '4  lb.  water  is  applied  to  the  wood.  This  solution  is 
prepared  cold,  and  filtered  through  blotting-jjaper. 

(9)  0  •  35  oz.  aniline  is  dissolved  in  8  •  75  oz.  spirits  of  wine  90  per  cent,  strong.  Then 
another  solution  of  0*35  oz.  aniline  yellow  in  17"5oz.  spirits  of  wine  90  per  cent,  strong  is 
made,  and  this  is  added  to  the  aniline  solution  until  the  required  reildish-yellow  colour 
is  obtained.  By  adding  a  little  of  a  solution  of  aniline  brown  (0*35  oz.  aniline  brown 
in  10*5  oz.  spirits  of  wine  90  jier  cent,  strong),  the  colour  is  still  more  completely 
harmonized,  and  a  tint  very  closely  resembling  maliogany  can  be  given  to  elm  and  cherry 
wood  with  this  mixture. 

(10)  0-7  oz.  logwood  is  boiled  in  3-5  oz.  water  down  to  about  i.  This  is  then 
filtered,  and  0-12  oz.  baryta  chhiride  is  dissolved  in  it. 

Oak.—(l)  Mix  powdered  ochre,  Venetian  red,  and  umber,  in  size,  in  proportions  to 
suit ;  or  a  richer  stain  may  be  made  with  raw  sienna,  burnt  sienna,  and  Vandyke.  A 
light  yellow  stain  of  raw  sienna  alone  is  very  effective. 

(2)  Darkening  Oak. — Lay  ou  liquid  ammonia  with  a  rag  or  brush.  The  colour 
deepens  immediately,  and  does  not  fade  ;  this  being  an  artificial  production  of  the 
process  which  is  induced  naturally  by  age.  Potash  bichromate,  dissolved  in  cold  water 
and  applied  in  a  like  manner,  will  produce  a  very  similar  result. 

(3;  In  Germany,  the  cabinet-makers  use  very  strong  coff"ee  for  darkening  oak.    To 


IStaining— Oak,  Purple,  Eed.  443 

make  it  very  dark :  iron  filings  with  a  little  sulphuric  acid  and  water,  put  on  with  a 
sponge,  and  allowed  to  dry  between  each  application  until  the  riglit  hue  is  reached. 

(-1)  Whitewash  with  fresh  lime,  and  when  dry  brush  oiT  the  lime  with  a  hard  liru.sli, 
and  dress  well  with  liuseed-oil.  It  should  be  done  after  the  wood  has  been  worked  and 
it  will  make  not  only  the  wood,  but  the  carving  or  moulding,  look  old  also. 

(5)  Use  a  strong  solution  of  common  washing-sodii,  say  one  or  two  coats,  until  the 
proper  colour  is  obtained.  Or  you  may  try  jiotash  carbonate.  Paper  and  finish  off 
with  linseed-oil. 

(G)  A  decoction  of  green  walnut-shells  will  bring  new  oak  to  any  shade,  or  nearly 
black. 

(7)  A  good  method  of  producing  the  peculiar  olive  brown  of  old  oak  is  by  fumigation 
with  liquid  ammonia ;  the  metliod  has  many  advantages  beyond  the  expense  of  makiu"- 
a,  case  or  room  air-tiglit  and  the  price  of  the  ammonia.  It  does  not  raise  the  grain,  the 
work  keeping  as  smooth  as  at  first.  Any  tint,  or  rather,  depth  of  the  colour  can  be  given 
with  certainty ;  and  the  darker  shade  of  colour  will  be  f  jund  to  have  penetrated  to  the 
depth  of  a  veneer,  and  much  farther  where  the  end  grain  is  exposed,  thus  doing  away 
with  the  chance  of  an  accidental  knock  showing  the  white  wood.  The  colouring  is  very 
even  and  pure,  not  destroying  the  transparency  of  the  wood.  It  is  advisable  to  make 
the  furniture  from  one  kind  of  stutf,  not  to  mix  English  oak  with  Eiga,  and  so  on. 
They  both  take  the  colour  well,  but  there  is  a  kind  of  American  red  oak  that  docs  not 
answer  well.  In  all  cases  care  must  be  taken  to  have  no  glue  or  grease  on  the  work, 
which  would  cause  white  spots  to  be  left.  The  deal  portions  of  the  work  are  not 
affected  in  the  least,  neither  does  it  affect  the  sap  of  oak.  The  best  kind  of  polish 
for  furniture  treated  in  this  manner  is  wax  polish,  or  the  kind  known  as  egg-shell  polish. 
The  process  of  fumigation  is  very  simple.  Get  a  large  packing-case,  or  better  still, 
make  a  room  in  a  corner  of  the  polishing  shop  about  9  ft.  long,  G  ft.  high,  and  3  ft.  G  in. 
wide  ;  pass  paper  over  the  joints  ;  let  the  door  close  on  to  a  strip  of  indiarubber  tubing  ; 
put  a  pane  of  glass  in  the  side  of  box  or  house  to  enable  you  to  examine  the  progress  of 
colouring.  In  putting  in  your  work  see  that  it  does  not  touch  anything  to  hinder  the 
free  course  of  the  fumes.  Put  2  or  3  dishes  on  the  floor  to  hold  the  ammonia  ;  about 
'},  pint  is  sufficient  for  a  case  this  size.  The  ammonia  differs  in  puritj',  some  leaving 
more  residue  than  other.  Small  articles  can  bo  done  by  simply  covering  them  with  a 
cloth,  having  a  little  spirits  in  a  pot  underneath.  A  good  useful  colour  can  be  given  by 
leaving  the  things  exposed  to  the  fumes  overnight.  The  colour  lightens  on  being 
polished,  owing  to  the  transparency  thus  given  to  the  wood. 

Purple. — (1)  Take  1  lb.  logwood  chips,  f  gal.  water,  4  oz.  pearlash,  2  oz.  powdered 
indigo.  Boil  the  logwood  in  the  water  till  the  full  strength  is  obtained,  then  add  the 
pearlash  and  indigo,  and  when  the  ingredients  arc  dissolved  the  mixture  is  ready  for 
use,  either  warm  or  cold.     This  gives  a  beautiful  purple. 

(2)  To  stain  wood  a  rich  purple  or  chocolate  colour,  boil  h  lb.  madder  and  \  lb.  fustic 
in  1  gal.  water,  and  when  boiling  brush  over  the  work  until  stained.  If  the  surface  of 
the  work  should  be  perfectly  smooth,  brush  over  with  a  weak  solution  of  nitric  acid ; 
then  finish  with  the  following :  put  4J  oz.  dragons'  blood  and  1  oz.  soda,  both  well 
bruised,  into  3  pints  spirits  of  wine.  Let  it  stand  in  a  warm  place,  shake  frequently, 
strain  and  1.  y  on  with  a  soft  brush,  repeating  until  a  proper  colour  is  gained.  Polish 
with  linseed-oii  or  varnish. 

(3)  2-2  lb.  rasped  logwood,  5-5  lb.  rasped  Lima  red  dyewood  are  boiled  for  1  hour 
in  5-5  lb.  water.  It  is  then  filtered  through  a  cloth  and  ai)iilied  to  the  article  to  be 
stained  until  th  desired  colour  has  been  obtained.  In  the  meanwhile  a  solution  of 
0-175  oz.  potash  carbonate  in  17-5  oz.  water  has  been  prepared,  and  a  thin  coat  of  this  is 
applied  to  the  article  stained  red.  But  strict  attention  must  be  paid  not  to  apply  too 
thick  a  coat  of  this  solution,  or  else  a  dark  blue  colour  would  be  the  result. 

Bed.—il)  The  wood  is  plunged  first  in  a  solution  of  1  oz.  of  curd  soap  in  35  fl.  oz. 


444  Staining — Satin  wood,  Violet,  "Walnut. 

water,  or  else  is  rubbed  witli  the  solution ;  tlien  magenta  is  applied  in  a  state  of 
sufficient  dilution  to  bring  out  the  tone  required.  All  the  aniline  colours  behave  very 
well  on  wood. 

(2)  For  a  red  stain,  a  decoction  of  J  lb.  logwood  and  J  oz.  potash  in  1  lb.  water  is 
used  as  tlie  bath,  being  fixed  by  a  wash  of  alum  water.  For  scarlet,  use  1  oz.  cochineal, 
6  oz.  powdered  argol,  4  oz.  cream  tartar,  in  12  oz.  tin  chloiide  (scarlet  spirits). 

(3)  Take  1  qt.  alcohol,   3  oz.  Brazil-wood,  i  oz.  dragons'  blood,  5  oz.  cochineal, 

1  oz.  saffron.  Steep  to  full  strength  and  strain.  It  is  a  beautiful  crimson  stain  for 
violins,  work-boxes,  and  fancy  articles. 

(4)  Beside  the  aniline  colours,  which  are,  however,  much  affected  by  sunlight, 
cochineal  gives  a  very  good  scarlet  red  upon  wood.  Boil  2  oz.  cochineal,  previously 
reduced  to  a  fine  powder,  in  35  oz.  of  water  for  3  hours,  and  apply  it  to  the  wood.  When 
dry,  give  it  a  coating  of  dilute  tin  chloride  to  which  is  added  a  little  tartaric  acid — 1  oz. 
tin  chloride,  and  ^  oz.  tartaric  acid  in  35  fl.  oz.  water.  If,  instead  of  water,  the  cochineal 
is  boiled  in  a  decoction  of  bark  (2  oz.  bark  to  35  oz.  water),  and  the  tin  chloride  is  used 
as  above,  an  intense  scarlet  and  all  shades  of  orange  may  be  produced  according  to  the 
proportions. 

(5)  Take  1  gal.  alcohol,  1^  lb.  camwood,  i  lb.  red  sanders,  1  lb.  logwood  extract,  2  oz. 
aquafortis.  When  dissolved,  it  is  ready  for  use.  It  should  be  applied  in  3  coats  over 
the  wliole  surface.  When  dr}',  rub  down  to  a  smooth  surface,  rising  for  tlie  purpose  a 
very  fine  paper.  The  graining  is  done  with  iron  rust,  and  the  shading  with  asphaltum 
thinned  witli  spirits  of  turpentine.  When  the  sliading  is  dry,  apply  a  thin  coat  of 
shellac  ;  and  when  that  is  dry,  rub  down  with  fine  paper.  The  work  is  then  ready  for 
varnishing — a  fine  rose  tint. 

(6)  Monnier  recommends  steeping  the  wood  for  several  hours  in  a  bath  of  1200  gr. 
l^otasiium  iodide  to  the  quart  of  water,  and  then  immersing  it  in  a  bath  of  375  gr. 
corrosive  sublimate,  when  it  will  assume  a  beautiful  rose-red  colour  by  chemical  pre- 
cipitation. It  should  subsequently  be  covered  with  a  glossy  varnish.  The  baths  will 
not  need  renewal  for  a  long  time. 

(7)  2*2  lb.  finely-powdered  Lima  red  dyewood  and  2'1  oz.  potash  carbonate  are  put 
in  a  glass  bottle  and  digested  in  5-5  lb.  water  for  8  days  in  a  warm  place  ;  the  bottle 
should  be  frequently  shaken.  It  is  then  filtered  through  a  cloth ;  the  fluid  is  heated, 
and  applied  to  the  article  to  be  stained  luitil  the  latter  acquires  a  beautiful  colour.  If 
it  is  desired  to   brighten  the  colour,  a  solution  of  2*1   oz.  alum,  free  from  iron,  in 

2  •  2  lb.  water  is  applied  to  the  article  while  it  is  still  wet.  The  last  solution  can  be 
prepared  by  heat ;  when  it  has  been  accomplished,  it  is  filtered.  As  soon  as  the  stains 
have  become  dry,  they  should  be  rubbed  with  a  rag  moistened  with  linseed-oil,  after 
which  the  varnish  may  be  applied. 

Satinwood. — Take  1  qt.  alcohol,  3  oz.  ground  turmeric,  li  oz.  powdered  gamboge. 
When  steeped  to  its  full  strengtli,  strain  through  fine  muslin.  It  is  then  ready  for  use. 
Apply  with  a  piece  of  fine  sponge,  giving  the  work  2  coats.  Wlien  dry,  sandpaper  down 
very  fine.     It  is  then  ready  for  polish  or  varnish,  and  is  a  good  imitation  of  satinwood. 

Violet. — The  wood  is  treated  in  a  bath  made  up  with  4^  oz.  olive-oil,  the  same 
weight  of  soda-a^h,  and  2h  pints  boiling  water,  and  it  is  then  dyed  \Yith  magenta  to 
which  a  corresponding  quantity  of  tin  crystals  has  been  added. 

Wulmit.—Deal  and  other  common  woods  are  stained  to  imitate  polished  walnut  in 
various  ways.  (1)  One  method  is,  after  careful  rubbing  with  glasspaper,  to  go  over  the 
surface  with  a  preparation  of  Cassel  brown  boiled  in  a  lye  of  soft-soap  and  soda.  After 
drying,  the  surface  is  rubbed  over  with  pumice  and  oil,  and  polished  with  shellac. 
The  Cassel  brown  will  not  take  equally  well  on  all  kinds  of  wood,  so  that  if  not  laid  on 
tliick  it  sometimes  comes  off  under  the  subsequent  pumicing  ;  whilst  on  the  other  hand 
this  same  thickness  conceals,  more  or  less,  the  grain  ou  the  wood  beneath,  giving  it  the 
appearance  of  having  been  [lainttd. 


Staining — Walnut.  445 

(2)  Otliers  use  instead  a  decoction  of  green  walnut-shells,  dried  and  boiled  in  the 
same  lye,  or  in  soft  water  lo  which  soda  has  been  added.  The  decoction  of  walnut-shells 
is  apt  to  come  oft' on  the  clothes  as  a  j'ellowish  adhesive  substance. 

(3)  Others,  again,  employ  catechu  and  potash  chromato  in  equal  parts,  boiled 
separately  and  afterwards  mixed.  Tlio  mixture  of  catechu  and  potasli  chromate  leaves 
a  reddish-brown  deposit  on  tlie  surface  of  the  wood,  very  unlike  real  walnut. 

(4)  The  following  is  said  to  be  a  very  superior  method  for  staining  any  kind  of  wood 
in  imitation  of  walnut,  while  it  is  also  cheap  and  simple  in  its  manipulation.  The 
wood,  previously  thoroughly  dried  and  warmed,  is  coated  once  or  twice  witli  a  stain 
composed  of  1  oz.  extract  of  walnut  peel  dissolved  in  G  oz.  soft  water  by  hcatiu"-  it  to 
boiling,  and  stirring.  The  wood  thus  treated,  wiien  half  dry,  is  bruslicd  with  a  solution 
of  1  oz.  potash  bichromate  in  5  oz.  boiling  water,  and  is  then  allowed  to  dry  thorou"-hlv 
and  is  to  be  rubbed  and  polished  as  usual.  Red  beech  and  alder,  under  this  treatment 
assume  a  most  deceptive  resemblance  to  American  walnut.  The  colour  is  fixed  in  the 
Avood  to  a  depth  of  one  or  two  lines. 

(5)  Blix  dragons'  blood  and  lampblack  in  methylated  spirits  till  you  get  the  colour 
required,  and  rub  it  well  into  the  grain  of  the  wood. 

(6)  Light  "Walnut. — Dissolve  1  part  potassium  permanganate  in  30  of  pure  water, 
and  apply  twice  in  succession  ;  after  an  interval  of  5  minutes,  wasli  with  clean  water, 
and  when  dry,  oil  and  polish. 

(7)  Dark  Walnut. — Same  as  for  light  walnut,  but  after  the  washing  with  water  the 
dark  veins  are  made  more  prominent  witli  a  solution  of  iron  acetate. 

(8)  In  the  winter  season  get  some  privet  berries  (black),  which  grow  in  most 
gardens,  and  put  2  oz.  in  i  pint  solution  of  liquid  ammonia.  This,  applied  to  pine, 
varnished  or  polished,  cannot  bo  detected  from  real  walnut  itself 

(9)  Take  1  gal.  very  thin  sized  shellac ;  add  1  lb.  dry  burnt  umber,  1  lb.  dry  burnt 
sienna,  and  J  lb.  lampblack.  Put  these  articles  into  a  jug  and  shake  frequently  uTitil 
they  are  mixed.  Apply  one  coat  with  a  brush.  "When  the  work  is  dry,  rub  down  with 
fine  papier,  and  apply  one  coat  of  shellac  or  cheap  varnish.  It  will  then  be  a  good 
imitation  of  solid  walnut,  and  will  be  adapted  for  the  back  boards  of  mirror-frames,  for 
the  back  and  inside  of  casework,  and  for  similar  work. 

(10)  Take  1  gal.  strong  vinegar,  1  lb.  dry  burnt  umber,  J  lb.  fine  rose  pink,  |  lb.  dry 
burnt  Vandyke  brown.  Put  into  a  jug  and  mix  well ;  let  the  mixture  stand  one  day, 
and  it  will  then  be  ready  for  use.  Apply  this  stain  to  the  sap  witli  a  piece  of  fine 
sponge,  it  will  dry  in  §  hour.  The  whole  piece  is  then  ready  for  the  filling  process. 
When  the  work  is  completed,  the  stained  part  cannot  be  detected  even  by  those  who 
have  performed  the  job.  By  means  of  this  recipe,  wood  of  poor  quality  and  mostly  of 
sap  can  be  used  with  good  etfect. 

(11)  Darkening  Walnut. — Slaked  lime,  1  to  4  of  water,  will  do  for  some  kinds  of 
walnut ;  a  weak  solution  of  iron  sulphate  for  otliers ;  and  yet  again  for  other  kinds 
a  weak  solution  of  peaiiash.     Try  each  on  the  wood,  and  clioose  tire  one  yon  like  best. 

(12)  To  give  to  walnut  a  dark  colour  resembling  rosewood,  Hirschberg  uses  a 
solution  of  0"17  oz.  potash  bichromate  in  l"Oooz.  water.  This  solution  is  ajiplied  to  the 
walnut  with  a  sponge,  and  the  wood  is  then  pumiced  and  polished. 

(13)  By  a  simple  staining,  furniture  of  pine  or  birch  wood  can  be  easily  made  to 
appear  as  if  it  had  been  veneered  with  walnut  veneer.  For  this  a  solution  of  3-15  oz. 
potash  mauganate,  and  3  "15  oz.  manganese  sulpliate  in  5  "25  qt.  hot  water,  is  made. 
This  solution  is  applied  to  the  wood  with  a  brush,  and  must  be  lepeated  several  times. 
The  potash  mangauate  is  decomposed  when  it  comes  in  contact  witli  the  woody  fibre, 
and  thus  a  beautiful  and  very  durable  walnut  colour  is  obtained.  If  small  wooden 
articles  are  to  be  stained  in  this  manner,  a  very  diluted  bath  is  prepared ;  the  articles 
are  dipped  into  it,  and  kept  there  1  to  U  minutes  according  as  the  colour  is  desired 
lighter  or  darker. 


446  Staining — Yellow.     Gilding — Leaf  Metal,  Sizes. 

Ydlow. — (1)  Mordant  with  red  liquor,  and  dye  with  bark  liquor  and  tinmeric. 

(2)  Turmeric  dissolved  in  wood  iui|ihtlia. 

(3)  Aqua  regia  (nitro-muriutic  acid),  diluted  iu  3  jiartd  water,  is  a  much-used  though 
rather  destructive  yellow  stain. 

(4)  Nitric  acid  gives  a  fine  permanent  yellow,  which  is  converted  into  dark  brown  by- 
subsequent  application  of  tincture  of  iodine. 

(5)  Wash  over  with  a  hot  concentrated  solution  of  picric  acid,  and  when  dry,  polish 
the  wood. 

((J)  Orange-yellow  Tone  to  Oak  Wood. — According  to  Niedling,  a  beautiful  orange- 
yellow  tone,  much  admired  iu  a  chest  at  the  Vienna  Exhibition,  may  be  imparted  to 
oak-wood  by  rubbing  it  in  a  warm  room  with  a  certain  mixture  until  it  acquires  a  dull 
polish,  and  then  coating  it  after  an  hour  with  thin  polish,  and  repeating  the  coating  of 
polish  to  improve  the  depth  and  brilliancy  of  the  tone.  The  ingredients  for  the  rubbing 
mixture  are  about  3  oz.  tallow,  J  oz.  wax,  and  1  pint  oil  of  turpentine,  mixed  by  heating 
together  and  stirring. 

(7)  0'5  oz.  nitric  acid  (aquafortis)  is  compounded  with  1'57  oz.  rain-water,  and  th& 
article  to  bo  stained  is  brushed  over  with  this.  Undiluted  nitric  acid  gives  a  brownish- 
yellow  colour. 

(8)  2-1  oz.  finely-powdered  turmeric  are  digested  for  several  days  in  IT'S  oz.  alcohol 
80  per  cent,  strong,  and  then  strained  through  a  cloth.  This  solution  is  applied  to  the 
articles  to  be  stained.  When  they  have  become  entirely  dry,  they  are  burnished  and 
varnished. 

(9)  l-57oz.  potash  carbonate  are  dissolved  in  4" 2  oz.  rain-water.  This  solution  is 
poured  over  0*52  oz.  annatto,  and  this  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand  for  3  days  in  a  warm 
place,  being  frequently  shaken  in  the  meanwhile.  It  is  then  filtered,  and  O-lTooz. 
spirit  of  sal-ammoniac  is  added  to  it.  Tiie  stain  is  now  ready,  and  the  articles  to  be 
stained  will  acquire  a  very  beautiful  briglit  yellow  colour  by  placing  them  in  it. 

(10)  Bright  Golden  Yellow. — 0'52  nz.  finely-powdered  madder  is  digested  for  12  hours 
with  2'  1  oz.  diluted  sulphuric  acid,  and  then  filtered  through  a  cloth.  The  articles  to  be 
stained  are  allowed  to  remain  in  this  fiuid  3  to  4  days,  when  they  will  be  stained  tlirougli. 

GILDING. — This  metliod  of  ornamentation,  adapted  chiefly  to  articles  of  wood, 
consists  iu  applying  a  coat  of  gold  leaf  to  the  surface  by  the  aid  of  an  adhesive  medium 
termed  gold  size. 

Leaf  metal. — There  are  several  kinds  of  gold  leaf  and  substitutes  for  the  genuine 
article.  The  chief  real  sorts  are  "  deep "  or  reddish  gold,  and  "pale  "  gold,  tlie  latter 
being  alloyed  with  silver.  Tlie  best  of  these  comes  from  Italy,  Silver  leaf  is  often 
employed  for  economy  sake,  and  afterwards  coloured  or  varnished  yellow.  Dutch  leaf 
is  a  base  metal  alloy  exhibiting  almost  tlie  characteristic  appearance  of  gold.  The  various 
kinds  of  leaf  are  sold  in  "  books '' :  gold  books  contain  24  leaves  3  in.  square  and  cost 
Is.  Gd. ;  Dutch  books  have  the  same  dimensions,  and  cost  about  4c?. ;  silver  books  contain 
48  leaves  4^  in.  sqi;are,  and  cost  about  del. 

Sizes. — The  composition  of  size  for  attaching  gold  leaf  varies  not  a  little.  One  of  the 
most  common  kinds  is  that  calUd  "  oil  gold  size. "  It  is  made  by  boiling  litliarge  in 
linseed-oil  (1  oz.  of  lithnrge  in  1  pint  of  oil).  Its  only  disadvantage  is  that  it  takes  about 
12  hours  to  dry  sufiiciently  to  receive  the  leaf;  but  it  possesses  the  important  advantage 
of  resisting  tlie  effects  of  the  weather,  even  when  not  varnished.  It  is  often  sold  in 
admixture  with  ochre  (either  yellow  or  red),  ready  for  application.  A  substitute  generally 
employed  on  indoor  work  is  "  japanners'  gold  size  "  ;  this  dries  iu  2  or  3  hours,  but  is  not 
nearly  so  durable,  and  necessitates  the  application  of  a  coat  of  varnish  to  tlie  gold,  which 
is  not  improved  thereby.  For  bright  gilding  on  glass,  Brunswick  black,  copid  varnish, 
or  japanners'  gold  size  containing  chrome  yellow  is  often  resorted  to  ;  but  the  best 
medium  is  a  "  water  size,"  made  of  isinglass  dissolved  in  boiling  water,  with  an  equal 
volume  of  spirits  of  wine  added,  and  the  whole  strained  through  silk. 


Gilding— Tools ;  Dead  Gildinir. 


447 


734. 


^  Tools— ThesQ  arc  not  ntimorou.s.  One  of  the  most  essential  is  tlie  gilders'  l.riisli,  or 
"  tip, "  Fig.  734,  which  is  a  broad  thin  brush,  made  by  ghiein.i,'  camel-huir  between  2 
pieces  of  thin  card.  Next  comes  a  cushion  or  pad  on  which  to  cut  tlie  leaves  to  the 
required  size.  This  pad,  Fig.  735,  is  a  strip  of  tiat  wood,  of  convenient  size  for  receiving 
the  loaves  (say  G  to  8  in.  sq.),  covered  witli  ° 

2  or  3  thicknesses  of  tightly  stretched  llanuLl 
or  baizo  overlaid  by  chamois  leather,  pro- 
vided with  a  loop  beneath  for  the  thumb,  and 
partially  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  parcliment 
to  ward  ofif  draughts.  Some  2  or  3  paint 
brushes  of  various  dimensions  are  useful  for 
fastening  the  leaf  and  laying  on  the  size,  A 
very  sharp  and  smooth  edged  knife  is  neces- 
sary for  cutting  up  the  leaves  as  they  lie  on 
the  pad.  A  "  bob  "  (Fig.  73G)  of  soft  chamois 
leather  stuffed  with  cotton  wool,  for  pressing 
the  leaves  down  in  place,  completes  the 
equipment. 

BeadgiUlauj. — This  is  the  simplest  phase 
of  the  art.  As  usually  performed,  a  leaf 
is  taken  fron  the  book,  laid  on  the  pad,  blown  flat  and  smooth  by  puffs  from  the  mouth, 
and  then  cut  to  shape  for  the  surface  to  be  gilded,  allowing  a  small  surplus  margin.  The 
shaped  leaf  is  removed  from  the  pad  by  the  aid  of  the  tip,  which  is  first  passed  across  the 


735. 


73C. 


skin  or  hair  of  the  operator  to  render  it  just  adhesive  enough  to  retain  the  leaf  sufficient! j- 
long  for  its  transference  to  the  work.  But  readier  ways  of  transferring  the  leaf  arc  often 
adopted.  For  instance,  the  leaves  may  be  cut  to  shape  by  a  penknife  while  in  the  book, 
and  carried  to  the  work  on  intervening  slips  of  paper.  Or  the  leaves  may  be  picked  ui> 
quite  flat  by  a  piece  of  waxed  paper,  or  by  breathing  on  the  surface  of  a  slick  covered 
with  cloth.  But  absolute  stillness  of  the  air  in  the  apartment  is  essential  to  success  in 
every  case. 

The  surface  intended  for  the  reception  of  the  leaf  must  be  previously  sized,  and  this 
sufficiently  long  in  advance  (varying  with  the  kind  of  size  used)  to  allow  the  size  to  dry 
to  the  correct  degree.  It  is  important  that  the  sizing  coat  be  equally  distributed,  and 
that  no  more  ground  be  sized  at  once  than  can  be  conveniently  gilded  at  a  bingle  operation. 
To  judge  exactly  the  best  moment  for  laying  the  leaf  on  the  size  requires  some  expe- 
rience :  the  size  should  be  as  dry  as  is  compatible  with  the  security  of  the  leaf.    The 


448  Gilding — Dead  Gilding. 

degree  of  moisture  necessary  varies  with  the  kind  of  leaf,  being  least  for  gold  leaf, 
more  for  silver,  and  most  for  Dutch  leaf.  If  the  sized  ground  should  from  any  cause 
become  too  dry,  the  evil  may  be  remedied  by  a  sliort  warming  at  the  fire,  observing  the 
precaution  to  lay  the  leaves  the  moment  tliey  will  stick,  as  the  adhesiveness  soon  dis- 
appears after  the  heating. 

The  leaves  being  laid  all  over  the  sized  surface,  any  remaining  gaps  are  made  good, 
and  the  whole  gilded  surface  is  gently  pressed  with  the  bob,  to  ensure  its  complete 
adhesion.  This  operation  is  often  performed  with  a  large  jiaint  brush,  by  dabbing  it 
lightly  down  endwise,  "stippling"  in  fact;  indeed  a  brush  is  much  more  convenient 
and  effective  when  the  surface  is  uneven.  The  gilded  surface  should  be  carefully 
brushed  to  remove  stray  fragments  of  leaf,  and  then  painted  over  witli  a  clear  size  made 
lay  dissolving  parchment  shreds  in  water  to  the  consistence  of  thin  jelly,  or  with  a 
varnish  made  by  dissolving  dammar  in  turpentine  or  spirits  of  wine. 

Obviously  the  process  of  dead  gilding  must  undergo  some  modification  according  to 
the  ground  on  which  the  leaves  have  to  be  laid.  Tliese  conditions  will  now  be  considered 
in  reference  to  the  articles  ordinarily  selected  for  gilding. 

On  plain  wood. — Before  gilding  pluiu  wood,  its  absorbent  character  must  be  destroyed 
by  the  application  of  a  ground  colour,  which  may  be  japanners'  gold  size  mixed  with 
yellow  ochre  previously  ground  very  fine  in  turpentine,  or  a  compound  of  boiled  linseed- 
oil  and  a  pigment  of  good  body,  such  as  white-lead.  The  painted  ground,  when  dry,  is 
jubbed  down  smooth  with  fine  glasspaper,  and  any  required  number  of  coats  added  and 
similarly  smoothed,  when  the  sizing  and  gilding  follow  in  the  usual  manner. 

On  polished  wood. — In  the  case  of  polished  wood,  the  coat  of  polish  serves  the  purpose 
of  a  ground  colour,  and  renders  the  latter  needless.  Should  the  gilding  be  desLined  to 
cover  only  portions  of  the  surface,  the  precaution  must  be  taken,  before  applying  it,  to  rub 
whiting  on  the  parts  not  to  be  gilded,  so  as  to  prevent  the  adliesion  of  the  leaf  to  the 
otherwise  sticky  smface.     The  sizing  and  gilding  are  conducted  in  the  ordinary  way. 

On  cards. — For  gilding  on  cards,  the  surface  must  first  be  rendered  non-absorbent  by 
the  application  of  a  water  size,  made  from  isinglass,  gum  arable,  or  parchment  shreds 
boiled  down.  The  number  of  coats  of  size  needed  will  dejDcnd  on  the  nature  of  the 
card ;  then  oil  sizing  and  gilding  follow  in  due  course.  An  exception  to  this  rule  obtains 
with  photographs,  in  which  the  albumenizing  serves  as  a  substitute. 

On  textiles. — The  surfaces  of  textile  materials  require  a  similar  grounding  of  water 
size,  which  may  be  weak  glue  for  coarse  fabrics. 

On  i^ainted  and  japauued  surfaces. — The  same  rules  hold  good  as  for  polished  wood. 

On  metals. — These  are  imsatisfactory  materials  for  gilding  on,  as  they  so  soon  suffer 
oxidation  and  decay.     They  are  best  painted  first. 

On  masonry. — The  })orous  surface  of  stone  or  plaster  must  first  be  rendered  water- 
proof and  "  satisfied "  by  coats  of  either  a  solution  of  shellac  and  gutta-percha  in 
naphtha,  or  of  shellac  in  methylated  spirit,  great  care  being  taken  that  the  surface  is 
previously  dry,  and  that  the  oil  size  afterwards  applied  does  not  extend  beyond  the 
"  satisfied  "  portion. 

On  ivory. — Ivory  is  not  so  easy  to  gild  as  articles  made  of  wood :  wood,  being  porous, 
retains  a  portion  of  tlic  gold  size  ;  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  bone  or  ivory  may  be  so  gilt 
that  it  shall  resemble  gold.  Free  the  ivory  from  dirt  or  grease ;  when  quite  dry,  give  the 
article  a  thin  coat  of  gold  size  laid  on  evenly  with  a  fine  hair  brush ;  lay  aside  until  set, 
whicli  may  be  known  by  feeling  whether  tacky  to  the  finger.  The  gold  size  should  be  just 
tne  least  warm ;  the  article  may,  with  advantage,  be  warmed  before  applying  the  gold  size  ; 
great  care  must  be  used  to  keep  the  dust  from  the  article  until  gilt  and  quite  dry.  Cut 
the  gold  leaf  in  suitable-sized  pieces,  and  apply  with  the  tip ;  the  gold  leaf  may  then  be 
pressed  into  shape  with  a  piece  of  white  wool.  Should  any  part  appear  not  gilt,  apply 
a  dab  of  gold  size,  then  a  piece  of  gold  leaf.  "When  quite  dry,  it  may  be  burnished 
with  an  ivory  paper-knife,  or  even  a  glass  penholder,  always  inserting  a  piece  of  tissue 


Gilding— Bright  Gilding.     Polishing— Marble.  449 

paper  between  the  burnisher  and  tlic  article  to  bo  gilt.     When  finished  off,  the  appear- 
ance will  be  much  improved  by  giving  the  article  a  coat  of  gold  lacquer. 

On  plaster  of  Paris. — This  needs  3  or  4  coats  of  boiled  liuseed-oil  laid  on  at  intervals 
of  24  hours,  followed  by  a  water  size  containing  finely-ground  yellow  ocliro  for 
delicate  work,  or  a  coat  of  japanners'  size  and  yellow  ochre  for  coarser  work ;  the  gold 
size  and  leaf  follow  when  this  is  dry. 

Bri(jU  Gilding.— The  bright  effect  is  gained  either  by  having  a  smooth  polished 
ground,  or  by  burnishing  the  coat  of  gold  leaf.  The  adhesive  medium  empluyod  is 
water  size.  There  are  two  important  modifications  of  llie  process,  according  as  the  surface 
to  be  gilt  is  transparent  or  opaque. 

On  transparent  material. — The  commonest  transparent  material  is  glass,  and  tho 
polish,  smoothness,  and  hardness  of  its  surface  adapt  it  well  to  the  process.  The  opera- 
tion is  performed  on  the  back  of  the  sheet  of  glass,  and  this  must  be  borne  in  mind 
with  reference  to  the  reversed  position  of  the  pattern.  Tho  surface  to  be  gilt  is 
thoroughly  freed  from  adhering  grease,  &c.,  by  rubbing  with  whiting,  and  the  latter 
is  removed  by  the  aid  of  a  silk  cloth.  Adhesion  of  the  leaf  is  secured  by  simply 
moistening  the  surface  of  the  glass  with  the  tongue  or  the  breath.  When  it  has  become 
attached  and  has  dried,  it  is  breathed  on  again,  pressed  all  over  with  a  pad  of  cotton 
wool,  then  warmed  by  the  fire,  and  finally  rubbed  with  dry  clean  cotton  wool  to  bring  up 
a  polish.  Next,  on  the  gilded  ground  is  marked  the  pattern  wliich  is  to  be  exhibited, 
and  such  portion  of  the  leaf  is  fixed  by  a  coat  of  Brunswick  black  or  of  japanners' gold 
size  containing  a  pigment  such  as  yellow  ochre,  which  is  allowed  to  dry  quite  hard 
before  proceeding  to  rub  off  tlie  leaf  from  the  portions  which  are  not  to  be  gilt.  This 
rubbing  off  is  done  with  pieces  of  wet  cotton  wool,  the  hand  being  meantime  held 
off  the  work  by  a  strip  of  wood  supported  across  it  at  a  suitable  elevation.  If  the 
pattern  is  to  be  made  up  of  different  kinds  of  leaf  (deep  and  pale  golds  and  silver),  each 
kind  is  applied  in  turn,  in  the  same  manner,  all  over  the  unoccupied  space,  and  rubbed 
out  where  not  wanted.  The  background  is  finished  by  a  coat  of  paint  or  bronze 
powder,  the  latter  being  rubbed  with  a  "  bob "  upon  a  layer  of  varnish.  The  pre- 
liminary fixing  of  the  leaf  may  be  done  with  a  water  size,  such  as  already  described, 
if  desired ;  this  takes  longer  to  dry,  and,  if  allowed  to  get  too  dry,  holds  so  firmly  that 
it  is  difficult  to  remove  the  superfluous  leaf. 

On  opaque  material. — For  fixing  the  leaf  on  polished  or  japanned  surfaces,  the  water 
size  used  as  a  ground  should  contain  no  spirit.  The  best  fixative  for  the  pattern  is 
Brunswick  black.  A  final  coat  of  copal  varnish  over  the  gilding  is  desirable.  By 
bronzing  a  portion  of  the  gi'ound  (rubbing  bronze  powder  on  a  coat  of  japanners'  gold 
size  and  chrome  yellow),  and  gilding  all  over,  the  bronzed  part  will  exhibit  dead  gilding 
and  the  remainder  bright. 

Many  useful  hints  with  reference  to  gilding  picture-frames,  book-covers,  illuminated 
documents,  and  various  other  articles,  will  be  found  in  the  first  series  of  '  Workshop 
Receipts.' 

POLISHING. — It  is  a  common  proceeding  to  impart  a  brilliant  lustrous  surface  to 
finished  work  by  the  operation  of  polishing.  The  methods  of  conducting  the  operation 
and  the  materials  employed  to  produce  the  eiTect  vary  with  the  nature  of  the  substance 
forming  the  ground  to  be  polished.  Hence  it  is  best  to  divide  the  subject  into 
appropriate  sections,  e.  g.  marble,  metals,  and  woods. 

Marble. — (1)  If  the  piece  to  be  polished  is  a  plane  surface,  it  is  first  rubbed  by  means 
of  another  piece  of  marble,  or  hard  stone,  with  the  intervention  of  water  and  two  sorts  of 
sand ;  first  with  the  finest  river  or  drift  sand,  and  then  with  common  house  or  white 
sand,  which  latter  leaves  the  surface  sufficiently  smooth  for  the  process  of  gritting. 
Three  sorts  of  grit  stone  are  employed  ;  firat,  Newcastle  grit ;  second,  a  fine  grit  brought 
from  the  neighbourhood  of  Leeds;  and  lastly,  a  still  finer,  called  snake  grit,  procured  at 
Ayr,  in  Scotland,     These  are  rubbed  successively  on  the  surface  with  water  alone ;  by 

2  a 


450  Polishing — Marble. 

these  means,  the  surface  is  gradually  reduced  to  closeness  of  texture,  fitting  it  for  the 
process  of  glazing,  which  is  performed  by  means  of  a  wooden  block  having  a  thick  piece 
of  woollen  stuti' wound  tightly  round  it;  tiio  interstices  of  the  iibrcs  of  this  are  filled 
with  prepared  putty  powder  (peroxide  of  tin),  and  moistened  with  water ;  this  being  laid 
on  the  marble  and  loaded,  it  is  drawn  up  and  down  tlie  marble  by  means  of  a  handle, 
being  occasionally  wetted,  until  the  desired  gloss  is  produced.  The  polishing  of  mould- 
ings is  done  with  the  same  materials,  but  with  rubbers  varied  in  shape  according  to  that 
of  the  moulding.  The  block  is  not  used  in  this  case  ;  in  its  stead  a  piece  of  linen  cloth 
is  folded  to  make  a  handful ;  this  also  contains  the  putty  powder  and  water.  Sand 
rubbers  employed  to  polish  a  slab  of  large  dimensions  should  never  exceed  f  of  its  length, 
nor  A  of  its  width  ;  but  if  the  piece  of  marble  is  small,  it  may  be  sanded  itself  on  a  larger 
piece  of  stone.  The  grit  rubbers  are  never  larger  than  that  they  may  be  easily  held  iu 
one  hand ;  the  largest  block  is  about  14  in.  iu  length  and  4J  in.  in  breadth. 

(2)  Polishing  incdudes  5  operations.  Smoothing  the  roughness  left  by  the  burin  is 
done  by  rubbing  the  marble  with  a  piece  of  moist  sandstone ;  for  mouldings,  either  wooden 
or  iron  muUers  are  used,  crushed  and  wet  sandstone,  or  sand,  more  or  less  fine  accordiug 
to  the  degree  of  polish  required,  being  thrown  under  them.  The  second  process  is  con- 
tinued rubbing  with  pieces  of  pottery  without  enamel,  which  have  only  been  baked  once, 
also  wet.  If  a  brilliant  polish  is  desired,  Gothland  stone  instead  of  pottery  is  used,  and 
potters'  clay  or  fullers'  earth  is  placed  beneath  the  muller.  This  operation  is  performed 
upon  granites  and  porphyry  with  emery  and  a  leaden  muller,  the  ujiper  part  of  which  is 
incrusted  with  tiie  mixture  until  reduced  by  friction  to  clay  or  an  impalpable  powder. 
As  the  polish  depends  almost  entirely  on  these  two  operations,  care  must  be  taken 
that  they  are  performed  with  a  regular  and  steady  movement.  When  the  marble  has 
received  the  first  polish,  the  flaws,  cavities,  and  soft  spots  are  sought  out  and  filled  wiilx 
mastic  of  a  suitable  colour.  This  mastic  is  usually  composed  of  a  mixture  of  yellow 
wax,  rosin,  and  Burgundy  pitch,  mixed  with  a  little  sulphur  and  plaster  passed  through 
a  fine  sieve,  which  gives  it  the  consistency  of  a  thick  paste ;  to  colour  this  paste  to  a  tone 
analogous  to  the  ground  tints  or  natural  cement  of  the  material  upon  which  it  is  placed, 
lampblack  and  rouge,  with  a  little  of  the  prevailing  colour  of  the  material,  are  added. 
For  green  or  red  marbles,  this  mastic  is  sometimes  made  of  lac,  mixed  with  Spanish 
sealing-wax  of  the  colour  of  the  marble ;  it  is  applied  hot  with  pincers,  and  these  parts 
are  polished  with  the  rest.  Sometimes  crushed  fragments  of  the  marble  worked  are 
introduced  into  this  cement ;  but  for  fiue  marbles,  the  same  colours  are  emi^loyed  which 
are  used  in  painting,  and  which  will  produce  the  same  tone  as  the  ground ;  the  lac  is 
added  to  give  it  body  and  brilliancy.  The  third  operation  of  polishing  consists  in 
rubbing  it  again  with  hard  pumice,  under  which  water  is  constantly  poured,  unmixed 
with  sand.  For  the  fourth  process,  called  softening  the  ground,  lead  filings  are  mixed 
with  the  emery  mud  produced  by  the  polishing  of  mirrors  or  the  working  of  precious 
stones,  and  the  marble  is  rubbed  with  a  compact  linen  cushion,  well  saturated  with 
this  mixture ;  rouge  is  also  used  for  this  polish.  For  some  outside  works,  and 
for  hearths  and  paving  tiles,  marble  workers  confine  themselves  to  this  polish. 
When  the  marbles  have  holes  or  grains,  a  leaden  muller  is  substituted  for  the 
linen  cushion.  In  order  to  give  a  perfect  brilliancy  to  the  polish,  the  gloss  is 
applied.  Well  wash  the  prepared  surfaces,  and  leave  them  until  perfectly  dry  ;  then  take 
a  linen  cushion,  moistened  only  with  water,  and  a  little  powder  of  calcined  tin  of  the 
first  quality.  After  rubbing  with  this  for  some  time,  take  another  cushion  of  dry  rags, 
rub  with  it  lightly,  brush  away  any  foreign  substance  which  might  scratch  the  marble, 
and  a  perfect  polish  will  be  obtained.  A  little  alum  mixed  with  the  water  used  pene- 
trates the  pores  of  the  marble,  and  gives  it  a  speedier  polish.  This  polish  spots  very 
easUy,  and  is  soon  tarnished  and  destroyed  by  dampness.  It  is  necessary,  when  pur- 
chasing articles  of  polished  marbles,  to  subject  them  to  the  test  of  water ;  if  there  is  too 
much  alum,  the  marble  absorbs  the  water,  and  a  whilish  spot  is  left. 


Polishing— Metals.  «±51 

(3)  To  polish  imitation  marbles,  when  you  have  finished  marbling,  let  the  work 
stand  for  a  day  or  two ;  then  gently  rub  it  down  with  the  back  or  smooth  side  of  a  sheet 
of  sandpaper ;  this  will  take  off  the  knits  or  bits  of  skin  which  may  be  upon  it,  without 
scratching  it ;  now  give  it  3  coats  of  the  best  pale  polishing  copal  varnish,  allowing  an 
interval  of  2  days  after  each  coat.  Let  this  stand  for  3  weeks ;  then  cut  it  down  witli 
ground  pumice  and  water,  using  a  piece  of  wash-leather  or  rag  for  tliat  purpose.  When 
you  have  got  it  tolerably  smooth  and  level,  wash  it  well  with  plenty  of  clean  water, 
taking  particular  care  to  clean  off  all  the  pumice ;  give  it  5  coats  of  varnish.  It  ought 
now  to  stand  for  3-G  months  before  it  is  polished,  for  if  it  is  done  before  it  is  almost 
certain  to  crack.  When  the  varnish  is  sufficiently  hard,  cut  it  down  with  finely-ground 
pumice  as  before ;  then  use  rottenstone  and  olive-oil,  with  the  ball  of  the  hand ;  then 
flour  and  oil ;  finish  off  with  dry  flour.     This  takes  a  deal  of  time  to  do  properly. 

Metals. — The  following  general  remarks  on  polishing  metallic  surfaces  by  hand  are 
from  a  paper  by  T.  F.  Hagerty,  in  the  American  Machinist : — The  practice  generally 
employed  by  machinists  in  grinding  and  polishing  either  new  or  old  work  is  to  mix  the 
polishing  material  with  oil,  usually  refuse  machinery  oil ;  in  most  cases  this  is  a  great 
mistake,  and  has  caused  the  loss  of  time,  patience,  and  money.  Take,  for  instance,  the 
grinding  to  a  true  bearing  of  a  stopcock,  a  valve  seat,  or  a  slide  valve.  There  are  few 
machinists  but  what  have  had  more  or  less  of  that  class  of  work  to  do,  particularly  in 
jobbing  shops,  and  we  seldom  flnd  one  who  uses  the  same  method  of  accomi^lishing  thu 
job  that  is  practised  in  shops  where  that  class  of  work  is  made  a  speciality.  In  fitting 
and  grinding  the  plug  into  the  barrel  of  a  cock,  a  little  judgment  and  care  will  save 
a  great  deal  of  hard  labour,  and  in  no  case  should  oil  be  mixed  with  any  of  the  grinding 
material,  for  the  following  reasons :  If  fine  emery,  ground  glass,  or  sand  is  used  with  oil. 
it  requires  but  a  few  turns  of  the  plug  in  the  barrel  to  break  up  the  grains  of  the  grinding 
material  into  very  fine  particles ;  the  metallic  surfaces  also  grind  ofi",  and  the  fine 
particles  of  metal  mixing  in  witli  the  grinding  material  and  oil,  make  a  thick  paste  of  the 
mass.  At  this  stage  it  is  impossible  to  grind  or  bring  the  metallic  surfaces  to  a  bearing, 
as  the  gluey  paste  keeps  them  apart ;  if  more  grinding  stuff"  is  applied,  it  will  pre- 
vent the  operator  from  seeing  what  part  of  the  barrel  and  plug  bears  the  hardest. 
Again,  if  the  grinding  material  be  distributed  over  the  whole  surface,  the  parts  that  do 
not  bear  will  grind  off  as  fast  as  the  parts  that  touch  hard,  as  the  particles  work  freely 
between  the  surfaces ;  should  the  barrel  and  plug  bear  equally  all  over  when  fitted  it 
requires  more  care  than  if  it  were  a  top  or  bottom  bearing,  as  that  part  of  the  barrel  and 
plug  across  the  "  waterway  "  grinds  twice  as  fast  as  the  other  parts  ;  therefore  it  should 
be  kept  the  driest.  Now  this  objection  holds  good  in  the  grinding  of  valve  seats  or  slide 
valves,  to  wit :  the  separation  of  the  surfaces  of  the  metal  by  a  thick,  pasty,  grinding 
material.  In  order  to  bring  the  surfaces  to  a  perfect  bearing  rapidly  and  with  little 
labour,  the  following  directions  will  be  found  worth  a  trial  : — To  grind  a  stopcock  of  any 
kind,  first  see  that  the  plug  fits  the  barrel  before  it  is  taken  from  the  lathe.  Run  a  half- 
round  smooth  file  up  and  down  the  barrel  to  break  any  rings  that  may  be  in  it ;  a  few 
rubs  of  a  smooth  file  back  and  forth  over  the  plug  will  break  any  rings  or  tool  marks 
on  it.  Wipe  both  parts  clean.  Use  for  grinding  material  fine  moulders'  sand  sifted 
through  a  fine  sieve.  Mix  with  luater  in  a  cup,  and  apply  a  small  quantity  to  the  parts 
that  bear  the  hardest.  Turn  rapidly,  pressing  gently  every  few  turns ;  if  the  work  is 
large  and  the  lathe  is  used,  run  slowly  ;  press  and  pull  back  rapidly  to  prevent 
sticking  and  ringing ;  apply  grinding  sand  and  water  until  a  bearing  shows  on  another 
part,  then  use  no  more  new  sand,  but  spread  the  old  that  has  worked  out  over  the 
whole  smface.  Turn  rapidly,  pressing  gently  while  turning :  withdraw  the  plug  and 
wipe  part  of  the  dirt  off',  and  rub  on  the  place  a  little  brown  soap ;  moisten  with  water 
and  press  the  surfaces  together  with  all  the  force  at  hand,  turning  at  the  same  time. 
Eemove  the  plug  and  wipe  both  parts  clean ;  next  try  the  condition  of  the  bearing  by 
pressing  the  dry  surfaces  together  with  great  force.    If  the  parts  have  been  kept  closely 

2  G  2 


452  Polishing — Metals. 

together  while  grinding,  and  the  plug  has  not  rubbed  against  the  lower  part  of  the 
barrel,  the  surfaces  will  be  found  bright  all  over  and  a  perfect  bearing  obtained.  If  an 
iron  barrel  and  a  brass  plug  are  used,  or  two  kinds  of  brass,  a  hard  and  soft  metal,  soap 
should  be  used  freely  when  finishing  up,  as  the  tendency  to  form  rings  is  greater  when 
two  different  metals  are  used.  In  grinding  a  slide  valve  which  has  been  in  use  until 
hollow  places  have  worn  in  the  surface,  emery  mixed  with  water,  or  sand  and  water,  will 
be  found  better  than  oil,  unless  a  light  body  of  oil,  such  as  kerosene,  is  used.  If  water 
is  used  with  the  grinding  material,  soap  should  be  rubbed  on  hollow  places,  and  the 
grinding  stuff  should  be  applied  to  the  high  parts  in  small  quantities,  keeping  the  low 
parts  clean  and  dry  until  an  even  surface  is  obtained  all  over ;  then  the  worn-out  stuff 
should  be  used  for  finishing  up.  In  polishing  metal,  oil  that  will  "  gum  up  "  should  not 
be  used  with  the  polishing  material  unless  for  a  dead  fine  polish.  In  polishing  old  brass- 
work  which  has  been  scratched  and  tarnished  by  wear,  pumice  or  bathbrick  should  be 
used  with  soap  and  water  for  scouring  off  with,  and  rottenstone  with  kerosene  oil  for  the 
wet  finish,  and  dry  for  the  final  polish.  The  same  method  should  be  used  for  new 
brasswork.  New  work  should  require,  after  leaving  the  lathe  and  vice  tools,  but  little 
polishing  or  grinding,  and  every  good  workman  should  try  to  avoid  using  an  emery  stick 
or  emery  cloth,  as  with  proper  care  in  the  use  of  tools  a  great  deal  of  grinding  and 
polishing  can  be  dispensed  with.  The  polishing  of  metals  varies  somewhat  according  to 
their  character,  but  the  main  principle  underlying  all  is  the  substitution  of  progressively 
finer  scratches  for  those  left  by  the  material  last  used,  until  they  become  so  delicate  as 
to  be  invisible  without  the  aid  of  a  microscope. 

Belgian  Burnuhing  Powder. — Mix  together  1  oz.  fine  chalk,  3  oz.  pipeclay,  2  oz.  dry 
white-lead,  f  oz.  carbonate  magnesia,  and  f  oz.  rouge. 

Brass-polishes. — (1)  Make  a  paste  of  equal  parts  of  sulphur  and  chalk,  with  sufficient 
vinegar  to  reduce  it  to  the  proper  consistency  ;  apply  it  to  the  metal  while  moist,  allow 
it  to  dry  on,  and  rub  with  a  chamois  skin.  For  ornaments  or  engraved  work,  clean  with 
a  brush.  (2)  Another  process,  and  one  that  gives  to  the  brass  a  very  brilliant  colour, 
is  to  make  a  wash  of  alum  boiled  in  strong  lye,  in  the  proportion  of  I  oz.  alum  to  1  pint 
lye.  Wash  the  brass  with  this  mixture,  and  afterwards  rub  with  chamois  and  tripoli. 
(3)  A  weak  solution  of  ammonia  in  water  makes  an  excellent  wash.  Apply  it  with  a 
rag,  dry  with  a  piece  of  shammy,  and  afterwards  rub  with  a  piece  of  shammy  and  a  very 
small  quantity  of  jewellers'  rouge.  (4)  Place  2  oz.  sulphuric  acid  in  an  earthen  vessel, 
and  add  1  qt.  cold  soft  water ;  after  the  heat  that  is  generated  has  passed  off,  add  1  oz. 
each  tripoli  and  jewellers'  rouge.  When  well  mixed,  put  in  a  bottle  for  use.  (5)  Brass 
may  be  polished  without  a  burnisher,  by  using  an  exceedingly  fine  cut  file,  and  fine  emery 
cloth.  (6)  Small  articles  to  be  polished  should  be  shaken  by  themselves  for  a  short; 
time ;  then  some  greasy  parings  of  leather  should  be  put  in  the  barrel  with  them.  After 
they  have  been  shaken  smooth,  the  greasy  leather  parings  are  replaced  by  clean  ones, 
and  the  shaking  is  continued  as  long  as  necessary.  (7)  When  the  brass  is  made  smooth 
by  turning,  or  filing  with  a  very  fine  file,  it  may  be  rubbed  with  a  smooth  fine-grained 
stone,  or  with  charcoal  and  water.  When  it  is  made  quite  smooth  and  free  from  scratches, 
it  may  be  polished  with  rottenstone  and  oil,  alcohol,  or  spirits  of  turpentine. 

Burnishing. — To  burnish  an  article  is  to  polish  it,  by  removing  the  small  roughness 
upon  its  surface ;  and  this  is  performed  by  a  burnisher.  This  mode  of  polishing  is  the 
most  expeditious,  and  gives  the  greatest  lustre  to  a  polished  body.  It  removes  the  marks 
left  by  the  emery,  putty  of  tin,  or  other  polishing  materials  ;  and  gives  to  the  burnished 
articles  a  black  lustre,  resembling  that  of  looking-glass.  The  form  and  construction  of 
the  burnisher  is  extremely  variable,  according  to  the  respective  trades  ;  and  it  must  be 
adapted  to  the  various  kinds  of  work  in  the  same  art.  In  general,  as  this  tool  is  only 
intended  to  efface  inequalities,  whatever  substance  the  burnisher  is  made  of  is  of  little 
consequence  to  the  article  burnished,  provided  only  that  it  is  of  a  harder  substance  than 
that  article. 


Polishing — Metals.  453 

Burnishers. — The  burnishers  used  are  of  two  kinds,  of  steel  and  of  hard  stone.  They 
are  either  curved  or  straight,  rounded  or  pointed,  and  made  so  as  to  suit  the  projecting? 
parts,  or  the  hollows  of  the  piece.  Stone  burnisliers  are  made  of  blood-stone,  cut,  and 
either  rounded  with  the  grindstone,  or  rubbed,  so  that  they  present,  at  the  bottom,  a 
very  blunt  edge,  or  sometimes  a  rounded  surface.  These  arc  polished  with  emery,  like 
steel  burnishers,  and  are  iinished  by  being  rubbed  upon  a  leather,  covered  with  crocus 
martis.  The  stone  is  mounted  in  a  woodeu  handle,  and  firmly  fixed  by  a  copper  ferrule, 
which  encircles  both  the  stone  and  the  wood.  The  best  blood-stones  arc  those  which 
contain  the  most  iron,  and  which,  when  polished,  present  a  steel  colour.  The  operation 
of  burnishing  is  very  simple ;  take  hold  of  the  tool  very  near  to  the  stone,  and  lean  very 
hard  with  it  on  those  parts  which  are  to  bo  burnished,  causing  it  to  glide  by  a  backward 
and  forward  movement,  without  taking  it  off  the  piece.  When  it  is  requisite  that  the 
liand  should  pass  over  a  large  surface  at  once,  without  losing  its  point  of  support  on  the 
work-bench,  in  taking  hold  of  the  burnisher  be  careful  to  place  it  just  underneath  the 
little  finger.  By  this  means  the  work  is  done  quicker,  and  the  tool  is  more  solidly  fixed 
in  the  hand.  During  the  whole  process,  the  tool  must  be  continually  moistened  with 
black  soapsuds.  The  water  with  which  it  is  frequently  wetted  causes  it  to  glide  more 
easily  over  the  work,  prevents  it  from  heating,  and  facilitates  its  action.  The  black 
soap,  containing  more  alkali  than  the  common  soap,  acts  with  greater  strength  in 
cleansing  off  any  greasiness  which  might  still  remain  on  tlie  surface ;  it  also  more 
readily  detaches  the  spots  which  would  spoil  the  beauty  of  the  burnishing.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  friction  the  burnisher  soon  loses  its  bite,  and  slips  over  the  surface  of 
the  article  as  if  it  were  oily.  In  order  to  restore  its  action,  it  must  be  rubbed,  from  time 
to  time,  on  the  leather.  The  leather  is  fixed  on  a  jjiecc  of  hard  wood,  with  shallow 
furrows  along  it.  There  are  generally  two  leathers — one  made  of  sole  leather  and  the 
other  of  buff  leather.  The  first  is  impregnated  with  a  little  oil  and  crocus  martis,  and 
is  particularly  used  for  the  blood-stone  burnishers  ;  the  other  has  only  a  little  putty  of 
tin  scattered  in  the  furrows,  and  is  intended  exclusively  for  rubbing  steel  burnishers,  as 
they  are  not  so  hard  as  the  blood-stones.  Blood-stone  being  very  hard,  the  workman  uses 
it  whenever  he  can,  in  jH-eference  to  the  steel  burnisher.  It  is  only  in  small  articles,  and 
in  difficult  places,  that  steel  burnishers  are  used ;  as  they,  by  their  variety  of  form,  are 
adapted  to  all  kinds  of  work.  In  general,  the  blood-stone  greatly  reduces  the  labour. 
When  the  articles,  on  account  of  their  minuteness,  or  from  any  other  cause,  cannot  be 
conveniently  held  in  the  baud,  they  are  fixed  in  a  convenient  frame  on  the  bench ;  but 
under  all  circumstances  be  very  careful  to  manage  the  burnisher  so  as  to  leave  untouched 
those  parts  of  the  work  which  are  intended  to  remain  dull.  When,  in  burnishing  an 
article  which  is  plated  or  lined  with  silver,  there  is  any  place  where  the  layer  of  precious 
metal  is  removed,  restore  it  by  silvering  these  places  with  a  composition  supplied  by  the 
silverer,  which  is  applied  with  a  brush,  rubbing  the  part  well,  aud  wiping  it  afterwards 
with  an  old  linen  cloth.  The  burnishing  being  finished,  remove  the  soapsuds  which  still 
adhere  to  the  surface  of  the  work ;  this  is  effected  by  rubbing  it  with  a  piece  of  old  linen 
cloth.  But  when  there  are  a  great  number  of  small  pieces  to  finish,  to  throw  them  into 
soapsuds  and  dry  them  afterwards  with  sawdust  is  more  expeditious.  The  burnisiiing 
of  gold  leaf  or  silver,  on  wood,  is  performed  with  burnishers  made  of  wolves'  or  dogs' 
teeth,  or  agates,  mounted  in  iron  or  wooden  handles.  Wiien  about  to  burnish  gold, 
applied  on  other  metals,  dip  the  blood-stone  burnisher  into  vinegar  ;  this  kind  being 
exclusively  used  for  that  purpose.  But  when  burnishing  leaf  gold  on  prepared  surfaces 
of  wood,  keep  the  stone,  or  teeth,  perfectly  dry.  The  burnisher  used  by  leatlier  gilders 
is  a  hard  polished  stone,  mounted  in  a  wooden  handle— this  is  to  sleek  or  smooth  the 
leather.  The  ordinary  engravers'  burnisher  is  a  blade  of  steel,  made  thin  at  one  end,  to 
fit  into  a  small  handle  to  hold  it  by.  The  part  in  the  middle  of  the  blade  is  rounded  on 
the  convex  side,  and  is  also  a  little  curved.  The  rounded  part  must  be  well  polished, 
and  the  tool  be  very  hard.     This  burniaher  is  used  to  give  the  last  polish  to  such  parts 


454  Polishing — Metals. 

of  copper  and  steel  plates  as  may  have  been  accidentally  scratched,  or  speckled,  where 
false  lines  are  to  be  removed,  and  also  to  lighten  in  a  small  degree  such  parts  as  have 
been  too  deeply  etched  or  graved.  In  clockmaking,  those  pieces  or  parts  are  burnished 
which,  on  account  of  their  size  or  form,  cannot  be  conveniently  polished.  The  burnishers 
are  of  various  forms  and  sizes;  they  are  all  made  of  cast  steel,  very  hard,  and  well 
polished ;  some  are  formed  like  sage-leaf  files,  others  like  common  files— the  first  are 
used  to  burnish  screws  and  pieces  of  brass ;  the  others  are  used  for  flat  pieces.  The 
clockmakers  have  also  very  small  ones  of  this  kind,  to  burnish  their  pivots— they  are 
called  pivot  burnishers. 

Book  Edges.— This  is  done  with  a  wolfs  or  dog's  tooth,  or  a  steel  burnisher ;  for  this 
purpose  place  the  books  in  a  screw  press,  with  boards  on  each  side  of  them,  and  other 
boards  distributed  between  each  volume;  first  rub  the  edges  well  with  the  tooth  to  give 
them  a  lustre.  After  sprinkling  or  staining  and  when  the  edges  are  dry,  burnish  the 
front ;  then  turning  tlie  press,  burnish  the  edges  at  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  volume. 
Burnish  the  gilt  edges  in  the  same  manner,  after  having  applied  the  gold ;  but  observe 
in  gilding,  to  lay  the  gold  first  upon  the  front,  and  allow  it  to  dry ;  and  on  no  account 
to  commence  burnishing  till  it  is  quite  dry. 

Cutlery.— The  burnishing  of  cutlery  is  executed  by  hand  or  vice  burnishers ;  they 
are  all  made  of  fine  steel,  hardened,  and  well  polished.  The  first  kind  have  nothmg 
particular  in  their  construction  ;  but  vice  burnishers  are  formed  and  mounted  in  a  very 
different  manner.  On  a  long  piece  of  wood,  placed  horizontally  in  the  vice,  is  fixed 
another  piece,  as  long,  but  bent  in  the  form  of  a  bow,  the  concavity  of  which  is  turned 
downwards.  These  two  pieces  are  united  at  one  of  their  extremities  by  a  pin  and  a 
hook,  which  allows  the  upper  piece  to  move  freely  around  this  point  as  a  centre.  The 
burnisher  is  fixed  in  the  middle  of  this  bent  piece,  and  it  is  made  more  or  less  pro- 
jecting, by  the  greater  or  lesser  length  which  is  given  to  its  base.  The  movable  piece  of 
wood,  at  the  extremity  opposite  to  the  hook,  is  furnished  with  a  handle,  which  serves 
the  workman  as  a  lever.  This  position  allows  tlie  burnisher  to  rest  with  greater  force 
against  the  article  to  be  burnished,  which  is  placed  on  the  fixed  piece  of  wood.  The 
burnisher  has  either  the  form  of  the  face  of  a  round-headed  hammer,  well  polished  to 
burnish  those  pieces  which  are  plain  or  convex ;  or  the  form  of  two  cones  opposed  at 
their  summits,  with  their  bases  rounded,  to  burnish  those  pieces  which  are  concave  or 
ring-shaped. 

Pewter.- The  burnishing  of  pewter  articles  is  done  after  the  work  has  been  turned, 
or  finished  off  with  a  scraper.  The  burnishers  are  of  different  kinds,  for  burnishing 
articles  either  by  hand  or  in  the  lathe ;  they  are  all  of  steel,  and  while  in  use  are  rubbed 
with  putty  powder  on  leather,  and  moistened  with  soapsuds. 

Silver. — Commence  by  cleaning  off  any  kind  of  dirt  which  the  surfaces  of  the  silver 
articles  had  contracted  whilst  making,  as  tliat  would  entirely  spoil  the  burnishing. 
For  this  purpose,  take  pumice  powder,  and  with  a  brush,  made  very  wet  in  strong 
soapsuds,  rub  the  various  parts  of  the  work,  even  those  parts  which  are  to  remain  dull, 
which,  nevertheless,  receive  thus  a  beautiful  white  appearance ;  wipe  with  an  old  linen 
cloth,  and  proceed  to  the  burnishing. 

Crocus. — Put  tin,  as  pure  as  possible,  into  a  glass  vessel — a  wineglass  does  very  well 
when  making  small  quantities — and  pour  in  suflScient  nitric  acid  to  cover  it.  Great 
heat  is  evolved,  and  care  must  be  taken  not  to  inhale  the  fumes,  as  they  are  poisonous. 
When  there  is  nothing  left  but  a  white  powder,  it  is  heated  in  a  Hessian  crucible,  to  drive 
off  the  nitric  acid. 

Emery  Pajier.— Emery  paper  is  extensively  employed  for  cleaning  and  polishing 
metals,  but  all  the  kinds  in  use  hitherto  liave  the  great  disadvantage  of  not  retaining 
an  equal  efficiency.  The  fresh  parts  bite  too  much,  and  the  paper  itself  soon  gets  worn 
through  in  places.  Emery  on  linen  has  been  tried,  but  without  success.  The  emery 
paper  recommended  by  the  Manufacturer  and  Builder  is  not  a  pasteboard  with  emery  oq 


Polishing — Metals.  455 

both  sides,  but  a  board  in  which  emery  enters  as  a  constituent  part.  Fine  and  uniform 
cardboard  pulp  must  bo  procured,  and  i  to  i  its  weight  of  emery  powder  thoroughly 
mixed  with  it,  so  that  the  emery  may  be  equally  distributed.  The  mass  is  then  poured 
out  in  cakes  of  1  in.  to  10  in.  in  thickness.  They  must  not  be  pressed  hard,  however 
but  allowed  to  retain  a  medium  pliability.  This  paper  will  adapt  itself  to  the  forms  of 
the  articles,  and  will  serve  until  completely  worn  out. 

Emery  Wheels.— (1)  Can  be  made  with  shellac  powdered  fine,  and  a  small  portion  of 
rosin,  a  piece  about  the  size  of  a  walnut  to  1  oz.  shellac,  and  a  piece  of  old  vulcanized 
indiarubber  about  the  same  size,  which  gives  it  toughness.  Shellac  about  1  oz.  to  1  lb. 
of  emery,  well  melt,  and  stir  about  in  a  small  frying-pan ;  well  mix  the  powders  before 
applying  heat.  Be  careful  not  to  burn  it,  or  get  grease  in  it ;  have  a  ring  of  iron  and  a 
piece  of  plate  iron  prepared  with  black-lead  and  beer  pretty  thick  ;  place  the  ring  upon 
the  plate  and  make  a  mould,  turn  the  stuff  into  it,  and  well  ram  down  evenly ;  put  on 
one  side  to  cool ;  when  cold,  turn  out  and  chuck  in  lathe,  and  with  a  piece  of  red-hot 
iron  bore  a  hole  for  spindle  ;  after  spindled  put  between  centres,  and  trice-up  with  hot  iron. 
Very  good  grindstones  may  be  made  with  silver-sand  mixed  with  powdered  glass,  and  it 
is  necessary  to  have  some  body  besides  shellac  for  coarse  emery  to  form  a  body  to  bed 
the  grains  in.  Emery  dust  from  grinding  glass,  and  Turkey  stone  slips,  and  slate,  may 
be  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  flour.  (2)  The  best  emery  wheels  are  formed  of  clean 
emery  compounded  with  just  enough  boiled  linseed-oil,  the  mixture  being  agitated  for 
a  sufficient  period  under  exposure  to  a  considerable  heat  and  free  access  of  atmospheric 
air,  or  some  still  more  powerful  oxidizing  agent ;  it  assumes  the  necessary  degree  of 
tenacity,  and  whilst  warm,  being  exposed  to  hydraulic  pressure  in  a  suitable  mould,  and 
subsequent  drying  in  a  stove,  the  emery  wheel  is  complete. 

Friction  Polish. — A  good  polish  for  iron  or  steel  rotating  in  the  lathe,  is  made  of  fine 
emery  and  oil ;  which  is  applied  by  lead  or  wood  grinders,  screwed  together.  Throe 
very  good  oils  for  lulirication  are  olive  oil,  sperm,  and  neats'-foot. 

German  Silver. — Take  1  lb.  peroxide  of  iron,  pure,  and  put  half  of  it  into  a  wash- 
basin, pouring  on  water,  and  keeping  it  stirred  until  the  basin  is  nearly  full.  While  the 
water  and  crocus  are  in  slow  motion,  pour  off",  leaving  grit  at  the  bottom.  Eepeat  this 
a  second  time,  pouring  off"  into  another  basin.  Cleanse  out  grit,  and  do  the  same  with  the 
other  half.  When  the  second  lot  is  poured  off,  tlie  crocus  in  the  first  will  have  settled 
to  the  bottom ;  pour  off  the  water  gently,  take  out  the  powder,  dry  it,  and  put  both 
when  washed  clear  of  grit,  and  dried,  into  a  box  into  which  dust  cannot  get.  If  the 
silver  work  is  very  dirty,  rub  the  mixture  of  powder  and  oil  on  with  the  fingers,  and  then 
it  will  be  known  if  any  grit  is  on  the  work.  If  the  work  is  not  very  black,  take  a  piece  of 
soft  chamois  leather,  and  rub  some  dry  crocus  on,  and  when  well  rubbed,  shake  out  the 
leather,  and  let  the  powder  fall  oS"  that  is  not  used,  or  rub  it  off'  with  a  brusli.  Do  not 
put  down  the  leather  in  the  dust. 

Glaze  Wlieels  for  Finisliinr]  Steel. — For  hollow  finishing,  tlie  following  wheels  are 
required : — A  mahogany  wheel  for  rough  glazing.  A  maliogany  wheel  for  smootli 
glazing.  A  lead  wheel,  or  lap.  For  flat  flnishing :  A  buff  wheel  for  rough.  A  bufif 
wheel  for  smooth.  A  buff  wheel  for  finishing.  Lastly,  a  polisher.  To  make  the  glaze 
wheels  :  Get  the  spindles,  and  point  them  on  each  end  ;  then  get  a  block  of  beech  and 
wedge  it  on  the  steel  at  one  end  with  iron  wedges,  and  turn  it  for  the  pulley  for  tlie 
band  to  nm  on.  Take  two  pieces  of  flat  mahogany  and  glue  and  screw  them  together, 
so  that  the  grain  of  one  piece  crosses  the  other,  to  i)rcvent  warping.  Let  it  get 
thoroughly  dry,  and  wedge  it  on  the  spindle  and  turn  it  true.  The  lead  wheel  is  made 
the  same  way  but  wider,  and  has  a  groove  turned  in  the  edge.  The  wheel  is  i)nt  into 
sand,  and  a  ring  of  lead  run  round  the  edge ;  it  is  then  turned  true.  To  make  the  buff 
wheels,  proceed  as  with  the  glaze ;  but  to  save  expense,  pine  or  deal  wood  will  do  as 
well  as  mahogany,  only  leave  it  about  double  the  width  of  the  glaze,  which  is  about 
^  in.  wide,  by  12  or  14  in.  across.     The  buff'  wheels  are  covered  with  glue,  and  then  the 


456  Polishing — Metals. 

leather  is  tacked  on  with  tacks  driven  in  about  half-way,  so  that  they  may  be  easily 
drawn  out  again.  The  leather  is  then  turned  true.  The  polisher  is  made  the  same  way, 
but  the  size  of  the  polisher  must  be  a  little  less  than  any  of  the  other  wheels,  say,  about 
1  in.  The  buif  wheels  are  dressed  by  laying  on  a  iine  thin  coat  of  clear  glue,  and 
rolling  them  round — No.  1,  in  superfine  corn  emery  ;  No.  2,  in  smooth  emery  ;  No.  3,  by 
making  a  cake  of  equal  parts  of  mutton  suet,  beeswax,  and  washed  emery  ;  then  it  is 
held  on  the  wheel  while  it  is  going  round.  The  glaze  wheels  are  dressed  while  using, 
by  mixing  a  little  of  the  emery  with  oil,  and  putting  it  on  the  wheel  with  a  stick  or  the 
finger.  The  leather  of  the  polisher  is  not  covered  with  glue,  but  dressed  with  a  mix- 
ture of  crocus  and  water,  not  oil.  Care  must  be  taken  to  keep  each  wheel  and  substance 
to  themselves,  the  work  must  be  carefully  wiped  after  each  operation,  and  cleanliness 
must  be  studied  above  all  things  in  using  the  polisher,  as  the  slightest  grease  getting  on 
it  stops  the  polishing. 

Gold  and  Silver  lace. — Gold  lace,  spangles,  clasps,  knots,  &c.,  may  be  brushed  over 
with  tlie  following  composition :  Ih  oz.  shellac,  ^  dr.  dragons'  blood,  i  dr.  turmeric  root ; 
digest  with  strong  alcohol,  decanting  the  ruby-red  coloured  tincture  thus  obtained.  After 
coating  with  this  composition,  a  warm  flat-iron  is  gently  brushed  over  the  objects,  so  as 
to  heat  them  only  very  slightly.  Gold  embroidery  can  be  similarly  treated.  Silver  lace 
or  embroidery  may  be  dusted  over  with  the  following  powder  and  well  brushed.  Take 
alabaster,  and  strongly  ignite  it,  and  whilst  still  hot  place  it  in  corn  brandy ;  a  white 
powder  is  thus  obtained,  which  is  fit  for  use  after  heating  over  the  flame  of  a  spirit 
lamp.     It  should  be  dusted  on  from  a  linen  bag. 

Grindstone,  Artificial. — Washed  silicious  sand  3  parts,  shellac  1  part ;  melt  tlie  lac, 
and  mould  in  the  sand,  while  warm.  Emeiy  may  be  substituted  for  sand.  Used  for 
razors  and  fine  cutlery. 

Iron  and  Steel. — (1)  Take  an  ordinary  bar  of  malleable  iron  in  its  usual  merchantable 
state,  remove  the  oxide  from  its  surface  by  the  application  of  diluted  suljAuric  acid, 
after  which  wash  the  bar  in  an  alkaline  solution,  then  cover  the  entire  bar  with  oil  or 
petroleum.  The  bar  is  then  ready  for  the  chief  jirocess.  A  mufHe  surface  is  so  prepared 
that  a  uniform,  or  nearly  uniform,  heat  can  be  maintained  within  it,  and  in  this  furnace 
the  bar  is  placed.  Care  must  be  taken  that  too  great  a  heat  is  not  imparted  to  it,  for  on 
this  depends  the  success  of  the  operation.  When  the  bar  approaches  a  red  heat,  and 
when  the  redness  is  just  perceptible,  it  is  a  certain  indication  that  the  proper  degree  has 
been  attained.  The  bar  is  then  at  once  removed,  and  passed  througli  the  finishing  rolls 
5  or  G  times,  when  it  will  be  found  to  have  a  dark  polished  uniform  surface,  and  the 
appearance  of  Eussian  sheet  iron.  (2)  Keys,  Key-rings,  and  other  articles  of  iron. — ■ 
Finish  them  well  with  a  dead  smooth  file,  then  mix  some  fine  emery  and  oil  together, 
hold  the  key  in  wood  clamjjs,  take  some  long  strips  of  wash-leather,  dip  in  the  above, 
and  polish  well  every  part  until  all  scars  disappear ;  then  tie  2  or  3  dozen  on  a  piece  of  iron 
binding-wire,  put  them  in  an  iron  box  with  leather  scraps  burnt  and  made  into  a  fine 
powder,  cover  bottom  of  box  ^  in.  thick,  spread  out  the  keys  on  this,  cover  them  up  with 
the  powder  or  leather-dust,  put  a  lid  on,  tie  down,  put  in  a  slow  fire  until  the  box  is  red 
hot,  soak  about  20  minutes,  then  open  the  box,  take  out  the  keys  quick,  plunge  them  in 
oil — water  makes  tliem  too  brittle ;  now  repeat  the  polishing  as  before,  with  long  leather 
strings  dipped  in  the  oil  and  emery,  until  all  the  black  from  the  "  hardening  "  is  ofi"  every 
part,  then  take  them  to  the  brushing-frame,  charge  your  brush  well  with  flour  of  emery, 
keep  turning  the  key  in  every  direction  imtil  the  polish  begins  to  appear  ;  after  this  dip 
them  in  slaked  lime,  and  get  off  every  particle  of  grease.  Take  them  to  another 
brushing-frame,  the  brush  charged  with  crocus  and  water ;  keep  dipping  the  key  in 
occasionally,  and  follow  up  process  on  the  brush  until  the  polish  comes  up  well.  To  put 
the  extra  gloss  or  polish  on,  take  the  leather  strings  as  before,  this  time  dipped  in  a 
mixture  of  putty-powder  and  water ;  work  the  string  well  over  every  part  until  dark 
polish  comes  up.     If  you  wish  a  higher  polish,  it  is  done  by  hand— thatis,  girls  dip 


Polishing— Metals.  457 

their  bands  in  the  putty-powtler  mixture  above,  and  rub  every  possible  part  up  with  the 
pahii  of  the  hand,  and  this  gives  the  beautiful  polissh  that  is  upon  them.  (Aubin.) 
(3)  Bodeu  recommends  the  following  method  of  brightening  the  surfaces  of  iron  plites, 
wire,  &c.,  as  the  result  of  numerous  experiments  made  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Industrial 
Museum  at  Munich  :— The  object,  whatever  it  may  be,  just  as  it  comes  from  the  forge,  is 
laid  for  the  space  of  one  hour  in  dilute  sulphuric  acid  (J^  part  acid).  The  action  of  the 
acid  may  be  increased  by  the  addition  of  a  little  carbolic  acid  (?).  The  for^e  scales  aro 
loosened  by  the  action  of  the  acid,  and  the  object  is  tiien  washed  clean  with  water  and 
dried  with  sawdust.  Next,  it  is  held  for  an  instant  in  nitrous  acid,  the  operator  of 
course  being  on  his  guard  against  the  nitrous  fumes,  washed  ngani  carefully,  dried  in 
sawdust,  and  rubbed  over  clean.  Iron  goods  thus  treated  acquire  a  perfectly  bright, 
pure  surface,  having  a  white  glance,  without  the  intervention  of  any  mechanical  process 
of  polishing.  (4)  Steel. — Use  bell-metal  polishers  for  arbors,  iiaving  first  brought  up 
the  surface  with  oilstone  dust  and  oil  and  soft  steel  polishers ;  for  flat  pieces  use  a  piece 
of  glass  for  the  oilstone  dust,  a  bell-metal  block  for  the  sharp  red  stuff,  and  a  white 
metal  block  for  the  fine  red  stuff.  The  polishing  stuff  must  be  well  mixed  up  and  kept 
very  clean  ;  the  polisliers  and  blocks  must  be  filed  to  clean  off  the  old  stuff,  and  then 
rubbed  over  with  sott  bread  ;  put  only  a  little  red  stuff  on  the  block  and  keep  working 
it  until  it  is  quite  dry,  the  piece  will  then  leave  the  block  quite  clean  ;  use  bread  to  clean  off 
the  surplus  red  stuff  before  using  the  brush.  If  the  piece  is  scratched,  put  on  some  more 
red  stuff,  wliich  must  not  be  too  wet,  and  try  again.  (5)  The  polish  on  flat  steel  pieces 
in  fine  watchwork  is  produced  with  oilstone  dust,  burnt  Turkey  stone,  and  a  steel 
polisher,  soft  steel,  bell-metal,  and  sharp  stuff,  grain  tin  and  glossing  stuff.  The  metals 
are  squared  witli  a  file,  and  vary  in  shape  according  to  the  work  in  hand.  (6)  Get  an 
18-gal.  barrel  and  put  an  iron  spindle  through  the  two  ends;  mount  it  on  trestles  in  tlie 
same  way  as  a  butter  churn,  with  a  winch  to  turn  it  by  ;  cut  out  a  hole  in  the  side  by 
which  to  introduce  the  articles  to  be  polished  ;  have  a  tight-fittmg  cover  to  the  hole  ; 
procure  some  worn-out  casting  pots  or  crucibles,  such  as  used  by  casters,  and  pound  them 
in  an  iron  mortar,  until  fine  enough  to  pass  through  a  sieve  which  will  not  allow  the 
steel  articles  to  pass  through.  Put  equal  quantities  of  tliis  grit  and  of  the  articles  in  the 
barrel ;  fasten  on  the  cover,  and  turn  the  barrel  for  about  an  hour,  at  the  rate  of  about 
50  turns  a  minute  ;  take  all  out  of  the  barrel  and  sift  out  the  grit.  If  a  finer  polish  than 
this  is  required,  put  them  through  another  turning,  substituting  for  the  grit  small  scraps 
of  leather,  called  mosings,  which  can  be  procured  from  curriers,  and  emery  flour.  Do 
not  more  than  half  fill  the  barrel. 

Plate  Powders.— (1)  Take  equal  parts  precipitated  subcarbonate  of  iron,  and  prepared 
chalk.  (2)  An  impalpable  rouge  may  be  prepared  by  calcining  the  oxalate  of  iron. 
(3)  Take  quicksilver  with  chalk,  ^  oz.,  and  prepared  chalk  2  oz.,  mix  them.  When 
used,  add  a  small  quantity  of  spirits  of  wine,  and  rub  with  chamois  leather.  (4)  I'ut 
sulphate  of  iron  into  a  largo  tobacco  pipe,  and  place  it  in  a  fire  for  J  hour,  mix  with  a 
small  quantity  of  powdered  chalk.  This  powder  should  be  used  dry.  (5)  The  following 
makes  a  liquid  polish  for  silver  plate— 3  to  4  dr.  cyanide  of  potassium,  8  to  10  gr.  nitrate 
of  silver,  and  4  oz.  water;  apply  with  a  soft  brush,  wash  the  object  thorouglily  with 
water,  dry  with  a  soft  linen  cloth,  and  polish  with  a  chamois  skin.  Neither  whiting 
nor  powder  of  any  kind  should  be  used  for  cleaning  and  polishing — they  only  waste  and 
scratch  the  silver.  (6)  Take  2  oz.  hartshorn  powder  nnd  boil  it  in  1  pint  water ;  soak 
small  squares  of  damask  cloth  in  the  liquid,  hang  them  up  to  dry,  and  they  will  bo 
ready  for  use,  and  better  than  any  powders.  (7)  Add  by  degrees  8  oz.  prepared  chalk 
in  fine  powder  to  a  mixture  of  2  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine,  1  oz.  alcohol,  ^  oz.  spirits  of 
camphor,  and  2  dr.  aqua  ammonia ;  apply  with  a  sponge,  and  allow  it  to  dry  before 
polishing.  (8)  Mix  together  1  oz.  fine  chalk,  2  oz.  cream  of  tartar,  1  oz.  rottenstone, 
1  oz.  red-lead,  and  f  oz.  alum  ;  pulverize  thoroughly  in  a  mortar.  Wvt  the  mixture, 
rub  it  on  the  silver,  and,  when  dry,  rub  off  with  a  dry  flannel,  or  clean  with  a  small 


458  Polishing— Metals. 

brush.  (9)  An  excellent  preparation  for  polishing  plate  may  be  made  in  the  following 
manner  : — Mis  together  4  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine,  2  oz.  spirits  of  wine,  1  oz.  spirits  of 
camphor,  and  2  oz.  spirits  of  ammonia.  To  this  add  1  lb.  whiting,  finely  powdered,  and 
stir  till  tlie  whole  is  of  the  consistency  of  tliiek  cream.  To  use  this  preparation  with  a 
clean  sponge,  cover  the  silver  with  it,  so  as  to  give  it  a  coat  like  whitewash.  Set  the 
silver  aside  till  the  paste  has  dried  into  a  powder ;  then  brush  it  ofl",  and  polish  with  a 
chamois  leather.  A  cheaper  kind  may  be  made  by  merely  mixing  spirits  of  wine  and 
whiting  together. 

Prepared  ChalJc. — (1)  Pulveriae  chalk  thoroughly,  and  mix  with  distilled  water  in  the 
proportion  of  2  lb.  to  the  gal.;  stir  well,  and  then  allow  it  to  stand  about  2  minutes, 
during  which  time  the  gritty  matter  will  have  settled  to  the  bottom ;  then  pour  tlie 
chalky  water  into  another  vessel,  being  careful  not  to  disturb  the  sediment,  and  allow 
the  fine  chalk  to  settle  to  the  bottom  ;  pour  off  the  water,  and  place  the  chalk  in  a  warm 
oven  to  dry.  This  is  an  excellent  powder  for  restoring  silver,  and  it  is  also  useful  as  a 
base  for  other  polishing  powders.  (2)  Spanish  whiting  treated  in  the  same  manner,  with 
a  small  quantity  of  jewellers'  rouge  added,  makes  a  powder  that  is  a  little  sharper  than 
the  prepared  chalk,  and  which  is  well  adapted  to  cleaning  i^olished  steel  articles. 
(3)  A  third  powder,  and  one  that  is  still  sharper  than  either  of  tlie  above,  is  made  of 
rottenstone  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  chalk.  The  addition  of  bone  black  to 
any  of  these  powders  will  prevent  their  discolouring  leather. 

Futtij  Powder. — A  solution  of  commercial  tin  chloride  is  prepared  by  pouring  on 
1  part  of  the  salt  6  of  boiling  distilled  water,  and  tlie  solution  is  filtered  through  a 
cloth  into  a  cylindrical  glass  vessel,  in  order  to  allow  the  foreign  substances  which  are 
sometimes  found  in  the  chloride  to  deposit.  The  filtration  by  means  of  filtering-paper 
is  too  slow,  and  it  is  always  attended  with  the  loss  of  a  subchloride  which  does  not  pass 
tlirough  filtering-paper ;  therefore  this  filtration  is  not  practicable,  and  may  be  com- 
pletely,replaced  by  passing  the  solution  through  linen.  Into  the  still  hot  and  almost 
clear  solution  of  tin  chloride  is  poured  a  concentrated  solution  of  oxalic  acid  ;  a  white 
precipitate  of  oxalate  of  protoxide  of  tin  is  formed.  After  complete  cooling,  the  liquor 
is  decanted,  and  the  precipitate  is  washed  on  a  cloth  witli  cold  water  until  the  washing 
water  has  no  longer  an  acid  reaction.  The  tin  oxalate  is  afterwards  heated,  dried  on 
an  iron  plate,  or  in  a  boiler  of  the  same  metal,  over  a  small  charcoal  fire.  The  decom- 
position of  the  salt  commences  at  red  heat,  and  there  remains,  after  the  disengagement 
of  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  carbonic  oxide,  a  quantity  of  tin  oxide  in  the  state  of  extreme 
division.  During  the  decomposition,  which  must  be  accelerated  by  stirring  with  an  iron 
wire,  the  matter  ruidergoes  a  considerable  increase  of  bulk,  consequently  it  is  necessary 
to  employ  for  this  operation  very  spacious  vessels,  so  as  to  avoid  loss.     (Watt.) 

Bazor  Paste. — (1)  Mix  fine  emery  intimately  with  fat  and  wax  imtil  the  proper 
consistency  is  obtained  in  the  paste,  and  then  rub  it  well  into  the  leather  strap.  Prepare 
the  emery  by  pounding  thoroughly  in  a  mortar  the  coarse  kind,  throwing  it  into  a  large 
jug  of  water  and  stirring  well.  Immediately  the  large  particles  have  sunk,  pour  off 
into  a  shallow  jilate  or  basin,  and  let  the  water  evaporate.  This  emery  is  better  for 
engraving  and  other  purposes  than  that  prepared  at  the  emery  mills.  (2)  The  grit 
from  a  fine  grindstone  is  very  efficient  for  a  razor  paste.  (3)  Levigated  oxide  of  tin 
(prepared  putty  powder),  1  oz. ;  powdered  oxalic  acid,  J  oz. ;  powdered  gum,  20  gr.  ; 
make  into  a  stiff  paste  with  water,  and  evenly  and  thinly  spread  it  over  the  strop.  With 
very  little  friction,  this  paste  gives  a  fine  edge  to  the  razor,  and  its  efficiency  is  still 
further  increased  by  moistening  it.  (4)  Emery  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder,  2  parts ; 
spermaceti  ointment,  1  part ;  mix  together,  and  rub  it  over  the  strop.  (5)  Jewellers' 
rouge,  black-lead,  and  suet,  equal  parts  ;  mix. 

Rottenstone  {Tripoli).  —  This  very  useful  polishing  medium  is  a  natural  productv 
originally  obtained  from  Tripoli,  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  It  is  of  a  yellowish- 
g^rey  colour,  and  its  particles  are  impalpably  fine,  heuces  its  employment  for  polishing 


Polishing— Wood.  459 

silver,  brass,  and  other  metals.  When  examined  under  a  powerful  microscope,  it  is 
found  to  be  composed  of  the  skeletons  of  animalculic.  It  is  found  in  Derbyshire  Bohemia, 
France,  Corfu,  &c.,  but  tliat  which  comes  from  tlie  latter  place  is  considered  by  some 
persons  as  the  best  for  polishing  brass  and  other  metals.  It  is  used  cither  witli  water 
or  od,  more  generally  with  the  latter,  and  is  applied  either  with  a  leather  or  a  bufl'-stick 
— a  flat  piece  of  wood  having  a  strip  of  soft  leather  glued  to  it  on  one  side.  In  lar^e 
operations,  the  polishing  is  done  at  a  lathe  worked  by  a  treadle  or  steam-power.  After 
using  rottenstone  and  oil  in  the  polishing  of  articles  of  jewellery  or  plate,  the  article 
is  afterwards  "finished"  by  hand  or  machine  with  jewellers'  rouge.  Tlie  rouge  is 
moistened  with  water,  and  when  this  is  rubbed  on  the  article  previously  polished  with 
rottenstone,  a  brilliant  surface  is  jn-oduced  with  very  little  labour,  and  articles  of  silver, 
electroplate,  gold,  and  gilt  work  assume  under  this  treatment  the  highest  degree  of 
brightness  which  they  are  capable  of  receiving.    (Watt.) 

Iiouge.~(l)  The  rouge  used  by  machinists,  watchmakers,  and  jewellers  is  a  mineral 
substance.  In  its  preparation  crystals  of  sulphate  of  iron,  commonly  known  as  copperas, 
are  heated  in  iron  pots,  by  which  tlie  sulphuric  acid  is  expelled  and  the  oxide  of  iron 
remains.  Those  portions  least  calcined,  when  ground,  are  used  for  polishing  gold  and 
silver.  These  are  of  a  bright  crimson  colour.  The  darker  and  more  calcined  portions 
are  known  as  crocus,  and  are  used  for  polishing  brass  and  steel.  For  tlie  finishing 
process  of  the  specula  of  telescopes,  usually  made  of  iron  or  of  steel,  crocus  is  invaluable  ; 
it  gives  a  splendid  polish.  (2)  Others  prefer  for  tlie  production  of  rouge  the  peroxide 
of  iron  precipitated  by  ammonia  from  a  dilute  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  which  is 
washed,  compressed  until  dry,  then  exposed  to  a  low  red  heat  and  ground  to  powder. 
(3)  A  rouge  suitable  for  fine  work  may  be  made  by  decomposing  a  solution  of  sulphate 
of  iron  with  oxalic  acid  also  in  solution ;  a  precipitate  of  oxalate  of  iron  falls,  which 
must  be  well  washed  and  dried  ;  when  gently  lieated,  the  salt  takes  tire,  leaving  an 
impalpable  powder  of  oxide  of  iron. 

Wood. — Polished  woods  are  chiefly  employed  in  furniture  making,  hence  wood 
polishes  are  most  commonly  known  as  furniture  creams.  They  are  also  often  termed 
French  polishes.  The  operation  of  wood  polishing  consists  in  nothing  more  than  the 
distribution  of  a  solution  of  lac  in  spirits  of  wine — by  means  of  a  rubber  made  of  cotton 
wool  and  calico  rag — over  the  surface  of  wood,  using  pressure,  until  the  pores  are  entirely 
filled,  and  the  strata  of  deposited  resin  adhering  form  a  smooth,  hard,  and  brilliant 
glaze.  The  first  operation  in  polishing  is  called  "  filling-in  " — that  is,  some  substance, 
other  than  polish,  is  rubbed  into  the  pores  of  the  wood  to  economize  time  and  materials; 
in  fact,  this  is  the  foundation  on  which  the  superstructure  is  built ;  consequently  it  is 
of  no  small  importance,  as  good  beginnings  generally  make  good  endings.  The  general 
modes  of  filling-in  are  multiform,  the  following  being  a  few  of  them  : — Plaster  of  Paris 
is  the  most  common  ingredient,  and  is  thus  used.  Roll  up  a  piece  of  rag  into  a  rubber, 
saturate  it  with  water,  dip  it  into  the  plaster,  taking  up  a  goodly  supply,  and  rub  it  well 
into  the  pores,  bit  by  bit,  until  you  have  as  it  were  plastered  or  whitewashed  the  article 
of  furniture  all  over,  taking  care,  however,  to  wipe  off  the  superfluous  plaster  with 
another  piece  of  dry  rag,  before  it  sets  ;  otherwise  there  will  be  difliculty  in  getting  an 
even  surface  without  much  papering.  When  this  is  done  let  it  stand  till  thoroughly 
dry. 

Another  method  is  to  beat  up  some  plaster  in  water  sufficiently  thin  to  prevent  setting 
too  soon,  and  go  over  the  wood  with  this  as  before.  Some  beat  up  plaster  in  linseed-oil, 
and  use  that  alone ;  while  another  adds  a  little  polish  stirred  into  the  above,  to  cause  it 
to  set  a  little  quicker.  Another  compound  is  Russian  fat,  plaster  of  Paris,  and  some 
pigment  to  suit  the  wood  it  is  intended  for  ;  these  are  heated  together  and  laid  on  hot, 
wiping  off  the  superfluous  mass  with  rag.  The  only  advantage  in  the  two  last  being, 
that  polishing  can  be  commenced  upon  them  directly,  whereas  the  others  have  to  dry 
first.     Some  even  utilize  mutton-suet  in  its  solid  form,  to  rub  into  the  pores,  others  melt 


4G0  Polishing — Wood. 

size,  and  stir  in  plaster,  using  this  hot,  which  is  as  good  as  any ;  for,  when  dry,  it  does 
not  absorb  so  much  oil  as  the  plaster  and  water  methods. 

A  system  that  was  practised  for  some  years  consists  in  dissolving  alum  in  cold  water, 
until  the  water  will  take  up  no  more  ;  in  other  words,  a  saturated  cold  solution ;  powder 
some  whiting,  and  pour  into  it  the  alum  solution  ;  decomposition  with  effervescence  takes 
place,  the  sulphuric  acid  quitting  the  alumina,  and  seizing  the  lime  by  its  superior 
affinity,  driving  off  the  carbonic  acid,  which  is  set  free,  thus  producing  sulphate  of  lime, 
with  a  little  alumina  and  potash,  or  ammonia,  instead  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  sulphate 
of  alumina. 

This  is  cheap,  easily  made,  and  is  a  powerful  astringent ;  containing  more  acid  than 
plaster,  which  is  also  sulphate  of  lime  with  the  greater  part  of  its  acid  driven  oflf  by 
heat. 

The  next  operation  consists  in  oiling  the  wood  with  linseed-oil ;  but  previous  to  this, 
it  should  be  well  papered  with  glasspaper  No.  1,  or  coarser  if  required ;  tiien  take  a 
piece  of  cotton  wool,  saturate  it  with  the  oil,  and  go  carefully  over  every  part  that  shows 
white  from  the  filling-in,  taking  care  to  "  kill  "  that  fiUing-in,  as  it  is  called,  or  totally 
obliterating  it.  This  done,  wipe  all  the  superfluous  oil  off,  thoroughly ;  bearing  in  mind, 
the  less  there  is  of  this  in  your  foundation,  the  more  solid  will  be  your  work. 

Now  roll  up  a  piece  of  cotton  wool  into  a  compact  and  suitable  rubber,  pour  into  it 
as  much  polish  as  it  will  hold ;  cover  it  over  with  a  piece  of  open  calico  rag,  and  pass 
this  over  every  part  in  a  horizontal  direction,  floating  the  surface  with  polish,  which 
must  then  be  set  aside  to  sink  and  liarden.  There  should  be  no  attempt  at  polishing  in 
this  operation,  the  first  consideration  being  to  obtain  a  good  concrete  to  build  upon. 

When  properly  dry,  the  fibre,  which  has  risen  from  the  floating  coat  of  polish,  must 
be  thoroughly  papered  down  with  glasspaper  No.  IJ,  and  if  upon  a  flat  surface,  a  cork 
rubber  will  be  necessary ;  for  no  work,  however  highly-laboured  out,  will  acquire  an 
even  and  proper  surface  unless  it  is  well  grounded.  A  practical  man  knows  the 
importance  of  this;  how  it  saves  him  time  and  labour;  therefore  he  is  very  careful  not 
to  begin  polishing  before  his  foundation  is  perfectly  satisfactory.  This  being  so,  the 
process  of  polishing  is  commenced.  The  rubber  used  for  floating  the  work  will  answer 
lor  this  purpose,  provided  it  has  been  kept  moist  by  excluding  air  from  it. 

The  rubber  being  charged  with  polish  much  less  copiously  than  in  floating,  a  piece  of 
calico  rag  is  placed  over  it,  and  so  twisted  up,  that  the  excess  of  rag  and  rubber  is 
confined  in  the  palm  of  the  hand  ;  and  with  this  arrangement  the  polish  is  conveyed  to 
the  wood.  The  polisher  now  proceeds  to  body-in  his  work,  using,  occasionally,  pumice 
powder  sprinkled  over  tlie  surface,  which  not  only  keeps  that  surface  smooth,  but 
materially  assists  in  filling  the  pores ;  in  fact,  it  is  invaluable  in  the  hands  of  a 
skilful  man. 

As  a  solid  foundation  is  a  great  desideratum,  he  applies  as  little  oil  as  possible ; 
just  sufficient  to  prevent  dragging  of  the  rubber,  which  would  produce  a  harsh  and 
uneven  appearance.  The  natural  repugnance  between  oil  and  spirit,  as  manifested  in 
their  unwilling  amalgamation,  is  strong  evidence  against  their  friendly  union  by  com- 
pulsion ;  therefore,  to  prevent  serious  eruptions,  no  more  is  used  than  the  polish  can 
conveniently  neutralize.  Eubber  after  rubber  is  applied  with  varied  pressure,  now 
lightly,  now  heavily,  working  in  small  circles,  a  beautiful  dull  smear  following  its  course 
as  the  surface  approaches  to  fulness  ;  the  rubber  slightly  biting,  partly  from  the  adhesive 
nature  of  the  polish,  but  more  from  the  partial  vacuum  produced  by  the  flat  rubber  on 
the  smooth  surface  of  the  wood.  The  pores  being  filled,  and  the  work  presenting  a 
solid  and  compact  body,  it  is  set  aside  for  some  hours  to  settle  and  harden.  In  a  day  or 
two  the  polisher  takes  it  up  again,  and  although  full  when  set  aside,  it  is  not  so  full 
now,  having  slightly  sunk,  and  showing  just  a  little  of  the  pores.  With  No.  0  paper  he 
frees  the  surface  of  any  slight  imperfections  that  may  appear,  or  if  it  is  at  all  unsatisfactory 
or  presents  an  uneven  surface  he  cuts  it  down  with  glasspaper  No.  I,  in  order  that  it 


Polishing — Wood.  461 

may  with  tbis  body  be  perfectly  level  and  mirror-like.  This  done,  ho  proceeds  as  before 
to  body-up  the  work,  using  great  care  in  working  it  up  to  a  point  approacliing  a  finish, 
full,  clear,  and  hard  ;  so  that  it  shall  require  as  little  wetting  as  possible  at  the  next,  or 
finishing  coat ;  which  done  he  sets  it  aside  again  to  harden. 

On  taking  it  up  again,  he  removes  any  dust  that  may  have  settled  upon  it,  by  wiping 
it  all  over ;  thus  also  removing  any  little  oil  that  may  have  sweated  out  from  the 
previous  operation.  He  then  selects  an  old  rubber,  one  tliat  has  become  close  and 
compact  from  long  use  and  pressure,  from  his  rubber  canister,  where  ho  keeps  various 
sizes  to  suit  the  area  of  his  work  ;  this  canister  being  fitted  with  a  cover,  excluding  air, 
keeps  the  rubbers  constantly  moist  and  ready  for  use.  The  why  and  wherefore  of  that 
old  rubber  is  this:  by  the  closeness  of  its  texture,  it  has  a  less  capacity  for  polish,  and 
consequently  gives  that  polish  out  much  more  sparingly  than  would  a  new  one,  made  of 
the  same  material ;  and  as  in  this  final  operation  there  must  be  no  approach  to  wetness, 
its  use  is  obvious.  He  charges  tliis  rubber  with  half-and-half,  that  is,  half  polish  and 
half  clear  spirit,  only  just  sufficient  that  when  forced  into  tlie  rubber  by  squeezing,  it 
shall  be  a  little  moist :  for  if  the  body  is  wetted,  it  will  re-dissolve,  and  greatly  deteriorate 
the  quality  of  the  finished  surface.  Placing  over  his  rubber  a  piece  of  soft  calico  rag, 
and  twisting  them  up  in  a  proper  manner,  with  a  drop  of  oil  applied  to  its  surface,  he 
passes  it  over  the  work  in  a  horizontal  direction  until  the  whole  has  received  a  portion, 
and  the  rubber  is  in  a  fit  state  to  be  worked.  He  has  now  arrived  at  the  most  important 
part  of  his  work,  namely,  that  of  giving  to  it  that  unexceptionable  glaze,  which  is  the 
genuine  stamp  of  a  well-finished  piece  of  work. 

The  polisher  exercises  the  utmost  care  and  ingenuity  in  the  manipulation  of  his 
rubber,  judging  of  its  proper  working  by  the  dull,  satiny  smear,  as  he  calls  it,  following 
the  course  of  his  movements  ;  which  dull  smear  consists  of  an  inconceivably  fine  stratum 
of  resin,  the  spirit  from  wliich  is  driven  off  by  friction,  assisted  by  temperature.  Two 
chargings  of  the  rubber  should  be  sufficient  for  this  operation,  and  with  these  he  so 
elaborates  his  work  that,  the  rubber  being  completely  dried  out,  the  surface  of  his  work 
is  smearless,  hard,  and  brilliant ;  and  should  require  nothing  more,  although  it  is 
customary  to  give  it  a  final  touch  by  means  of  a  rubber  of  soft  calico  rag,  slightly  damped 
■with  clear  spirit,  and  passed  lightly  over  the  surface  until  dry. 

"Work  thus  executed  will  stand  for  years,  creditable  both  to  the  workman  who  did  it, 
and  the  employer  who  turns  it  out ;  the  only  thing  required  to  keep  it  in  order  being  to 
keep  it  clean  and  dry  by  frequent  wiping  with  soft  dusters. 

It  is  certainly  much  to  be  regretted  that  such  a  thing  as  time  should  interfere  to  mar 
•work  which  otherwise  could  be  made  exceedingly  beautiful ;  especially  with  a  trade  in 
■which  time  itself  is  such  an  essential  and  even  indispensable  requisite;  yet  such  is 
the  case,  and  the  consequence  is,  that  90  per  cent,  of  those  employed  in  polishing  are 
totally  ignorant  of  what  degree  of  proficiency  they  are  capable.  la  the  preceding 
example,  rules  are  given  limiting  the  operations  to  three ;  but  in  the  shops  of  good 
firms  that  number  is  often  exceeded ;  while  in  minor  houses  it  oftener  consists  of  one  or 
two.  The  carrying  out  of  the  foregoing  work  in  polishing-shops  is  usually  as  follows : 
the  filling-in,  the  oiling,  and  often  the  floating,  are  done  by  the  boys,  or  learners ;  the 
bodying  and  finishing  by  the  men. 

The  original  recipe  for  making  it  is  as  follows.  To  1  pint  spirits  of  wine  add  h  oz. 
shellac,  h  oz.  lac,  a  oz.  sandarach,  placing  it  over  a  gentle  heat,  frequently  agitating  it  until 
the  gums  are  dissolved,  when  it  is  fit  for  use.  Make  a  roller  of  list,  put  a  little  of  the  polish 
upon  it,  and  cover  that  with  a  soft  linen  rag,  which  must  be  slightly  touched  with  cold- 
drawn  linseed-oil.  Rub  them  on  the  wood  in  a  circular  direction,  not  covering  too  large 
a  space  at  a  time,  till  its  pores  are  sufficiently  filled  up.  After  this,  rub  in  the  same 
manner,  spirits  of  wine,  and  a  small  portion  of  the  polish  added  to  it,  and  a  most  brilliant 
effect  will  be  produced. 

The  original  process,  with  little  variation,  or  simplifying,  has  kept  in  use  ever  since ; 


462  Polishing — Wood. 

not  because  it  is  so  perfect  as  not  to  admit  of  improvement,  for  it  has  never  been  so 
compounded  that  surfaces  produced  from  it  would  resist  a  very  high  degree  of  lieat 
without  suffering  partial  decomposition,  and  consequently  it  could  not  be  employed  for 
many  purposes  which  otherwise  it  is  desirable  that  it  should  be,  but  chiefly  because 
those  who  make  polish— that  is,  the  wholesale  makers— are  not  themselves  sufficiently 
acquainted  with  its  requirements. 

AVith  regard  to  its  lustre-yielding  properties,  it  is  everything  that  can  be  desired  ; 
and  surely  the  resources  of  chemistry  would  not  be  exhausted  in  discovering  something 
that  would  make  it  more  impervious  to  heat.  In  the  hands  of  competent  persons  it  is 
not  unreasonable  to  suppose  that  some  beneficial  result  might  be  arrived  at,  namely, 
the  combination  of  a  heat-resisting  with  its  lustre-yielding  properties.  As  an  example 
of  what  is  required,  one  may  point  particularly  to  the  dining-tables  of  the  ante-French 
polishing  period,  which  were  brought  up  to  a  marvellously  brilliant  surface  by  means  of 
linseed-oil  and  years  of  hard  rubbing,  a  surface  that  would  resist  equally  the  heat  of 
the  hot  dishes  and  the  tricklings  of  wine  from  the  decanters.  The  lac  substance,  of 
itself  a  yellowish-brown  colour,  semi-transparent,  and  very  brittle,  produces,  when 
dissolved  in  spirits  of  wine,  a  solution  of  a  yellowish-brown  colour,  which,  when  applied 
to  woods  of  various  and  delicate  shades,  such  as  the  white,  silver,  gold,  purple,  black,  &c., 
which  enter  into  marquetry,  was  found  to  communicate  a  false  hue,  and  tended  to  mar 
the  harmony  it  was  wished  to  improve.  Hence  arose  the  necessity  for  bleaching  it,  so 
that  a  solution  might  be  prepared  suitable  for  any  combination  of  colours  without 
destroying  or  injuring  their  effect.  But,  as  there  is  no  good  without  an  evil,  the  process 
of  bleaching  acts  very  detrimentally  on  the  more  soluble  constituents  of  the  lac,  depriving 
them  of  a  considerable  portion  of  their  original  body  and  density. 

This  is  easily  proved  by  pouring  a  solution  from  one  bottle  to  another,  when  it  will 
be  seen  to  flow  in  a  light,  frothy-like  stream,  much  less  dense  than  a  solution  of  the 
unbleached  article.  Further  evidence  is  in  the  fact  that  polishers  using  it  in  high  tem- 
peratures are  commonly  heard  to  say  that  they  cannot  get  it  to  lie  flat,  a  term  as 
applicable  and  correct  as  any,  perhaps,  when  carefully  examined ;  for  the  heat,  acting 
upon  the  chlorine,  which  has  imdoubtedly  entered  into  combination  with  it  in  the  pro- 
cess of  bleaching,  causes  that  gas  to  expand,  so  that  the  more  polish  he  applies,  the 
more  gas  he  has  to  contend  with,  in  impeding  that  cohesion  and  crystallization  which 
he  is  endeavouring  to  bring  about. 

Polish  under  its  most  favourable  conditions,  is  a  compound  so  liable  to  change  by 
variations' of  temperature,  humidity,  pressure,  &c.,  that  makes  its  use  very  variable  and 
uncertain.  Lac  in  its  dry  state,  and  in  a  temperature  higher  than  is  ever  required  for 
polishing,  is  totally  unaffected ;  but  put  into  boiling  water,  it  speedily  becomes  soft  and 
plastic,  and  on  being  removed  from  the  water  resumes  its  original  character  of  hardness 
quickly,  from  its  inferior  capacity  for  heat.  Not  so  is  it  with  spirits  of  wine,  its  men- 
struum ;  this  has  an  extraordinary  capacity  for  heat,  insomuch  as  that  it  will  volatilize 
in  the  ordinary  state  of  the  atmosphere,  its  briskness  increasing  with  increase  of 
temperature. 

Now,  although  boiling  water  has  no  action  on  lac,  other  than  to  soften  it  for  the 
time  it  is  immersed  in  it,  having  no  power  to  dissolve  it  of  itself,  still  that  substance  is 
very  differently  affected  when  in  combination  with  spirits  of  wine,  its  true  solvent,  tiie 
strong  affinity  for  heat  of  the  spirit  entirely  overcoming  the  feeble  capacity  for  it  in  the 
lac ;  and  so  strong  is  the  affinity  of  the  spirit  for  the  lac,  that  it  separates  its  last  por- 
tions from  that  substance,  when  fairly  combined,  with  the  greatest  difficulty.  Thus  the 
necessity,  in  polishing,  of  a  moderate  degree  of  heat,  to  assist  that  produced  by  the 
friction  of  the  rubber,  in  forcing  out  that  clinging  portion  of  spirit  before  solidity  and 
brilliancy  can  be  obtained. 

The  most  favourable  temperature  for  polishing  appears  to  be  60-70'^  F.  (16-21^  C.)  ; 
ascending  above  this,  one  portion  of  the  spirit  evaporates  before  a  proper  distribution 


Polishing — "Wood.  4G3 

of  tile  lac  can  be  brought  about,  while  the  other  portion,  ■which  adheres  so  tenaciously 
to  that  substance,  impedes  its  solidification.  Descending  below  that  degree,  tlierc  is  a 
tendency  in  the  materials  to  chill,  the  more  especially  if  the  room  in  which  the  work 
is  done  be  at  all  damp,  the  activity  of  the  evaporation  being  checked  by  the  absence  of 
heat  necessary  for  its  conveyance.  This  is  an  evil  more  easily  remedied  than  the  former, 
as  in  most  cases  all  that  is  required  is  to  light  a  fire,  and  by  that  means  supjily  tho 
deficiency.  Not  so  convenient  would  it  bo  in  the  height  of  summer,  with  the  thermometer 
indicating  80°  or  90°  F.,  to  remove  the  work  to  an  ice-house ;  and  being  so  removed,  the 
remedy  would  be  worse  than  the  evil.  But  of  all  the  injurious  influences  attending 
polishing,  none  is  comparable  to  humidity.  If  tho  atmosphere  be  saturated  with 
moisture,  as  it  not  unfrequently  is,  when  tlie  clouds,  or  aqueous  vapour,  instead  of  beiu"- 
buoyed  up  in  the  sky,  hang  about  the  earth's  surface,  even  thougli  the  thermometer 
stands  at  70°  F.,  as  favourable  a  point  as  any,  polishing  becomes  extremely  difficult ; 
the  materials  appear  to  be  so  completely  neutralized,  as  to  render  them  incapable  of 
performing  their  office.  Increased  pressure  and  friction  seem  inadequate  to  supply  or 
make  up  for  tho  atmospheric  derangement.  The  cause  of  this  may  perhaj^s  be  thus 
explained : — All  liquids  in  becoming  solids  part  with  heat.  Now  this  liquid,  being 
compounded  of  spirit,  not  only  has  it  become  enfeebled,  being  spread  on  a  surface,  and 
thus  exposed  to  a  body  for  which  it  has  the  strongest  affinity,  but  becomes  so  diluted  by 
it,  that  it  has  lost  in  a  great  degree  the  power  of  evaporation  or  means  of  parting  with 
heat,  consequently  assuming  the  solid  form  with  difficulty. 

Atmospheric  pressure  is  undoubtedly  the  surest  guide  to  the  experienced  polisher, 
showing  him  the  power  nature  is  employing  for  his  advantage,  or  detriment ;  for, 
carefully  observing  the  movements  of  the  mercury,  he  will  not  fail  to  realize  the  fact, 
that  as  it  ascends  his  labour  will  be  considerably  lightened,  while,  on  the  other  hand,  it 
will  be  greatly  augmented  by  a  corresponding  depression — regard  being  paid,  of  course, 
to  temperature. 

It  may  be  proper,  however,  to  acknowledge  that  this  theory  rests  on  supposition.  It 
is  nevertheless  a  fact,  that  when  the  air  is  most  suitable  to  ourselves — when  it  is  bracing 
and  buoyant — infusing  as  it  were  more  life  into  us,  it  is  also  found  to  be  more  suitable 
for  the  performance  of  our  work.  It  must  not,  however,  be  inferred,  from  these  remarks, 
that  polish  will  not  work  under  the  influence  of  these  atmospheric  changes,  for  it  is  found 
to  do  so  in  our  climate,  even  under  its  extremest  fluctuations ;  but  what  is  meant  is, 
that  its  efi'ects  are  less  under  a  low  than  under  a  high  pressure,  in  a  moist  than  in  a 
dry  atmosphere,  and  either  in  a  low  or  high  temperature,  than  in  a  medium  one.  The 
cause  of  this  may  be  thus  explained  : — By  pressure,  the  polish  is  condensed,  the  spirit 
flying  off  to  find  its  natural  level,  and  thus  favouring  the  solidification  of  the  exposed 
strata  of  resin.  The  dry  atmosphere  offers  facilities  for  the  escape  of  the  spirit ;  whilst 
the  moderate  temperature  so  regulates  its  volatility  that  it  neither  passes  oiF  before  the 
resin  can  be  jiroperly  worked,  nor  remains  inactive  in  discharging  the  necessary  amount 
to  produce  solidification. 

From  observations  of  the  efifects  of  polish,  together  with  its  daily  use,  the  following 
conclusions  present  themselves,  namely,  that  it  is  not  in  the  nature  of  the  materials, 
as  at  present  compounded,  to  withstand  the  antagonistic  influences  constantly  opposed 
to  them ;  that  the  effects  produced  on  polish  by  variations  of  temperature,  t^how  the 
necessity  of  so  preparing  it  as  to  render  it  proof  against  such  changes ;  and,  finally,  that 
it  be  so  prepared  as  to  withstand  a  much  higher  degree  of  heat  than  .in  its  present  simple 
form  it  is  able  to  do.     (John  Dalton.) 

The  following  directions  for  polishing  are  said  to  represent  the  practice  followed  in 
the  United  States.  It  should  be  remembered  that  as  regards  the  polishing  the  dilferent 
climatic  conditions  should  be  allowed  for,  as  the  normal  dryness  of  the  atmosphere  in  the 
United  States  favours  many  processes  in  polishing  which  require  special  conditions  in 
this  country.     In  preparing  and  filling-in,  first  see  that  the  work  is  smooth  and  free 


464  Polishing — "Wood. 

from  dust,  then  oil  the  parts  to  he  polished  with  raw  linseed-oil,  and  prepare  filling-in. 
That  is  done  with  a  mixture  of  wliiting  and  turpentine  made  into  a  paste;  rub  well 
into  the  grain  of  the  wood  with  a  piece  of  rag  or  tow,  and  wipe  clean  off.  For  mahogany, 
add  rose  pink  to  colour  ;  for  oak,  birch,  and  ash,  add  a  little  yellow  ochre.  Work  to  be 
polished  white  requires  no  colour  in  the  filler.  For  polishing,  prepare  a  rubber  of 
cotton-wadding  ;  in  size  according  to  job ;  wet  it  with  polish,  and,  with  the  point  of  the 
finger,  put  a  little  raw  linseed-oil  on  it,  then  cover  the  rubber  with  a  piece  of  rag;  twist 
the  end  of  the  rag  and  keep  it  tight  over  rubber,  and  proceed  to  rub  the  job  over  in  a 
circular  direction,  keeping  rubber  constantly  in  motion ;  when  dry,  wet  it  again,  with 
oil,  and  continue  to  work  it  until  a  sufficient  body  of  polish  has  been  obtained,  then  place 
it  on  one  side  for  about  12  hours  to  sink.  Polish  always  sinks  after  being  bodied-up.  In 
spiriting  off  or  finishing,  if  the  work  be  sunk  in  before  spiriting,  give  a  few  rubbers  of 
polish,  then  prepare  a  rubber  the  same  as  for  bodying-up,  and  wet  it  with  proof  alcohol 
from  a  bottle  with  a  little  cut  out  of  the  side  of  the  cork,  so  tliat  the  spirits  will  drop 
out :  3  or  4  drops  will  be  enough  for  a  learner  to  put  on  at  one  time.  Take  care  the 
rubber  is  not  too  wet,  or  it  will  soften  the  polish  and  tear  it  up.  When  the  rubber  is 
nearly  dry,  rub  smartly  until  all  the  job  is  clear  of  oil  and  rubber-marks.  No  oil  is  used 
in  fiuisbing.  Varnishing  is  done  with  a  camel-hair  brush  for  turned  or  carved  work. 
First  give  the  work  2  or  3  rubbers  of  polish,  and  then,  having  stained  the  varnish,  proceed 
to  give  the  work  a  coat,  passing  the  brush  smartly  over  the  job,  taking  care  to  keep' it 
level,  and  do  not  go  too  often  over  the  same  place ;  2  or  3  coats  may  be  given  in  the  same 
manner,  rubbing  down  after  each  coat  with  fine  glasspaper.  Work  that  is  varnished 
should  stand  12  hours  before  it  is  handled.  For  glazing,  prepare  the  rubber  the  same 
as  for  polishing,  but  make  it  much  wetter,  and  pass  it  smartly  over  the  work  from  right 
to  left.  Always  begin  at  the  same  end  of  the  job,  and  bring  the  rubber  straight  to  the 
other  end  in  one  stroke  ;  do  not  go  too  often  over  the  same  place  or  you  are  apt  to  tear  it 
up.  Tills  is  used  for  common  work  in  place  of  spiriting,  and  for  mouldings,  &c.  A  rubber 
of  spirits,  passed  quickly  over  a  job  that  has  been  glazed,  very  much  improves  it,  and 
makes  it  smooth,  but  it  must  be  done  very  lightly  and  quickly,  and  passed  straight  up 
and  down. 

A  correspondent  of  the  Boston  (U.S.)  Cahinet-MaJcer  gives  the  following  details  of  the 
methods  of  polishing  wood.  He  first  describes  the  method  of  polishing  pianos  used  in 
all  first-class  factories.  The  same  process  will  answer  for  any  other  piece  of  furniture  by 
merely  substituting  for  the  scraping,  where  scraping  is  not  practicable,  a  filling,  properly 
coloured.  First,  give  the  work  3  coats  of  scraping  or  No.  2  furniture  varnish,  allowing 
each  coat  to  become  perfectly  hard  before  applying  the  next ;  then  scrape  off  the  varnish 
with  a  steel  scraper,  properly  sharpened  on  an  oilstone,  and  in  scraping  be  careful  not  to 
cut  into  the  wood,  but  merely  remove  the  varnish  from  the  surface,  leaving  the  pores 
filled.  Smooth  with  No.  1  sandpaper,  and  the  work  will  be  ready  for  the  polishing 
varnish,  4  coats  of  which  must  be  put  on,  allowing  each  coat  to  harden.  To  determine 
the  proper  time  required  for  the  hardening,  one  coat  will  not  be  ready  for  the  next  until 
it  is  so  Lard  that  you  cannot  make  any  impression  on  it  with  your  thumb-nail.  The  4 
coats  having  been  put  in,  and  the  work  having  stood  a  few  days — and  the  longer  the 
better— rub  down  with  fine-ground  pumice  and  water,  applied  with  a  woollen  rag.  The 
work  must  be  rubbed  until  all  lumps  and  marks  of  the  brush  are  removed  ;  wash  off  with 
a  sponge  and  dry  with  a  chamois  skin  ;  let  the  work  stand  out  in  the  open  air  for  a  day 
or  two,  taking  it  into  the  shop  at  night.  The  work  should  now  receive  2  coats  more  of 
polishing  varnish  and  a  second  rubbing,  after  which  it  is  ready  for  polishing.  Furniture 
may  be  polished  after  the  first  rubbing,  and  in  that  case  the  polishing  is  performed  with 
lump  rottenstone  and  water  applied  with  a  woollen  rag.  Put  plenty  of  rottenstone  on 
your  work,  with  water  enough  to  make  it  work  easy.  Eub  until  all  marks  and  scratches 
are  removed.  Piub  the  rottenstone  off  with  your  bare  hand,  keeping  the  work  wet. 
What  cannot  be  removed  with  the  hand  should  be  washed  off  with  a  sponge.    After 


Polishing— Wood.  465 

drying  with  a  chamois  skin,  bring  up  the  polish  with  the  palm  of  your  hand,  moving  it 
lightly  and  quickly,  with  a  circular  motion,  over  the  work.  Clean  up  the  work  with  a. 
piece  of  soft  cotton,  dipped  into  sweet  oil,  and  lightly  touch  all  the  white  spots  and  marks 
of  the  rottenstone.  Kemove  the  oil  with  wheat  flour,  applied  with  soft  cotton,  and 
finally  dust  off  with  a  soft  rag  or  silk  handkerchief.  The  following  method  is  known  as 
the  Shellac  or  French  Polish.  In  preparing  for  this  process,  add  to  1  pint  shellac  varnish 
2  tablespoonfuls  of  boiled  oil ;  the  two  to  be  thoroughly  mixed.  If  you  want  the  work 
dark  add  a  little  burnt  umber  ;  or  you  can  give  the  work  any  desired  shade  by  mixing  with 
the  shellac  the  proper  pigment  in  tlie  dry  state.  Apply  the  shellac  thus  prepared  with 
a  small  bunch  of  rags  held  between  your  fingers.  In  applying  it,  be  particular  in  getting 
it  on  smooth  and  even,  leaving  no  thick  places  or  blotches.  Eepeat  the  process  continually 
until  the  grain  is  filled  and  the  work  has  received  sufficient  body.  Let  it  stand  a  few 
hours  to  harden,  and  then  rub  your  work  lightly  with  pumice  and  oil,  applied  with  a  rag. 
A  very  little  rubbiug  is  required,  and  this  is  to  be  followed  by  the  cleaning  of  the  work 
with  rags  as  dry  as  possible.  With  a  piece  of  muslin  wet  with  alcohol,  go  over  the  work 
2  or  3  times,  for  the  purpose  of  killing  the  oil.  Have  ready  J  lb.  pure  gum  shellac 
dissolved  in  1  pint  95  per  cent,  alcohol.  With  this  saturate  a  pad  made  of  soft  cotton, 
covered  with  white  muslin,  and  with  the  pad  tlius  formed  go  over  your  work  2  or  3  times. 
To  become  proficient  in  this  work,  practice  and  close  attention  are  required. 

Tlie  following  are  recipes  for  furniture  creams  or  French  polishes. — (1)  1  pint  spirits 
of  wine,  I  oz.  gum  copal,  J  oz.  gum  arable,  1  oz.  shellac.  Bruise  the  gums  and  sift  them 
through  a  piece  of  muslin.  Place  the  spirits  and  gums  together  in  a  vessel  closely  corked, 
near  a  warm  stove,  and  frequently  shake  them ;  in  2  or  3  days  they  will  be  dissolved. 
Strain  through  a  piece  of  muslin,  and  keep  corked  tight.  (2)  Shellac,  6  oz. ;  naphtha, 
I  qt.  ;  benzoin,  f  oz. ;  sandarach,  1  oz.  (3)  Dissolve  Ih  oz.  shellac,  J  oz.  sandarach,  in 
■1  pint  naphtha.  To  apply  the  polish,  fold  a  piece  of  flannel  into  a  sort  of  cushion,  wet  it 
well  with  the  polish,  then  lay  a  piece  of  clean  linen  rag  over  the  flannel,  apply  one  drop 
of  linseed  oil ;  rub  your  work  in  a  circular  direction  lightly  at  first.  To  finish  off,  use  a 
little  naphtha  aj^plied  the  same  as  the  polish.  (4)  Pale  shellac,  2^  lb. ;  mastic  and  sanda- 
rach, each  3  oz. ;  spirits,  1  gal.  Dissolve,  and  add  copal  varnish,  1  pint ;  mix  well  by 
agitation.  (5)  Shellac,  12  oz. ;  wood  naphtha,  1  qt. ;  dissolve,  and  add  ^  pint  linseed  oil. 
(6)  Crush  3  oz.  shellac  with  J  oz.  gum  mastic,  add  1  pint  methylated  spirits  of  wine,  and 
dissolve.  (7)  Shellac,  12  oz. ;  gum  elemi,  2  oz.  ;  gum  copal,  3  oz. ;  spirits  of  wine,  1  gal.  ; 
dissolve.  (8)  Shellac,  1  j  oz.  ;  gum  juniper,  §  oz. ;  benzoin,  J  oz. ;  methylated  alcohol, 
I  pint.  (9)  1  oz.  each  of  gums  mastic,  sandarach,  seed  lac,  shellac,  and  gum  arable,  reduce 
to  powder;  then  add  J  oz.  virgin  wax  ,*  dissolve  in  a  bottle  with  1  qt.  rectified  spirits  of  wine. 
Let  stand  for  12  hours,  and  it  is  then  fit  for  use.  (10)  1  oz.  gum  lac,  2  dr.  mastic  in 
drops,  4  dr.  sandarach,  3  oz.  shellac,  ^  oz.  gum  dragon.  Eeduce  the  whole  to  powder. 
(11)  Yellow  wax,  4  oz. ;  yellow  soap,  2  oz. ;  water,  50  oz. ;  boil,  with  constant  stirring,  and 
add  boiled  oil  and  oil  of  turpentine,  each  5  oz.  (12)  Soft  water,  1  gal. ;  soap,  4  oz.  ; 
white  wax,  in  shavings,  1  lb.  Boil  together,  and  add  2  oz.  pearlash.  To  be  diluted 
■with  water,  laid  on  with  a  paint  brush,  and  polished  ofif  with  a  hard  brush  or  cloth. 
(13)  Wax,  3  oz.  ;  pearlash,  2  oz. ;  water,  6  oz.  Heat  together,  and  add  4  oz.  boiled  oil 
and  5  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine.  (14)  Eaw  linseed  oil,  6  oz. ;  white  wine  vinegar,  3  oz.  ; 
methylated  spirit,  3  oz. ;  butter  of  antimony,  i  oz. ;  mix  the  linseed  oil  with  tiie  vinegar 
by  degrees,  and  shake  well  so  as  to  prevent  separation ;  add  the  spirit  and  antimony, 
and  mix  thoroughly.  (15)  Boiled  linseed  oil,  1  pint ;  yellow  wax,  4  oz.  ;  melt,  and 
colour  with  alkanet  root.  (IG)  Acetic  acid,  2  dr.;  oil  of  lavender,  J  dr.;  rectified 
spirit,  1  dr. ;  linseed  oil,  4  oz.  (17)  Linseed  oil,  1  pint ;  alkanet  root,  2  oz. ;  heat,  strain, 
and  add  lac  varnish,  1  oz.  (18)  Linseed  oil,  1  pint ;  rectified  spirit,  2  oz. ;  butter  of 
antimony,  4  oz.  (19)  For  Darkening  Furniture.— 1  pint  linseed  oil,  1  oz.  rose  pink,  1  oz, 
alkanet  root,  beaten  up  in  a  metal  mortar ;  let  the  mixture  stand  for  a  day  or  two ;  th^n 
pour  off  the  oil,  which  will  be  found  of  a  rich  colour.    (20)  Or,  mix  1  oz.  alkanet  root 

2  n 


466  Polishing — "Wood. 

with  4  oz.  shellac  varnish,  2  oz.  turpentine,  2  oz.  scraped  beeswax,  and  1  pint  linseed 
oil :  this  should  stand  a  week.     (21)  Reviver.— Pale  linseed  oil,  raw,  10  oz. ;  lac  varnish 
and  wood  spirit,  each  5  oz.     Mix  well  before  using.    (22)  For  Turners'  Work.— Dissolve 
1  oz.  sandarach  in  J  pint  spirits  of  wine  ;    shave  1  oz.  beeswax,  and  dissolve  it  in 
sufficient  spirits  of  turpentine  to  make  it  into  a  paste,  add  the  former  mixture  to  it  by 
degrees ;  then,  with  a  woollen  cloth,  apply  it  to  the  work  while  it  is  in  motion  in  the 
lathe,  and   polish  it  with  a  soft  linen  rag;    it  will  appear  as  if  highly   varnished. 
(23)  Mahogany.— Take  I  pint  furniture  oil,  mix  with  it  |  pint  spirits  of  turpentine 
and  J  pint  vinegar  ;  wet  a  woollen  rag  with  the  liquid  and  rub  the  wood  the  way  of  the 
grain,  then  polish  with  a  piece  of  flannel  and  soft  cloth.     (24)  Melt  3  or  4  pieces  of 
sandarach,  each  of  the  size  of  a  walnut,  add  1  pint  boiled  oil,  and  boil  together  for 
1  hour.    While  cooling,  add  1  dr.  Venice  turpentine,  and  if  too  thick  a  little  oil  of 
turpentine  also.     Apply  this  all  over  the  furniture,  and  after  some  hours  rub  it  off;  rub 
the  furniture  daily,  without  applying  fresh  varnish,  except  about  once  in  2  months. 
Water  does  not  injure  this  polish,  and  any  stain  or  scratch  may  be  again  covered,  which 
cannot  be  done  with  French  polish.     (25)  For  Wainscot.— Take  as  much  beeswax  as 
required,  and,  placing  it  in  a  glazed  earthern  pan,  add  as  much  spirits  of  wine  as  will 
cover  it,  and  let  it  dissolve  without  heat.     Add  either  ingredient  as  is  required,  to  reduce 
it  to  the  consistence  of  butter.    When  this  mixture  is  well  rubbed  into  the  grain  of  the 
wood,  and  cleaned  off  with  clean  linen,  it  gives  a  good  gloss  to  the  work.     (26)  For 
Carved  Cabinet-work.— Dissolve  2  oz.  seed  lac,  and  2  oz.  white  resin,  in  1  pint  spirits  of 
wine.     This  must  be  laid  on  warm,  and  if  the  work  can  be  warmed  also,  it  will  be  so 
much  the  better ;  at  any  rate,  moisture  and  dampness  must  be  avoided.     Used  with  a 
brush  for  standards  or  pillars  of  cabinet-work.     The  carved  parts  of  cabinet-work  are 
also  polished  thus :  varnish  the  parts  with  the  common  wood  varnish,  and  having  dressed 
them  off  where  necessary  with  emery  paper,  apply  the  polish  used  for  the  other  parts  of 
the  work.    (27)  Copal  Polish.— Melt  with  gentle  heat  finely-powdered  gum  copal,  4  parts, 
and  gum  camphor,  1  part,  with  ether  to  form  a  semi-fluid  mass,  and  then  digest  with  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  alcohol.    (28)  French  Polish  Keviver.— Linseed  oil,  i  pint ;  spirits 
of  camphor,  1  oz.  ;  vinegar,  2  oz.  ;  butter  of  antimony,  i  oz. ;  spirit  of  hartshorn,  J  oz. 
(29)  -I  gill  vinegar  ;  1  gill  spirits  of  wine ;  1  dr.  linseed  oil.   (30)  Naphtha,  1  lb. ;  shellac, 
4  oz.  ;  oxalic  acid,  I  oz.  Let  it  stand  till  dissolved,  then  add  3  oz.  linseed  oil.   (31)  Pastes. 
—To  keep  wood  light,  scrape  |  lb.  beeswax  mto  a  pint  of  turpentine.   By  adding  linseed 
oil  the  wood  is  darkened.     (32)  Dissolve  6  oz.  pearlash  in  1  qt.  hot  water,  add  i  lb. 
white  wax,  and  simmer  for  h  hour  in  a  pipkin  ;  take  off  the  fire  ;  and  when  cool,  the 
wax   will   float;    it  should  be  taken  ofi",   and,   with  a  little  hot  water,  worked  into  a 
paste.     (33)  Beeswax,  spirits  of  turpentine,  and  linseed  oil,  equal  parts ;  melt  and  cool. 

(34)  Beeswax,  4  oz. ;    turpentine,  10  oz. ;    alkanet   root  to  colour;    melt  and  strain. 

(35)  Digest  2  dr.  alkanet  root  in  20  oz.  turpentine  till  the  colour  is  imparted ;  add  yellow 
wax  in  shavings,  4  oz. ;  place  on  a  water  bath  and  stir  till  the  mixture  is  complete. 

(36)  Beeswax,  1  lb. ;  linseed  oil,  5  oz. ;  alkanet  root,  i  oz. ;  melt,  add  5  oz.  of  turpentine, 
strain  and  cool.  (37)  Beeswax,  4  oz. ;  resin,  1  oz. ;  oil  of  turpentine,  2  oz.;  Venetian 
red  to  colour.  (38)  1  lb.  white  wax ;  1  oz.  black  resin ;  1  oz.  alkanet  root ;  and  10  oz. 
Unseed  oil.  (39)  1  lb.  yellow  wax,  2  oz.  yellow  soap,  2  pints  spirits  of  turpentine, 
2  pints  boiling  water ;  melt  the  wax  and  soap  over  a  slow  fire,  add  the  turpentine,  and 
lastly  stir  in  the  water  gently  till  it  is  quite  cold.  (40)  IJ  lb.  beeswax,  4  pints  spirits 
of  turpentine;  dissolve  in  a  closed  vessel  by  means  of  a  water  bath,  and  add  -I  lb. 
common  soap  previously  dissolved  in  4  pints  water,  and  stir  well  together  till  nearly 
cold.  (41)  5  oz.  yellow  wax,  1  pint  turps,  li  oz.  Castile  soap;  cut  the  beeswax  in 
small  pieces,  and  dissolve  in  the  turps  by  a  gentle  heat  ;  when  nearly  cool,  add  the 
soap  (  first  powdered  and  nibbed  up  with  2  oz.  water),  stirring  continually  till  it  becomes 
thick.  (42)  2i  oz.  yellow  wax,  1  oz.  white  wax,  1  oz.  Castile  soap,  10  oz.  turpentine  oil, 
10  oz.  boiling  water,  1  dr.  potash  carbonate  ;  melt  the  was  and  turpentine  together, 


Polishing — Wood.  467 

dissolve  the  soap  and  potash  carbonate  in'  the  water  and  mix  while  warm,  stirring  til! 
cold.  (43)  Beat  5  lb.  stearin  out  into  thin  sheets  with  a  wooden  mallet,  and  mix  with 
7  lb.  oil  of  turpentine,  after  which  subject  the  mass  to  a  water  bath  and  heat  up ;  when 
hot,  add  i  oz.  ivory-  or  bone-black,  stirring  well  to  prevent  crystallization.  To  cool  itoflF, 
it  should  be  emptied  into  another  vessel  and  stirred  until  cold.  To  use,  warm  it  until 
it  is  reduced  to  a  liquid  state,  and  apply  in  small  quantities  with  a  cloth  ;  afterwards  rub 
it  well  with  a  piece  of  silk  or  linen  cloth  to  bring  up  the  polish.  (44)  A  good  polish 
for  furniture,  to  use  upon  new  wood  for  hand  polishing,  in  place  of  French  polish,  but 
one  that  requires  constant  manual  labour,  may  be  made  of  beeswax  and  turpentine  spirit 
melted  together,  with  red  sanders  wood  to  colour  it.  This  has  been  tried  for  many  years 
and  well  repays  the  trouble  attending  it.  It  should  not  be  used  upon  work  that  has  been 
French  polished,  but  the  following  will  be  found  better  than  most  tliat  can  be  bought 
for  reviving  the  brilliancy  of  French-polished  goods.  Take  equal  parts  of  turpentine, 
vinegar,  spirits  of  wine  (methylated),  and  raw  linseed  oil,  and  place  them  in  a  bottle  in 
the  Older  in  which  they  are  mentioned  ;  great  care  must  be  taken  in  this  last  particular, 
if  not,  the  mixture  will  curdle  and  become  useless.  (Smither.)  (45)  Derby  cream  ia 
made  by  adding  C  oz.  linseed  oil  to  3  oz.  acetic  acid.  This  is  agitated  well,  and  h  oz. 
butter  of  antimony  and  3  oz.  methylated  spirit  are  added.  (40)  Soft  water,  1  gal.; 
soap,  4  oz. ;  beeswax  in  shavings,  1  lb.  Boil  together,  and  add  2  oz.  pearlash.  To 
be  diluted  with  water,  laid  on  with  a  paint  brush,  and  polished  off  with  a  hard  brush 
or  cloth.     (47)  Wax,  3  oz. ;    pearlash,  2  oz.  ;    water,  6  oz.    Heat  together,  and  add 

4  oz.  boiled  oil  and  5  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine.  (4S)  The  name  is  sometimes  given  to  a 
mixture  of  I  oz.  white  or  yellow  Avax  with  4  of  oil  of  turpentine.  (49)  Rain-water, 
1  gill ;  spirits  of  wine,  1  gill ;  beeswax,  1  oz. ;  pale  yellow  soap,  1  oz.  Cut  the  wax 
and  .soap  into  thin  slices,  and  boil  them  in  the  rain-water  until  dissolved.  Take 
oti'  the  fire,  and  occasionally  stir  till  cold.  Afterwards  add  spirits  of  wine,  bottle,  and 
it  is  ready  for  use.  The  above  compound  should  be  applied  with  a  piece  of  ilannel,  and 
afterwards  rubbed  with  a  soft  cotton  cloth.  (50)  Useful  for  family  use  : — 1  oz.  beeswax, 
J  oz.  white  wax,  1  oz.  Castile  soap.  The  whole  to  be  shred  very  fine,  and  a  pint  of 
boiling  water  poured  upon  it;  when  cold,  add  J  pint  turpentine  and  h  pint  spirits  of 
wine ;  mix  well  together.  To  be  rubbed  well  into  the  furniture  with  one  cloth  and 
polished  with  another.  (51)  Pearlash,  1  oz.  ;  water,  8  oz. ;  beeswax  (genuine),  6  oz. 
jMix  with  heat,  and  add  sufficient  water  to  reduce  it  to  the  consistency  of  cream.  For 
use,  add  more  water,  and  spread  it  on  the  wood  with  a  painters'  brush.  Let  it  dry,  and 
polish  with  a  hard  brush  or  cloth.  If  white  wax  is  used,  it  may  be  applied  to  polish 
plaster  casts,  statues,  &c.  (52)  2  gal.  raw  linseed  oil,  I§  gal.  turpentine,  J  lb.  dragons' 
blood,  5  lb.  rosin,  J  lb.  alum,  2  oz.  iodide  potassium,  I  lb.  sulphuric  acid,  8  oz.  nitric  acid ; 
using  avoirdupois  weight  for  the  dragons'  blood,  rosin,  alum,  iodide  potassium,  and 
sulphuric  acid  ;  common  wine  or  liquid  measure  for  the  oil  and  turpentine  ;  apothecaries' 
measure  for  the  nitric  acid.  The  directions  for  preparing  the  polish  are  as  follows : — 
First,  put  the  oil  and  turpentine  into  an  earthen  vessel ;  then  pulverize  the  dragons' 
blood,  rosin,  alum,  and  iodide  potassium  to  a  fine  powder.  Stir  tliis  powder  slowly  into 
the  oil  and  turpentine  ;  then  add  the  sulphuric  acid,  slowly,  stirring  continually.  Let 
this  mixture  stand  10  hours,  then  add  the  nitric  acid.  Slowly  stir  the  mixture  while 
adding.  Apply  with  a  sponge  or  cloth.  (53)  Messer,  oi  Berlin,  dissolves  6^  lb.  shellac 
in  about  28  pints  pure  spirit  (alcohol),  and  then  mixes  this  with  anotiier  obtained 
by  dissolving  25  dr.  gun  cotton  in  25  dr.  high-grade  sulphuric  ether  to  which  is 
added  12|  dr.  camphor  and  enough  96  per  cent,  alcohol  to  completely  dissolve  the 
mass.     This   polish   is    finally  rubbed  up  with  pure  linseed  oil.     To  100  jiarts  of  it, 

5  parts  of  a  saturated  solution  of  camphor  in  oil  of  rosemary  are  then  addeil. 
A  very  dilute  solution  of  benzole  in  alcohol  is  used  for  polishing  off.  (54)  1  gal. 
soft  water,  4  oz.  soap,  1  lb.  white  wax  in  shavings ;  boil  these  together  and 
add  2  oz.  pearlash.    This  is  to  be  diluted  with  water,  laid  on  the  furniture  with  a  paint 

2  u  2 


468  Polishing — Wood. 

brnsli,  and  pollslied  off  -with  a  cloth  or  a  hard  brush.     (55)  Dissolve  U  lb.  potash  and 
1  lb.  virgin  wax  in  1  gal.  hot  water,  and  boil  the  whole  for  ^  hour;  then  stand  to  cool. 
Eemove  the  wax  from  the  surface,  put  it  into  a  mortar,  and  triturate  it  with  a  marble 
pestle,  adding  sufficient  soft  water  to  form  a  soft  paste.     This  laid  neatly  on  furniture,  or 
even  on  pictures,  and  carefully  rubbed  when  dry  with  a  woollen  rag,  gives  a  polish  of 
great  brilliancy  and  softness.     (56)  Household  furniture  is  readily  cleaned  by  washing 
it  with  a  little  warm  ale,  the  polish  being  brouglit  up  subsequently  by  means  of  a  cloth 
damped  with  paraffin  oil.     The  following  has  been  strongly  recommended  for  renovating 
old  furniture  and  bringing  up  a  good  polish  :— Take  olive  oil  1  lb.,  rectified  oil  of  amber 
1  lb.,  spirits  of  turpentine  1  lb.,  oil  of  lavender  1  oz.,  tincture  of  alkanet  root  i  oz. 
Saturate  a  piece  of  "cotton  batting  with  this  polish,  apply  it  to  the  wood,  then,  with  soft 
and  dry  cotton  rags,  rub  well  and  wipe  oiF  dry.     Keep  the  polish  in  a  stoppered  bottle. 
(57)  Pure  beeswax,  l\  lb. ;  linseed  oil,  Jib.     Melt  together  and  remove  from  the  fire, 
and  when  the  mixture  has  cooled  a  little,  add  1  qt.  turpentine,  and  mix  well.     The  way 
to  make  it  with  soda  would  be  to  dissolve  the  soda  in  hot  water,  add  the  wax  in  small 
pieces,  and  mix  well  over  the  fire.     The  former  method  is  preferable.     (58)  A  high 
polish  on  ebony,  one  that  will  be  durable.     Give  the  work  2  coats  of  fine  copal  varnish, 
and  rub  this  down  (when  dry)  quite  smooth  with  fine  pumice,  put  on  a  third  coat  of  the 
same,  and  rub  down  with  rottenstone  ;  clean  a-nd  put  on  a  flowing  coat  of  best  spirit  copal 
varnish,  and  when  this  has  become  quite  dry,  polish  with  chamois  skin  and  the  palm  of 
the  hand.     (59)  Polishing  Black  Woodwork.— Procure  2i  oz.  spirits  of  wine,  1  dr.  oil  of 
almonds,  1  dr.  gum  elemi,  i  oz.  orange  shellac,  pounded  fine  and  put  together  in  a  bottle 
to  dissolve  ;  when  dissolved,  rub  on  with  white  wadding.     (GO)  Orange  shellac,  2  oz. ; 
wood  naphtha,  i  pint ;  benzoin,  2  dr.     Mix  and  put  in  warm  place  for  a  week,  and  keep 
the  materials  from  settling  by  shaking  it  up.    To  apply  it,  after  having  prepared  your 
wood  by  rubbing  some  raw  linseed  oil  into  it,  and  then  wiping  it  well  off  again,  make  a 
rubber  of  cotton-wool,  and  put  some  old  calico  over  the  face,  and  till  you  have  a  good 
body  on  your  wood  keep  the  rubber  well  saturated  with  polish.     When  your  rubber  sticks, 
put  a  very  little  linseed  oil  on  and  rub  your  polish  up.     Allow  it  to  stand  a  few  hours, 
and  give  it  another  coat,  using  rather  more  liuseed  oil  on  your  rubber,  so  as  to  get  a 
finer  polish.     Then  let  it  stand  again  and  finish  off  with  spirits  of  naphtha,  if  you  can  ; 
if  not,  add  a  small  quantity  of  polish  to  your  spirit.    (61)  Polishing  Deal.— To  as  much 
yellow  ochre  as  you  can  take  in  your  hand  add  h  teaspoonful  of  Venetian  red.     Mix  to 
the  thickness  of  paint  (or  rather  thinner)  with  glue  size.     Let  the  mixture  simmer  for 
some  time  in  a  pan,  keeping  it  well  stirred.     Apply  with  a  brush,  and  when  dry  run  it 
over  with  fine  sandpaper  and  polish  with  French  polish,  or,  if  preferred,  turpentine  and 
beeswax.     If  a  deeper  colour  is  required,  add  more  Venetian  red.     Or  (62)  Melt  about 
i  lb.  Russian  glue  in  1  qt.  water  ;  grind  in  some  Venetian  red  until  sufficiently  coloured  ; 
give  the  wood  a  coat  with  a  brush  when  dry.  (63)  Egg-shell  Polish  for  Antique  Furniture. 
This  is  done  by  first  bodying-up  your  work,  and,  after  standing  12  hours,  again  body-up 
with  white  polish  ;  it  is  next  rubbed  down  with  a  felt  rubber  and  pumice  until  sufficiently 
dull  ;  it  is  then  wax-polished,  giving  the  work  a  gloss  instead  of  a  polish.     (64)  Dry 
Shining.— This  is  a  new  system  of  polishing  or  shining  called  the  American  system,  and 
is  used  mostly  for  American  black  walnut.     First  oil,  fill  in  then  with  a  wet  rubber 
passed  smartly  over  the  work  straight  from  end  to  end  until  a  shine  or  gloss  appears. 
No  oil  to  be  used  in  the  rubber,  and  no  spiriting-off  is  required.    Be  careful  to  dry  rubber 
well,  and  have  the  work  free  from  rubber  marks.    This  system  is  becoming  very  popular 
in  the  trade.     (65)  Imitation  Polish  for  Woodwork.— The  wood  is  first  varnished  over 
with  gelatine,  and,  after  drying  and  smoothing,  with  a  mixture  of  2^  lb.  fluid  copal 
varnish,  and  4  dr.  pure  drying  linseed  oil;  after  drying,  the  wood  is  polished  with  an 
ethereal  solution  of  wax.     (66)   Wax  Polishing.-There  is  no  particular  art  m  wax- 
polishing  floors,  the  principal  requirements  being  plenty  of  elbow-grease  and  a  good  hard 
brush.    The  floor,  after  being  well  scrubbed,  is  allowed  to  dry.    When  dry  it  is  pamted 


Polishing — Wood.  469 

over  with  a  large,  soft  whitewash-brush  dipped  in  oak  stain.  This  is  allowed  to  dry  for 
24  hours.  The  iloor  is  then  gone  over  with  thin  size,  and  this  is  in  turn  allowed  to  dry 
for  24  hours.  After  tliis,  the  lienor  is  painted  over  with  a  kind  of  varnish  made  by 
dissolving  beeswax  in  spirits  of  turpentine,  the  proportions  being  about  1  lb.  of  wax  to 
2  qt.  of  turps.  The  wax  is  shredded,  placed  along  with  the  turps  in  a  stone  bottle,  and 
the  whole  put  on  the  hob  and  frequently  shaken,  Wliun  this  varnish  has  soaked  well 
in,  the  whole  floor  is  polished  with  a  rather  hard  brush  until  a  good  surface  is  obtained. 
Special  brushes,  adapted  to  polishing  waxed  floors,  are  sold  by  oihnen.  (67)  Wood 
Finish.— Eichness  of  efiect  may  be  gained  in  decorative  woodwork  by  using  woods  of 
diflerent  tone,  such  as  amaranth  and  amboyna,  by  inlaying  and  veneering.  The 
Hungarian  ash  and  French  walnut  afford  excellent  veneers,  especially  the  burls  or  gnarls. 
A  few  useful  notes  on  the  subject  are  given  by  a  recent  American  authority.  In 
varnishing,  the  varnishes  used  can  be  toned  down  to  match  the  wood,  or  be  made  to 
clarken  it,  by  tlio  addition  of  colouring  matters.  The  patented  compositions  known  as 
•"  wood  fillers  "  are  made  up  in  different  colours  for  the  purpose  of  preparing  the  surface 
of  wood  previous  to  the  varnishing.  They  fill  up  the  pores  of  the  wood,  rendering  the 
surface  hard  and  smooth.  For  polishing  mahogany,  walnut,  &c.,  the  following  is 
jecommended :  Dissolve  beeswax  by  heat  in  spirits  of  turpentine  until  the  mixtme 
becomes  viscid ;  then  apply  by  a  clean  cloth,  and  rub  thoroughly  with  a  Hanuel  or  cloth. 
A  common  mode  of  polishing  mahogany  is  by  rubbing  it  first  with  linseed  oil  and  then 
by  a  cloth  dipped  in  very  fine  brickdust ;  a  good  gloss  may  also  be  produced  by  rubbing 
with  linseed  oil,  and  then  holding  trimmings  or  shavings  of  the  same  material  against 
the  work  in  the  lathe.  Glasspaper,  followed  by  rubbing,  also  gives  a  good  lustre. 
(Sclent.  Amer.)  (68)  A  good  polish  for  walking-canes  and  other  hard  wood. — The 
following  process  gives  the  most  satisfactory  and  hardest  finished  surface  :  Fill  with 
best  clear  filler  or  with  shellac ;  dry  by  heat  ;  rub  down  with  pumice  ;  then  put  on  3 
coats  of  clear  spirit  copal  varnish,  hardening  each  in  an  oven  at  a  temperature  as  hot 
as  the  wood  and  gum  will  safely  stand.  For  extra  work,  the  2  first  coats  may  be  rubbed 
down  and  the  last  allowed  a  flowing  coat.  For  coloured  grounds,  alcoholic  shellac  varnish 
with  any  suitable  pigment  (very  finely  ground  in)  can  generally  be  used  to  advantage. 
(59)  Mahogany. — The  wood  having  been  stained,  paper  ofi"  smooth  with  No.  0  glass- 
paper  enough  to  give  an  even  surface.  Add  J  gill  French  polish,  to  I  oz.  best  dragons' 
blood,  well  mix  and  strain  through  muslin  ;  polish  as  usual ;  if  wanted  very  dark,  apply 
a.  little  dragons'  blood  to  the  rubber,  but  the  rubber  must  be  covered  twice  with  linen 
rag.  (70)  Ebony. — Add  |  oz.  best  drop  black  to  J  gill  French  polish,  use  as  in  (69).  A 
little  of  the  drop  black  may  be  used  on  the  inside  rubber,  but  covered  twice  with  linen 
rag.  (71)  Satinwood  or  Maple. — J  oz.  chrome  yellow  to  I  gill  light  French  polish  ;  use 
.as  before  described  ;  a  little  chrome  yellow  on  the  rubber  is  desirable.  In  French 
polishing  always  use  a  drop  of  linseed  on  the  rubber.  (72)  Black  and  Gold  Work. — Tho 
work  to  be  polished  and  gilt  must  be  stained  with  black  stain  ;  when  quite  dry,  give  c 
Tery  weak  solution  of  glue  size,  paper  off  smooth.  Care  must  be  used  not  to  remove  the 
black  stain  with  the  paper.  The  part  to  be  gilt  must  not  be  touched  with  the  size,  or 
the  gold  will  not  adhere  so  well;  polish  the  part  not  to  be  gilt  according  to  directions 
given  for  French  polisliing,  using  the  black  polish  drop  black;  when  the  work  is 
polished  ready  for  spiriting  ofl',  lay  the  work  on  a  table  in  a  warm  room,  procure  a 
portion  of  the  best  oil  gold  size,  pour  in  a  cup,  witli  a  very  fine  stifl' brush  lay  a  thin 
■even  coat  of  gold  size  on  the  work,  let  the  gold  size  dry  for  2  hours  till  it  becomes  tacky, 
then  having  the  gold  leaf  ready,  with  great  care  lay  a  leaf  (or  part  of  a  leaf,  as  required) 
on  the  cushion,  cut  to  size  required  with  the  tip,  lay  the  gold  leaf  on  the  sized  work, 
then  with  a  pad  made  of  white  wadding  press  tho  gold  leaf  in  the  crevices,  blow  off 
surplus  leaf;  let  it  stand  aside  to  dry;  when  quite  dry,  polish  gently  with  a  very 
smooth  bone  pointed  (or  a  dog's  tooth  is  best)  fixed  in  handle.  Surplus  parts  and 
the  edges  should  be  cleaned  off  evenly  afterwards.    Finish  the  black  work  off  with 


470  Polishing — Wood. 

spirits.  Very  fine  crevices  may  have  gold  leaf  rubbed  in  with  a  brush,  if  used 
carefully,  then  blow  off  surplus  parts.  For  commoner  work,  gold  paint  laid  on  with 
a  brush  answers  very  well.  (73)  White  and  Gold. — Brackets,  console  tables,  whatnots, 
chairs,  and  other  furniture  are  frequently  done  in  white  and  gold.  The  grain  of  the 
wood  should  be  first  filled  in  with  whiting  and  glue  size,  one  or  two  coats  well  papered 
off  and  white  polished,  but  the  wood  should  not  be  finished  off  with  spirits  until  gilt? 
leaving  the  last  coat  to  be  done  when  the  gilding  is  finished  ;  the  gilding  is  done  as  ia 
(72).  (74)  A  cheaper  mode  and  much  easier  for  the  amateur:  First  well  clean  the 
article  (if  not  new)  with  soda  and  water  ;  when  dry,  scrape  and  paper  all  over,  stop  up 
cracks  with  white-lead  and  driers,  one  of  driers  to  two  of  white-lead  ;  mix  some  good 
white  paint  made  of  turps,  driers,  and  white-lead,  not  oil.  Give  the  article  3  coats, 
rubbing  down  the  first  coat  when  dry  with  pumice  and  water ;  when  the  third  coat  of 
paint  is  quite  dry,  proceed  to  gild  as  before  described,  using  either  gold  leaf  or  gold 
paint ;  when  so  done,  give  the  gold  a  coat  of  transparent  enamel  varnish,  after  which 
varnish  the  white  work  with  clear  copal  varnish.  Give  tlie  work  2  coats  ;  it  will  set  in 
a  day.  Small  boxes  and  other  fancy  articles  may  be  done  by  this  process.  (75)  1  pint 
linseed-oil,  1  oz.  alkanet  root,  I  oz.  rose  pink,  boil  for  J  hour,  strain  through  muslin  so 
that  the  oil  may  be  clear ;  to  use  it  pour  a  little  oil  on  flannel  ,*  rub  briskly.  After  2  or 
3  applications,  the  effect  will  be  apparent.  (7G)  I  pint  best  vinegar,  1  pint  linseed-oil, 
2  oz,  gum  arable  finely  powdered ;  mix  in  a  clean  bottle  for  use.  Requires  no  rubbing, 
merely  laying  on  with  a  clean  rubber  of  flannel.  (77)  J  lb.  beeswax  melted  in  an 
earthenware  pot,  add  gradually  I  pint  turps,  coloured  with  J  oz.  alkanet  root,  add 
§  pint  linseed-oil;  well  mix,  and  keep  in  wide-mouth  bottles  for  use.  The  bottles 
should  be  kept  well  corked.  To  use,  wipe  the  dust  from  the  furniture,  apply  a  portion 
of  the  polish  on  a  clean  rubber  of  flannel,  rub  every  part  accessible,  briskly  finish  off 
with  an  old  silk  handkerchief.  This  polish  should  not  be  used  on  new  articles,  it 
merely  restores  a  gloss  on  old  polished  furniture.  (78)  g  pint  rectified  wood  naphtha, 
IJ  oz.  shellac,  J  oz.  benzoin;  crush  the  gum,  mix  in  a  bottle;  when  dissolved  it  is  ready 
for  use.  Keep  on  a  shelf  in  a  warm  room  until  dissolved.  (79)  Put  2  dr.  shellac  and 
2  dr.  gum  benzoin  into  h  pint  best  rectified  spirits  of  wine  in  a  bottle  closely  corked; 
keep  the  bottle  in  a  warm  place  and  shake  frequently  until  the  gums  are  dissolved ; 
when  cold  add  2  teaspoonfuls  of  clean  poppy  oil ;  well  shake  it  and  it  is  fit  for  use. 
This  finish  can  be  carefully  laid  with  a  soft  rubber  or  hair  brush. 

FolisJdng  in  the  lathe. — The  beauty  of  good  work  depends  on  its  being  executed 
with  tools  properly  ground,  set,  and  in  good  order ;  the  work  performed  by  such  tools 
will  have  its  surface  much  smoother,  its  mouldings  and  edges  much  better  finished,  and 
the  whole  nearly  polished,  requiring,  of  course,  much  less  subsequent  polishing  than 
work  turned  with  lalunt  tools.  One  of  the  most  necessary  things  in  polishing  is  cleanli- 
ness ;  therefore,  previous  to  beginning,  it  is  as  well  to  clear  the  turning-lathe  or  work- 
bench of  all  shavings,  dust,  and  so  on,  as  also  to  examine  all  the  powders,  lacquers, 
linen,  flannel,  or  brushes  which  may  be  required;  to  see  that  they  are  free  from  dust, 
grit,  or  any  foreign  matter.  For  further  security,  the  polishing  powders  used  are 
sometimes  tied  up  in  a  piece  of  linen,  and  shaken  as  through  a  sieve,  so  that  none  but 
the  finest  particles  can  pass.  Although,  throughout  the  following  methods,  certain 
polishing  powders  are  recommended  for  particular  kinds  of  work,  there  are  others 
applicable  to  the  same  purposes,  the  selection  from  which  remains  with  the  operator ; 
observing  this  distinction,  that  when  the  work  is  rough  and  requires  much  polishing,  the 
coarser  powders  are  best ;  but  the  smoother  the  work,  the  less  poUshing  it  requires,  and 
the  finer  powders  are  preferable. 

Soft  woods  may  be  turned  so  smooth  as  to  require  no  other  polishing  than  that  pro- 
duced by  holding  against  it  a  few  fine  turnings  or  shavings  of  the  same  wood  whilst 
revolving,  this  being  often  sufiScient  to  give  it  a  finished  appearance ;  but  when  the 
surface  of  the  wood  has  been  left  rough,  it  must  be  rubbed  smooth  with  polishing  paper. 


Polishing — Wood.  471 

constantly  varying  the  position  of  tlio  liand,  otherwise  it  would  occasion  rings  or  grooves 
ia  the  work.  When  the  work  has  been  polished  with  the  lathe  revolving  in  the  usual 
way,  it  appears  to  be  smooth  ;  but  the  roughness  is  only  laid  down  in  one  direction,  and 
not  entirely  removed,  which  would  prove  to  bo  the  case  by  turning  the  lathe  the  con- 
trary way,  and  applying  the  glasspaper ;  on  which  account  work  is  polished  best  in  a 
pole-lathe,  which  turns  backwards  and  forwards  alternately,  and  therefore  it  is  well  to 
imitate  that  motion  as  nearly  as  possible. 

Mahogany,  walnut,  and  some  other  woods,  of  about  the  same  degree  of  hardness,  may 
be  polished  by  either  of  the  following  methods  : — Dissolve,  by  heat,  so  much  beeswax, 
in  spirits  of  turpentine,  that  the  mixture  when  cold  shall  be  of  about  the  thickness  of 
honey.  This  may  be  applied  either  to  furniture  or  to  work  running  in  the  lathe,  by 
means  of  a  piece  of  clean  cloth,  and  as  much  as  possible  should  then  be  rubbed  off  by 
means  of  a  clean  flannel  or  other  cloth.  Beeswax  alone  is  often  used  ;  upon  furniture  it 
must  be  melted  by  means  of  a  warm  flat  iron ;  but  it  may  be  applied  to  work  in  tlie 
lathe  by  holding  the  wax  against  it  until  a  portion  of  it  adheres  ;  a  piece  of  woollen  clotli 
should  then  be  held  upon  it,  and  tho  lathe  turned  very  quickly,  so  as  to  melt  the  wax  ; 
tlie  superfluous  portion  of  which  may  be  removed  by  means  of  a  small  piece  of  wood  or 
blunt  metal,  when  a  light  touch  with  a  clean  part  of  the  cloth  will  give  it  a  gloss.  A 
very  good  polish  may  be  given  to  mahogany  by  rubbing  it  over  with  liuseed-oil,  and  then 
holding  against  it  a  cloth  dipped  in  fine  brickdust.  Formerly  nearly  all  the  mahogany 
furniture  made  in  England  was  polished  in  this  way. 

Hard  Woods. — These,  from  their  nature,  are  readily  turned  very  smooth  ;  fine  glass- 
paper  will  suffice  to  give  them  a  very  perfect  surface ;  a  little  linseed-oil  may  then  be 
rubbed  on,  and  a  portion  of  the  turnings  of  the  wood  to  be  polished  may  then  be  held 
against  the  article,  whilst  it  turns  rapidly  round,  which  will,  in  general,  give  it  a  fine 
gloss.  Sometimes  a  portion  of  shellac,  or  rather  of  seed  lac,  varnish  is  applied  upon  a 
piece  of  cloth,  in  the  way.  formerly  described.  The  polish  of  all  ornamental  work  wholly 
depends  on  the  execution  of  the  same,  which  should  be  done  with  tools  properly 
sharpened  ;  and  then  the  work  requires  no  other  polishing  but  with  a  dry  haud-bru-h, 
to  clean  it  from  shavings  or  dust,  this  trifling  friction  being  sufficient  to  give  the  required 
lustre. 

Japanese  lacquer,  Shiunkei. — This  is  so  much  superior  to  our  best  methods  of  polishing 
that  while  the  best  European  and  American  pianos  are  readily  spoiled  by  atmosi)heric 
influences,  Japanese  lacquered  wooden  ware  can  resist  boiling  water.  The  following 
note  gives  a  sketch  of  the  process,  and  full  details  will  be  found  in  '  Workshop  Kecuipts,' 
Third  Series. 

If  the  wood  to  be  varnished  be  very  porous,  and  the  pores  large  enough  to  be  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  they  are  filled  with  a  mixture  of  stone-powder  and  the  lacquer  called 
seshime,  which  is  merely  the  sap  of  the  branches  of  the  varnish-tree,  without  any  mixture. 
This  paste  of  stone-powder  and  lacquer  is  put  on  with  a  wooden  spatula,  the  workman 
taking  good  care  to  press  hard  on  the  spatula,  so  as  to  fill  up  all  the  i)ores,  and  to  rub 
the  varnish  ofi"  the  surface  of  the  wood,  which  is  kept  as  clean  as  possible.  After  the 
varnish  is  well  hardened,  the  whole  surface  is  polished  with  a  soft  stone — a  kind  of 
■wedge-stone — so  that  the  veins  of  the  wood  come  out  again.  This  fiUing  process  can  be 
repeated,  if  necessary.  Next,  in  order  to  give  it  a  colour,  the  wood  is  painted  over  with 
a  thin  water-colovu*,  or  it  is  stained.  When  thus  prepared,  the  object  is  then  varnished 
with  the  lacquer  shiunkei,  of  which  a  thin  coating  is  put  on  with  a  brush,  otherwise  it 
would  look  too  dark.  On  account  of  this  lacquer  taking  its  gloss  in  hardening,  it 
requires  a  skilful  person  with  a  light  hand  to  obtain  a  good  result.  Only  one  coatiug  is 
given. 

In  case  the  wood  is  close-grained  and  of  even  surface,  the  preliminary  work  will  be 
urmecessary.  The  sheshine  lacquer  is  alone  used.  It  is  rubbed  into  the  wood  with  a  ball 
of  cotton,  which  is  saturated  with  it.     After  it  has  been  rubbed  in,  that  wliich  remains 


472  Polishing— Wood. 

on  the  surface  is  taken  off  by  rubbing  with  Japanese  soft  paper,  so  that  in  fact  only  a 
very  thiu  layer  remains. 

It  sometimes  occurs  that  a  Japanese  lacquer  is  too  thick,  and  will  not  spread  evenly 
with  a  spatula,  as  occasionally  happens  when  it  is  mixed  with  stone-powder.  When  this 
is  the  case,  the  Japanese  workmen  add  powdered  camphor  to  the  varnish  they  are 
about  to  use.     By  this  means  it  becomes  more  liqueiied  and  flows  much  better. 

There  is  another  thing  about  the  Japanese  method  of  using  this  varnish  that  is  worth 
knowing.  The  atmosphere  in  which  it  is  to  harden,  after  it  has  been  applied,  should  be 
moist,  and  the  room  darkened.  The  Japanese  lacquerers  have  in  tlieir  work-rooms  large 
boxes  fixed  against  the  walls.  These  are  furnished  with  sliding-doors.  The  insides  of 
these  boxes  are  wetted  with  towels  dipped  in  water ;  the  lacquered  ware  is  introduced, 
and  the  doors  are  closed.     It  generally  requires  48  hours  to  harden  the  lacquer. 

VARNISHING. — Varnish  is  a  solution  of  resin  in  oil,  turpentine,  or  alcohol. 
The  oil  dries  and  the  other  2  solvents  evaporate,  in  either  case  leaving  a  solid  trans- 
parent film  of  resin  over  the  surface  varnished.  In  estimating  the  quality  of  a  varnish 
the  following  points  must  be  considered: — (1)  Quickness  in  drying;  (2)  hardness  of 
film  or  coating ;  (3)  toughness  of  film ;  (4)  amount  of  gloss ;  (5)  permanence  of  gloss 
of  film ;  (6)  durability  on  exposure  to  weather.  The  quality  of  a  varnish  depends 
almost  entirely  upon  that  of  its  ingredients;  much  skill  is,  however,  required  in  mixing 
and  boiling  the  ingredients  together.  Varnish  is  used  to  give  brilliancy  to  painted 
surfaces,  and  to  protect  them  from  the  action  of  the  atmosphere,  or  from  slight  friction. 
It  is  often  applied  to  plain  unpainted  wood  surfaces  in  the  roofs,  joinery,  and  fittings  of 
houses,  and  to  intensify  and  brighten  the  ornamental  appearance  of  the  grain.  Also  to 
painted  and  to  papered  walls.  In  the  former  case,  it  is  sometimes  "  flatted,"  so  as  to 
give  a  dead  appearance,  similar  to  that  of  a  flatted  coat  of  paint. 

Ingredients  of  Varnish. — Gums  are  exudations  from  trees.  At  first  they  are  generally 
mixed  with  some  essential  oil ;  they  are  then  soft  and  viscous,  and  are  known  as 
balsams;  the  oil  evaporates  and  leaves  the  resin,  which  is  solid  and  brittle.  Resins  are 
often  called  "  gums  "  in  practice,  but  a  gum,  properly  speaking,  is  soluble  in  water,  and 
therefore  unfit  for  varnishes,  while  resins  dissolve  only  in  spirits  or  oil.  Gum-resins  are 
natural  mixtures  of  gum  with  resin,  and  sometimes  with  essential  oil  found  in  the  milky 
juices  of  plants.  When  rubbed  up  with  water,  the  gum  is  dissolved,  and  the  oil  and 
resin  remain  suspended. 

The  quality  of  the  resin  greatly  influences  that  of  the  varnish.  The  softer  varieties 
dissolve  more  readily  than  the  others,  but  are  not  so  hard,  tough,  or  durable.  Common 
rosin  or  colophony  is  either  brown  or  white;  the  brown  variety  is  obtained  by  distilling 
the  turpentine  of  spruce  fir  in  water  ;  the  white  is  distilled  from  Bordeaux  tiu-pentine. 
The  principal  resins  used  in  good  work  are  as  follows  : — 

Amber,  obtained  chiefly  from  Prussia,  is  a  light  yellow  transparent  substance  found 
between  beds  of  wood  coal,  or,  after  storms,  on  the  coasts  of  the  Baltic  ;  is  the  hardest 
and  most  durable  of  the  gums,  keeps  its  colour  well,  and  is  tough,  but  diflicult  to  dissolve, 
costly,  and  slow  in  drying.  Gum  animi  is  imported  from  the  East  Indies;  is  nearly  as 
insoluble,  hard,  and  durable  as  amber,  but  not  so  tough  ;  makes  a  varnish  quick  in 
drying,  but  apt  to  crack,  and  the  colour  deepens  by  exposure.  Copal  is  imported  from 
the  East  and  West  Indies  and  America,  &c.,  in  3  qualities,  according  to  colour,  the 
palest  being  kept  for  the  highest  class  of  varnish  ;  these  become  light  by  exposure. 
Mastic  is  a  resinous  gum  from  the  Mediterranean ;  it  is  soft,  and  works  easily.  Gum 
dnmmar  is  extracted  from  the  Kawrie  pine  of  New  Zealand,  and  comes  also  from 
India;  makes  a  softer  varnish  than  mastic,  and  the  tint  is  nearly  colourless.  Gum 
ekmi  comes  from  the  West  Indies,  and  somewhat  resembles  copal.  Lac  is  a  resinous 
substance  which  exudes  from  several  trees  found  in  the  East  Indies;  more  soluble 
than  the  gums  above  mentioned  ;  stick  lac  consists  of  the  twigs  covered  with  the 
gmn ;  seed  lac  is  the  insoluble  pprtion  left  after  pounding  and  digesting  stick  lac ;  when 


Varnishing — Ingredients;  Kinds;  Mixing.  473 

seed  lac  is  melted,  strained,  and  compressed  into  sheets,  it  becomes  shell  lac  ;  of  tlicso 
3  varieties,  shell  lac  is  the  softest,  palest,  and  purest,  and  it  is  therefore  used  for  making 
lacquers.  Sandarach  is  a  substance  said  to  exude  from  the  juniper  tree;  resembles  lac, 
but  is  softer,  less  brilliant,  and  lighter  in  colour,  and  is  used  for  pale  varnish.  Dragons' 
blood  is  a  resinous  substance  imported  from  various  places  in  dark  brown-red  lumps,  in 
bright  red  powder,  and  in  other  forms ;  used  chiefly  for  colouring  varnishes  and 
lacquers. 

Solvents  must  be  suited  to  the  description  of  gum  they  are  to  dissolve.  Boiling 
linseed-oil  (and  sometimes  other  oils,  such  as  rosemary)  is  used  to  dissolve  amber,  gum 
auimi,  or  copal.  Turpentine  for  mastic,  dammar,  and  common  rosin.  Methylated 
spirits  of  wine  for  lac  and  sandarach.  Wood  naphtha  is  frequently  used  for  cheap 
varnishes ;  it  dissolves  the  resins  more  readily  than  ordinary  spirits  of  wine,  but  tho 
varnish  is  less  brilliant,  and  the  smell  of  tho  naphtlia  is  very  oficnsive,  therefore  it  is 
never  employed  for  the  best  work. 

Driers  are  generally  added  to  varnish  in  the  form  of  litharge,  sugar  of  lead,  or  white 
copperas.  Sugar  of  lead  not  only  hardens  but  combines  with  the  varnish.  A  largo 
proportion  of  driers  injures  the  durability  of  the  varnish,  though  it  causes  it  to  dry  more 
quickly. 

Kinds  of  Varnish. — Varnishes  are  classified  as  oil  varnish,  turpentine  varnish,  spirit 
varnish,  or  water  varnish,  according  to  the  solvent  used.  They  are  generally  called  by 
the  name  of  the  gum  dissolved  in  them. 

Oil  varnishes,  made  from  the  hardest  gums  (amber,  gum  animi,  and  copal)  dis- 
solved in  oil,  require  some  time  to  dry,  but  are  the  hardest  and  most  durable  of  all 
varnishes ;  are  specially  adapted  for  work  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  for  such  as 
requires  polishing  or  frequent  cleaning  ;  are  used  for  coaches,  japan  work,  for  the  best 
joinery  and  fittings  of  houses,  and  for  all  outside  work.  Turpentine  varnishes  are  also 
made  from  soft  gums  (mastic,  dammar,  common  rosin)  dissolved  in  the  best  turpentine  ; 
are  cheaper,  more  flexible,  dry  more  quickly,  and  are  lighter  in  colour  than  oil  varnishes, 
but  are  not  so  tough  or  durable.  Spirit  varnishes  or  lacquers  are  made  with  softer  gums 
(lac  and  sandarach)  dissolved  in  spirits  of  wine  or  pyroligneous  spirit ;  dry  more  quickly, 
and  become  harder  and  more  brilliant  than  turpentine  varnishes,  but  are  apt  to  crack 
and  scale  off,  and  are  used  for  cabinet  and  other  work  not  exposed  to  the  weather. 
Water  varnishes  consist  of  lac  dissolved  in  hot  water,  mixed  with  just  so  much  ammonia, 
borax,  potash,  or  soda,  as  will  dissolve  the  lac;  the  solution  makes  a  varnish  which  will 
just  bear  washing  ;  the  alkalies  darken  the  colour  of  the  lac. 

Mixing  Varnishes.— This  requires  great  skill  and  care.  Full  details  of  the  process 
are  given  in  Spons'  '  Encyclopaedia.'  Here  may  just  be  mentioned  one  or  two  points 
useful  in  mixing  varnishes  on  a  small  scale ;  but  as  a  rule,  it  is  better  to  buy  varnish 
ready  mixed  when  possible. 

Oil  Varnishes.— The  gum  must  first  be  melted  alone  till  it  is  quite  fluid,  and  then 
the  clarified  oil  is  poured  in  very  slowly.  The  mixture  must  be  kept  over  a  strong  fire 
until  a  drop  pinched  between  the  finger  and  thumb  will,  on  separating  them,  draw  out 
into  filaments.  The  pot  is  then  put  upon  a  bed  of  hot  ashes  and  left  for  15  or  20  minutes, 
after  which  the  turpentine  is  poured  in,  being  carefully  stirred  near  the  surface.  Tho 
mixture  is  finally  strained  into  jars  and  left  to  settle.  Copal  varnishes  should  be  made 
at  least  3  months  before  use  ;  the  longer  they  are  kept,  the  better  they  become.  Wiien 
it  is  necessary  to  use  the  varnishes  before  they  are  of  sufficient  age,  they  thould  be  left 
thicker  than  usual.  The  more  thoroughly  the  gum  is  fused,  the  stronger  the  varnish 
and  the  greater  the  quantity.  The  longer  and  more  regular  tho  boiling,  the  more  fluid 
the  varnish.  If  brought  to  the  stringy  state  too  quickly,  more  turpentine  will  be 
required,  which  makes  the  varnish  less  durable. 

Spirit  and  Turpentine  Varnishes.— Here  the  operation  simply  consists  in  stirring  or 
otherwise  agitating  the  resins  and  solvent  togetlicr.    The  agitation  must  bo  continued 


474  Varnishing — Application;  Eecipes. 

till  the  resin  is  all  dissolved,  or  it  will  agglutinate  into  lumps.  Heat  is  not  necessary, 
but  is  sometimes  used  to  hasten  the  solution  of  the  resin.  The  varnish  is  allowed  to 
settle,  and  is  then  strained  through  muslin.  In  many  cases  the  resin,  such  as  mastic, 
dammar,  or  common  rosin,  is  simply  mixed  with  turpentine  alone,  cold  or  with  sli^-ht 
heat.     Care  must  in  such  cases  be  taken  to  exclude  all  oil. 

Application. — In  using  varnish,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  have  everything  quite 
clean,  the  cans  should  be  kept  corked,  the  brushes  free  from  oil  or  dirt,  and  the  work 
protected  from  dust  or  smoke.  Varnish  should  be  uniformly  applied,  in  very  thin  coats, 
sparingly  at  the  angles.  Good  varnish  should  dry  so  quickly  as  to  be  free  from  stickiness 
in  I  or  2  days.  Its  drying  will  be  greatly  facilitated  by  the  influence  of  light ;  but  all 
draughts  of  cold  air  and  damp  must  be  avoided.  No  second  or  subsequent  coat  of 
varnish  should  be  applied  till  the  last  is  permanently  hard,  otherwise  the  drying  of  the 
under  coats  will  be  stoj^ped.  The  time  required  for  this  depends  not  only  upon  the  kind 
of  varnish,  but  also  upon  the  state  of  the  atmosphere.  Under  ordinary  circumstances, 
spirit  varnishes  require  2-3  hours  after  every  coat ;  turpentine  varnishes  require  6  or  8 
hours  ;  and  oil  varnishes  still  longer,  sometimes  as  much  as  24;  hours.  Oil  varnishes 
are  easier  to  apply  than  spirit  varnishes,  in  consequence  of  their  not  drying  bo  quickly. 
Porous  surfaces  should  be  sized  before  the  varnish  is  applied,  to  prevent  it  from  being 
wasted  by  sinking  into  the  pores  of  the  material.  Varnish  ajjplied  to  painted  work  is 
likely  to  crack  if  the  oil  in  the  paint  is  not  good  ;  also,  if  there  is  much  oil  of  any  kind, 
the  varnish  hardens  more  quickly  than  the  paint,  and  forms  a  rigid  skin  over  it,  which 
cracks  when  the  j^aint  contracts.  The  more  oil  a  varnish  contains  the  less  likely  it  is  to 
crack.  All  varnishes  improve  by  being  kept  in  a  dry  place.  One  pint  of  varnish  will 
cover  about  16  sq.  yd.  with  a  single  coat. 

Kecipes. — The  following  recii^es  give  the  proportions  of  ingredients  for  varnishes  in 
connection  with  house  painting : — 

Oil  Varnishes. — Copal  Varnishes. — (1)  Best  Body  Copal  Varnish. — Fuse  8  lb.  fine 
African  gum  copal ;  add  2  gal.  clarified  oil.  Boil  very  slowly  for  i  or  5  hours  till  quite 
stringy,  and  mix  with  3J  gal.  turpentine.  This  is  used  for  the  body  part  of  coaches, 
and  for  other  objects  intended  to  be  polished.  The  above  makes  the  palest  and  best  copal 
varnish,  possessing  great  fluidity  and  pliability,  but  it  is  very  slow  in  drying,  and, 
for  months,  is  too  soft  to  polish.  Driers  are  therefore  added,  but  they  are  injurious. 
To  avoid  the  use  of  driers,  gum  auimi  is  used  instead  of  copal,  but  it  is  less  durable  and 
becomes  darker  by  age.  The  copal  and  animi  varnishes  are  sometimes  mixed  ;  1  pot  of 
the  latter  to  2  of  the  former  for  a  moderately  quick  drying  varnish  of  good  quality,  and 
2  pots  of  the  animi  to  1  of  the  copal  for  quicker  drying  varnish  of  common  quality. 

(2)  Best  Pale  Carriage  Copal  Varnish. — Fuse  8  lb.  second  sorted  African  copal ;  add 
2  J  gal.  clarified  oil.  Boil  slowly  together  for  4  or  5  hours  until  quite  stringy ;  add  5|  gal. 
turpentine  mixed  with  J  lb.  dried  copperas,  I  lb.  litharge  ;  strain,  and  pour  ofi".  In  order 
to  hasten  drying,  mix  with  the  above  while  hot  8  lb.  second  sorted  gvmi  animi,  2|  gal. 
clarified  oil,  J  lb.  dried  sugar  of  lead,  J  lb.  litharge,  5^  gal.  turpentine.  This  varnish 
will,  if  well  boiled,  dry  hard  in  4  hours  in  summer  or  6  in  winter.  Some  copal  varnish 
takes,  however,  12  hours  to  dry.  This  varnish  is  used  for  carriages,  and  also  in  house 
painting  for  the  best  grained  work,  as  it  dries  well  and  has  a  good  gloss.  A  stronger 
varnish  is  made  for  carriages,  known  as  Best  Body  Copal  Varnish. 

(3)  Second  Carriage  Varnish. — 8  lb.  second  sorted  gum  animi,  2|  gal.  fine  clarified 
oil,  51  gal.  turpentine,  I  lb.  litharge,  J  lb.  dried  sugar  of  lead,  J  lb.  dried  copi^eras, 
boiled  and  mixed  as  before.    Used  for  varnishing  black  japan  or  dark  house  painting. 

(4)  Pale  Amber  Varnish. — Pour  2  gal.  hot  clarified  oil  on  6  lb.  very  pale  transparent 
amber.  Boil  till  strongly  stringy,  and  mix  with  4  gal.  turpentine.  ThiswiU  work  very 
well,  be  very  hard,  and  the  most  durable  of  all  varnishes,  and  improves  other  copal 
varnishes  when  mixed  with  them ;  but  it  dries  verv  slowly,  and  is  but  little  used  on 
account  of  its  expense. 


Vaknishing —Recipes.    Mechanical  Movements.         475 

(5)  Wliite  Coburg  varnish  is  of  a  very  pale  colour,  dries  in  about  10  hours,  and  in  a 
few  days  is  hard  enough  to  polish. 

(6)  Wainscot  varnish  is  made  of  8  lb.  gum  animi  (second  quality),  3  gal.  clarified 
oil,  i  lb.  litharge,  i  lb.  sugar  of  lead,  I  lb.  copperas,  boiled  together  till  strongly  stringy, 
and  then  mixed  with  5h  gal.  turpentine.  It  maybe  darkened  by  adding  a  littfe  "old  size' 
This  varnish  dries  in  2  hours  in  summer,  and  is  used  chiefly  for  house  painting  and 
iapanning. 

Spirit  Varnishes — Cheap  Oak  Varnish. — Dissolve  3J  lb.  clear  good  rosin  in  1  "al.  oil 
of  turpentine.  Darken,  if  required,  by  adding  well-ground  umber  or  fine  lampblack. 
Oak  varnish  is  used  for  common  work.  It  dries  generally  in  about  10  hours,  thoufh 
some  is  made  to  dry  in  half  the  time,  and  known  as  "  Quick  Oak  Varnish  " ;  another 
variety  is  called  "  Hard  Oak  Varnish,"  and  is  used  for  seats. 

Copal  Varnish. — By  slow  heat  in  an  iron  pot  melt  J  lb.  powdered  copal  gum,  2  oz. 
balsam  of  capivi,  previously  heated  and  added.  When  melted,  remove  from  the  fire  and 
pour  in  10  oz.  spirits  of  turpentine,  also  previously  warmed.  Copal  will  more  easilv 
melt  by  powdering  the  crude  gum  ;  let  it  stand  for  a  time  covered  loosely. 

White  hard  spirit  varnish  may  be  made  by  dissolving  3^  lb.  gum  sandarach  in 
1  gal.  spirits  of  wine ;  when  solution  is  complete,  add  1  pint  pale  turpentine  and  shake- 
well  together. 

Brown  hard  spirit  varnish  is  made  like  the  white,  but  shellac  is  substituted  for  the 
sandarach.     It  will  bear  polishing. 

French  Polish. — The  simplest  and  probably  the  best  is  made  by  dissolving  U  1I>. 
shellac  in  1  gal.  spirits  of  wine  without  heat.  Other  gums  are  sometimes  used,  and  the 
pohsli  may  be  darkened  by  adding  benzoin,  or  it  may  be  coloured  with  dragon's  blood. 
It  is  used  chiefly  for  mahogany  work,  in  joinery,  hand-rails,  &c.,  and  is  applied  by 
rubbing  it  well  into  the  surface  of  the  wood,  which  has  been  previously  made  smooth 
by  sandpaper,  &c.    (See  also  p.  465.) 

Hardwood  lacquer  is  made  by  dissolving  2  lb.  shellac  in  1  gal.  spirits  of  wine.  It  is 
generally  used  for  turned  articles,  being  applied  to  them  with  a  rag  while  they  are  on 
the  lathe. 

Lacquer  for  Brass. — The  simplest  and  best  lacquer  for  work  not  requiring  to  bo 
coloured  is  made  by  dissolving  with  agitation  J  lb.  best  pale  shellac  in  1  gal.  cold  spirits 
of  wine.  The  mixture  is  allowed  to  stand,  filtered,  and  kept  out  of  the  influence  of 
light,  which  would  make  it  darker. 

Turpentine  Varnishes. — Turpentine  varnish  consists  of  4  lb.  common  (or  bleached) 
rosin  dissolved  in  1  gal.  oil  of  turpentine,  under  slight  warmth.  It  is  used  for  indoor 
painted  work,  and  also  to  add  to  other  varnishes  to  give  them  greater  body,  hardness, 
and  brilliancy. 

Black  Varnish  for  Metal  Work. — Fuse  3  lb.  Egyptian  asphaltum  ;  when  it  is  liquid, 
add  5  lb.  shellac  and  1  gal.  turpentine. 

Brunswich  Black. — Boil  45  lb.  asphaltum  for  6  hours  over  a  slow  fire.  During  the 
same  time  boil  6  gal.  oil  which  has  been  previously  boiled,  introducing  litharge 
gradually  until  stringy,  then  pour  the  oil  into  tlie  boiling  asphaltum.  Boil  the  mixture 
until  it  can  be  rolled  into  hard  pills,  let  it  cool,  and  then  mix  with  25  gal.  turpentine, 
or  as  much  as  will  give  it  proper  consistency. 

Varnish  for  Ironwork. — The  following  is  recommended  by  Matheson  as  vciy 
effective  : — -30  gal.  of  coal  tar,  fresh,  with  all  its  naphtha  retained ;  6  lb.  tallow  ;  li  11). 
rosin ;  3  lb.  lampblack  ;  30  lb.  fresh  slaked  lime,  finely  sifted — mixed  intimately  and 
applied  hot.  When  hard,  this  varnish  can  be  painted  on  by  ordinary  oil  paint  if 
desired. 

MECHANICAIi  MOVEMENTS.— Those  means  by  whicli  motion  is  trans- 
mitted for  mechanical  purposes  are  known  as  mechanical  movements.  INIotion,  in 
mechanics,  may  be  simple   or   compound.     Simple  motions  are, — those  of   straight 


476  Mechanical  Movements. 

translation,  wbicli,  if  of  indefinite  duration,  must  be  reciprocating;  simple  rotation, 
-wbicb  may  be  eitber  continuous  or  reciprocating,  and  wben  reciprocating  is  called 
oscillating  ;  belical,  wbicb,  if  of  indefinite  duration,  must  be  reciprocating.  Compound 
motions  consist  of  combinations  of  any  of  tbe  simple  motions.  Perpetual  motion  is  an 
incessant  motion  conceived  to  be  attainable  by  a  macbine  supplying  its  own  motive 
forces  independently  of  any  action  from  witbout,  or  wbicb  has  witbin  itself  tbe  means, 
wben  once  set  in  motion,  of  continuing  its  motion  perpetually,  or  until  worn  out, 
witbout  any  new  application  of  external  force ;  also  tbe  macbine  itself  by  means  of 
wbicb  it  is  attempted,  or  supposed  possible,  to  produce  such  motion;  an  invention  much 
sought  after,  but  physically  impossible. 

Fig.  737.  In  this  tbe  lower  pulley  is  movable.  One  end  of  the  rope  being  fixed, 
the  other  must  move  twice  as  fast  as  tbe  weight,  and  a  corresponding  gain  of  power  is 
consequently  effected. 

Fig.  738  is  a  simple  pulley  used  for  lifting  weights.  In  this  the  power  must  be 
equal  to  the  weight  to  obtain  equilibrium. 

Fig.  739.  Blocks  and  tackle.  The  power  obtained  by  this  contrivance  is  calculated 
as  follows : — Divide  the  weight  by  double  tbe  number  of  pulleys  in  the  lower  block ;  the 
quotient  is  the  power  required  to  balance  tbe  weight. 

Fig.  740  represents  what  are  known  as  White's  pulleys,  which  can  either  be  made 
with  separate  loose  pulleys,  or  a  series  of  grooves  can  be  cut  in  a  solid  block,  tbe 
diameters  being  made  in  proportion  to  tbe  speed  of  the  rope;  that  is,  1,  3,  and  5  for 
one  block,  and  2,  4,  and  6  for  the  other.     Power  as  1  to  7. 
Figs.  741,  743  are  what  are  known  as  Spanish  bartons. 
Fig.  742  is  a  combination  of  two  fixed  pulleys  and  one  movable  pulley. 
Figs.  744  to  747  are  different  arrangements  of  pulleys.     The  following  rule  applies 
to  these  pulleys : — In  a  system  of  pulleys  where  each  pulley  is  embraced  by  a  cord 
attached  at  one  end  to  a  fixed  point,  and  at  the  other  to  the  centre  of  the  movable 
pulley,  the  effect  of  the  whole  will  be  the  number  2,  multiplied  by  itself  as  many  times 
as  there  are  movable  pulleys  in  the  system. 

Fig.  748.  Mangle-wheel  and  pinion — so  called  from  their  application  to  mangles — 
converts  continuous  rotary  motion  of  pinion  into  reciprocating  rotary  motion  of  wheel. 
Tbe  shaft  of  pinion  has  a  vibratory  motion,  and  works  in  a  straight  slot  cut  in  the 
upright  stationary  bar  to  allow  the  pinion  to  rise  and  fall,  and  work  inside  and  outside 
of  the  gearing  of  the  wheel.  Tlie  slot  cut  in  the  face  of  tbe  mangle-wheel  and  following 
its  outline  is  to  receive  and  guide  tlie  pinion-shaft,  and  keep  tbe  pinion  in  gear. 

Fig.  749.  Fusee-chain  and  spring-box,  being  the  prime  mover  in  some  watches, 
particularly  in  those  of  English  make.  The  fusee  to  the  right  is  to  compensate  for  the 
loss  of  force  of  tbe  spring  as  it  uncoils  itself.  Tbe  chain  is  on  tbe  small  diameter  of  the 
fusee  wben  tbe  watch  is  wound  up,  as  the  spring  has  then  the  greatest  force. 

Fig.  750.  A  frictional  clutch-box,  thrown  in  and  out  of  gear  by  levers  at  the 
bottom.  This  is  used  for  connecting  and  disconnecting  heavy  machinery.  The  eye  of 
the  disc  to  the  right  has  a  slot  which  slides  upon  a  long  key  or  feather  fixed  on  tbe 
shaft. 

Fig.  751.  Clutch-box.  The  pinion  at  tbe  top  gives  a  continuous  rotary  motion  to 
tbe  gear  below,  to  which  is  attached  half  the  clutch,  and  both  turn  loosely  on  tbe  shaft. 
When  it  is  desired  to  give  motion  to  the  shaft,  the  other  part  of  the  clutch,  which  slides 
upon  a  key  or  feather  fixed  in  the  shaft,  is  thrust  into  gear  by  the  lever. 

Fig.  752.  Another  kind  of  clutch-box.  The  disc-wheel  to  tbe  right  has  2  holes 
corresponding  to  tbe  studs  fixed  in  the  other  disc ;  and  being  pressed  against  it,  tbe 
studs  enter  the  boles,  when  the  2  discs  rotate  together. 

Fig.  753.  Used  for  throwing  in  and  out  of  gear  tbe  speed  motion  on  lathes.  On 
depressing  the  lever,  the  shaft  of  tbe  large  wbeel  is  drawn  backward  by  reason  of  the 
slot  in  which  it  slides  being  cut  eccentrically  to  the  centre  or  fulcrum  of  the  lever. 


Mechanical  Movements. 


477 


745. 


yMK!'////y/m 


733.  737. 


749. 


743. 


747.  746. 


733. 


752. 


Zl 

13 


na^co^i 


757. 


756. 


^    cl 


^P\ 


760. 


759. 


753. 


478  Mechanical  jMovements. 

Fig.  754  is  a  tilt-hammer  motion,  the  revolution  of  the  cam  or  •wiper-wheel  B  lifting 
the  hammer  A  4  times  in  each  revolution. 

Fig.  755.  Intermittent  alternating  rectilinear  motion  is  given  to  the  rod  A,  by  the 
continuous  rotation  of  the  shaft  carrying  the  2  cams  or  wipers,  which  act  upon  the 
projection  B  of  the  rod,  and  thereby  lift  it.  The  rod  drops  by  its  own  weight.  Used 
for  ore-stampers  or  pulverizers,  and  for  hammers. 

Fig.  756.  A  method  of  working  a  reciprocating  pump  by  rotary  motion.  A  rope 
carrying  the  pump-rod  is  attached  to  the  wheel  A,  which  runs  loosely  upon  the  shaft. 
The  shaft  carries  a  cam  C,  and  has  a  continuous  rotary  motion.  At  every  revolution  the 
cam  seizes  the  hooked  catch  B,  attached  to  the  wheel,  and  drags  it  round,  together  with 
the  wheel,  and  raises  the  rope  until,  on  the  extremity  of  the  catch  striking  the  stationary 
stop  above,  the  catch  is  released,  and  the  wheel  is  returned  by  the  weight  of  the  pump- 
bucket. 

Fig.  757.  Continuous  rotary  converted  into  intermittent  rotary  motion.  The  disc- 
wheel B,  carrying  the  stops  C,  D,  turns  on  a  centre  eccentric  to  the  cam  A.  On 
continuous  rotary  motion  being  given  to  the  cam  A,  intermittent  rotary  motion  is 
imparted  to  the  wheel  B,  tl*e  stops  free  themselves  from  the  ofl'set  of  tlie  cam  at  every 
half  revolution,  the  wheel  B  remaining  at  rest  until  the  cam  has  completed  its  revolu- 
tion, when  the  same  motion  is  repeated. 

Fig.  758.  A  contrivance  for  a  self-reversing  motion.  The  bevel-gear  between  the 
gears  B  and  C  is  the  driver.  The  gears  B  and  C  run  loose  upon  the  shaft,  consequently 
motion  is  only  communicated  when  one  or  other  of  them  is  engaged  with  the  clutch-box 
D,  which  slides  on  a  feather  on  the  shaft,  and  is  shown  in  gear  with  C.  The  wheel  E 
at  the  right  is  driven  by  bevel-gearing  from  the  shaft  on  which  the  gears  B,  C,  and 
clutch  are  placed,  and  is  about  to  strike  the  bell-crank  G,  and  produce  such  a  movement 
thereof  as  will  cause  the  connecting  rod  lo  carry  the  weighted  lever  F  beyond  a  perpen- 
dicular position,  when  the  said  lever  will  fall  over  suddenly  to  the  left,  and  carry  the 
clutch  iuto  gear  with  B,  thereby  reversing  the  motion  of  the  shaft  until  the  stud  in  the 
wheel  E,  coming  round  in  the  contrary  direction,  brings  the  weighted  lever  back  past 
the  perpendicular  position,  and  again  causes  it  to  reverse  the  motion. 

Fig.  759.  An  eccentric  generally  used  on  the  crank-shaft  for  communicating  the 
reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  to  the  valves  of  steam  engines,  and  sometimes  used  for 
pumping. 

Fig.  760.  A  modification  of  the  above;  an  elongated  yoke  being  substituted  for 
the  circular  strap  to  obviate  the  necessity  for  any  vibrating  motion  of  the  rod,  which 
works  in  fixed  guides. 

Fig.  7G1.  Triangular  eccentric,  giving  an  intermittent  reciprocating  rectilinear 
motion,  used  in  France  for  the  valve-motion  of  steam  engines. 

Fig.  762.     Ordinary  crank-motion. 

Fig.  763.  Crank-motion,  with  the  crank-wrist  working  in  a  slotted  yoke,  thereby 
dispensing  with  the  oscillating  connecting-rod  or  pitman. 

Fig.  764.  Variable  crank,  2  circular  plates  revolving  on  the  same  centre.  In  one  a 
spiral  groove  is  cut ;  in  the  other  a  series  of  slots  radiating  from  the  centre.  On  turning 
one  of  these  plates  around  its  centre,  the  bolt  shown  near  the  bottom  of  the  figure,  and 
which  passes  through  the  spiral  groove  and  radial  slots,  is  caused  to  move  toward  or 
from  the  centre  of  the  plates. 

Fig.  765.  On  rotating  the  upright  shaft,  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  is  imparted 
by  the  oblique  disc  to  the  upright  rod  resting  upon  its  surface. 

Fig,  766.  A  heart-cam.  Uniform  traversing  motion  is  imparted  to  the  horizontal 
bar  by  the  rotation  of  the  heart-shaped  cam.  The  dotted  lines  show  the  mode  of 
striking  out  the  curve  of  the  cam.  The  length  of  traverse  is  divided  into  any  number 
of  parts ;  and  from  the  centre  a  series  of  concentric  circles  are  described  tbrough  these 
points.     The  outside  circle  is  then  divided  into  double  the  number  of  these  divisions, 


Mechanical  Movements. 


479 


764. 


rcj. 


11Z. 


112. 


15-1. 


lee. 


111. 


11G. 


765. 


769. 


113. 


111. 


lie. 


_ 


•/A'/7//  ■/"/'//y//'yj"^f^^/r 


t>Sh 


""1 '''i rwimm 


775. 


774. 


7S2.        781. 


nM 


779. 


f 


0 


480  Mechanical  Movements. 

and  lines  dra-wn  to  the  centre.  The  curve  is  then  drawn  througli  the  inteisections  of 
the  concentric  circles  and  the  radiating  lines. 

Fig.  767.     This  is  a  heart-cam,  similar  to  Fig.  766,  except  that  it  is  grooved. 

FiiT.  76S.  Irregular  vibrating  motic^n  is  produced  by  the  rotation  of  the  circular  disc, 
in  which  is  fixed  a  crank-pin.  working  in  an  endless  groove,  cut  in  the  vibrating  arm. 

Fig.  769.  Spiral  guide  attached  to  the  face  of  a  disc  ;  used  for  the  feed-motion  of  a 
drilling  machine. 

Fig.  770.     Quick  return  crank-motion,  applicable  to  shaping  machines. 

Fig.  771.  Eectilinear  motion  cf  horizontal  bar,  bv  means  of  vibrating  slotted  bar 
hung  from  the  top. 

Fig.  772.  Common  screw  bolt  and  nut ;  rectilinear  motion  obtained  from  circular 
motion. 

Figs.  773,  777.  Uniform  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion,  produced  by  rotary  motion 
cf  grooved  cams. 

Fig.  774.     Eectilinear  motion  of  slide  produced  by  the  rotation  of  screw. 

Fig.  775.     Screw  stamping-press ;  rectilinear  motion  from  circular  motion. 

Fig.  776.  In  this,  rotary  motion  is  imparted  to  the  wheel  by  the  rotation  of  the 
screw,  or  rectilinear  motion  of  the  slide  by  the  rotation  of  the  wheel.  Used  in  screw- 
cutting  and  slide-lathes. 

Fig.  77S.  Uniform  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  from  uniform  rotary  motion  of  a 
cylinder,  in  which  are  cut  reverse  threads  or  grooves,  which  necessarily  intersect  twice 
in  every  revolution.  A  point  inserted  in  the  groove  will  traverse  the  cylinder  from  end 
to  end. 

Fig.  779.  The  rotation  of  the  screw  at  the  left-hand  side  produces  a  uniform 
rectilinear  movement  of  a  cutter,  which  cuts  another  screw-thread.  The  pitch  of  the 
screw  to  be  cut  may  be  varied  by  changing  the  sizes  of  the  wheels  at  the  end  of  the 
frame. 

Fig.  7S0.  Uniform  circular  into  uniform  rectilinear  motion ;  used  in  spooling  frames 
for  leading  or  guiding  the  thread  on  to  the  spools.  The  roller  is  divided  into  2  parts, 
each  having  a  fine  screw-thread  cut  upon  it,  one  a  right  and  the  other  a  left-hand  screw. 
The  spindle,  parallel  with  the  roUer,  has  arms  which  carry  2  half-nuts,  fitted  to  the 
screws,  one  over  and  the  other  under  the  roller.  When  one  half-nut  is  in,  the  other  is 
out  of  gear.  By  pressing  the  lever  to  the  right  or  left,  tlie  rod  is  made  to  traverse  in 
either  direction. 

Fig.  7S1.  Micrometer  screw.  Great  power  can  be  obtained  by  this  device.  The 
threads  are  made  of  different  pitch,  and  run  in  different  directions  :  consequently  a  die 
or  nut,  fitted  to  the  inner  and  smaller  screw,  would  traverse  only  the  length  of  the 
difference  between  the  pitches  for  every  revolution  of  the  outside  hollow  screw  in  a  nut. 

Fig.  7S2.  Persian  drill.  The  stock  of  the  drill  has  a  very  qtiick  thread  cut  upon 
it,  and  revolves  freely,  supported  by  the  head  at  the  top,  which  rests  against  the  body. 
The  button  or  nut,  shown  on  the  middle  of  the  screw,  is  held  firm  in  the  hand,  and 
pulled  quickly  up  and  down  the  stock,  thtis  causing  it  to  revolve  to  the  right  and  left 
alternately. 

Fig.  7  S3.  Ciretilar  info  rectilinear  motion,  or  the  reverse,  by  means  of  rack  and 
pinion. 

Fig.  7Si.  A  cam  acting  between  two  friction-roUers  in  a  yoke.  Has  been  used  to 
give  the  movement  to  the  valve  of  a  steam  engine. 

Fig.  7S5.  Rotary  motion  of  the  toothed  wheels  produces  rectilinear  motion  of  tbe 
double  rack,  and  gives  equal  force  and  velocity  to  each  side,  both  wheels  being  of  equal 
size. 

Fig.  786.  A  substitute  for  the  crank.  Eeciprocating  rectilinear  motion  of  the  &ame 
carrying  the  double  rack  produces  a  uniform  rotary  motion  of  the  pinion-shaft  A 
separate  pinion  is  used  for  each  rack,  the  two  racks  being  ia  different  planes.    Both 


Mechanical  Movements.  481 

pinioos  are  loose  on  tlie  shaft.  A  ratchet-wheel  is  fast  on  the  shaft  outside  each  pinion, 
and  a  pawl  attached  to  the  pinion  to  engage  in  it,  one  ratchet-wheel  having  its  teeth  set 
in  one  direction,  and  the  other  having  its  teeth  set  iu  the  opposite  direction.  When  the 
racks  move  one  way,  one  pinion  turns  the  shaft  by  means  of  its  pawl  and  ratchet ;  and 
when  the  racks  move  the  opposite  way,  the  other  pinion  acts  in  the  same  way,  one 
pinion  always  turning  loosely  on  tlie  shaft. 

Fig.  787.  A  mode  of  doubling  the  length  of  stroke  of  a  piston-rod,  or  the  throw  of 
a  crank.  A  pinion  revolving  on  a  spindle  attached  to  the  connecting  rod  or  pitman  is 
in  gear  with  a  fixed  rack.  Another  rack  carried  by  a  guide-rod  above,  and  in  gear  with 
the  opposite  side  of  the  pinion,  is  free  to  traverse  backward  and  forward.  Now,  as  the 
connecting  rod  communicates  to  the  pinion  the  full  length  of  stroke,  it  would  cause  the 
top  rack  to  traverse  the  same  distance,  if  the  bottom  rack  was  alike  movable ;  but  as 
the  latter  is  fixed,  the  pinion  is  made  to  rotate,  and  consequently  the  top  rack  travels 
double  the  distance. 

Fig.  788.  Keciprocating  rectilinear  motion  of  the  bar  carrying  tlie  oblong  endless 
rack,  produced  by  the  uniform  rotary  motion  of  the  pinion  working  alternately  above  and 
below  the  rack.  The  shaft  of  the  pinion  moves  up  and  down  in,  and  is  guided  by,  the 
slotted  bar. 

Fig.  789.  Each  jaw  is  attached  to  one  of  the  two  segments,  one  of  which  has  teeth 
outside  and  the  other  teeth  inside.  On  turning  the  shaft  carrying  the  two  pinions,  one 
of  which  gears  with  one  and  the  otiier  with  the  other  segment,  the  jaws  are  brought 
together  with  great  force. 

Fig.  790.  Alternating  rectilinear  motion  of  the  rod  attached  to  the  disc-wheel 
produces  an  intermittent  rotary  motion  of  the  cog-wheel  by  means  of  the  click  attached 
to  the  disc-wheel.  This  motion,  which  is  reversible  by  throwing  over  the  click,  is  used 
for  the  feed  of  planing  machines  and  other  tools. 

Fig.  791.  The  rotation  of  the  2  spur-gears,  with  crank-wrists  attached,  produces  a 
variable  alternating  traverse  of  the  horizontal  bar. 

Fig.  792.  Fiddle  drill.  Keciprocating  rectilinear  motion  of  the  bow,  the  string  of 
which  passes  around  the  pulley  on  the  spindle  carrying  the  drill,  producing  alternating 
rotary  motion  of  the  drill. 

Fig.  793.  Intended  as  a  substitute  for  the  crank.  Eeciprocating  rectilinear  motion 
of  the  double  rack  gives  a  continuous  rotary  motion  to  the  centre  gear.  The  teeth  on 
the  rack  act  upon  those  of  the  2  semicircular  toothed  sectors,  and  the  spur-gears  attached 
to  the  sectors  operate  upon  the  centre  gear.  The  two  stops  on  the  rack,  shown  by  dotted 
lines,  are  caught  by  the  curved  piece  on  the  centre  gear,  and  lead  the  toothed  sectors 
alternately  into  gear  with  the  double  rack. 

Fig.  794.  A  modification  of  the  motion  shown  in  Fig.  791,  but  of  a  more  complex 
character. 

Fig.  795.    A  bell-crank  lever,  used  for  changing  the  direction  of  any  force. 

Fig.  796.  Motion  used  in  air-pumps.  On  vibrating  the  lever  fixed  on  the  same 
shaft  with  the  spur-gear,  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  is  imparted  to  the  racks  on 
each  side,  which  are  attached  to  the  pistons  of  2  pumps,  one  rack  always  ascending 
while  the  other  is  descending. 

Fig.  797.  A  continuous  rotary  motion  of  the  shaft  carrying  the  3  wipers  produces  a 
reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  of  the  rectangular  frame.  The  shaft  must  revolve  in 
the  direction  of  the  arrow  for  the  parts  to  be  in  the  position  represented. 

Fig.  798.  Chinese  windlass.  This  embraces  the  same  principles  as  the  micrometer 
screw.  Fig.  779.  The  movement  of  the  pulley  in  every  rcvohition  of  the  windlass  is 
equal  to  half  the  difference  between  the  larger  and  smaller  circumferences  of  the 
windlass  barrel. 

Fig.  799.  Shears  for  cutting  metal  plates.  The  jaws  are  opened  by  the  weight  of 
the  long  arm  of  the  upper  one,  and  closed  by  the  rotation  of  the  cam. 

2  I 


482 


Mechanical  :\[ovements. 


787. 


\(i    ^  L      )  (     ) 


792 


791. 


790. 


789. 


IS3 


797. 


796. 


793. 


791. 


701. 


Ite  p@  |l){§)  I 


<. 


ly 


80L 


890 


799. 


793. 


805. 


rm 


804. 


803. 


802. 


LLLI 


iCW— J|  p'^yyuwffl' 


-\.\\,'^S\  1  ■>^    ■  '^ ' ^ . j ;^■■^^^^\\\'^ 


Mechanical  Movements.  483 

Fig.  800.  A  system  of  crossed  levers,  termed  lazy  tongs.  A  short  alternating 
rectilinear  motion  of  rod  at  the  right  will  give  a  similar  but  much  greater  motion  to 
the  rod  at  the  left.  It  is  frequently  used  in  children's  toys.  It  has  been  applied  in  France 
to  a  machine  for  raising  sunken  vessels  ;  also  applied  to  ships'  pumps  three-quarters  of  a 
century  ago. 

Fig.  801.  This  is  a  motion  which  has  been  used  in  presses,  to  produce  the  necessary 
pressure  upon  the  platen.  Horizontal  motion  is  given  to  the  arm  of  the  lever  which 
turns  the  upper  disc.  Between  the  top  and  bottom  discs  are  2  bars  which  enter  holes 
in  the  discs.  These  bars  are  in  oblique  positions,  as  shown  in  the  drawing,  when  the 
press  is  not  in  operation ;  but  when  the  top  disc  is  made  to  rotate,  the  bars  move  toward 
perpendicular  positions  and  force  the  lower  disc  down.  Tlie  top  disc  must  be  firmly 
secured  in  a  stationary  position,  except  as  to  its  revolution. 

Fig.  802.  On  rotating  the  disc  carrying  the  crank-pin  working  in  the  slotted  arm, 
reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  is  imparted  to  the  rack  at  the  bottom  by  the  vibration  of 
the  toothed  sector. 

Fig.  803.  A  simple  press-motion  is  given  through  the  hand-crank  on  the  pinion- 
shaft,  the  pinion  communicating  motion  to  the  toothed  sector,  which  acts  upon  the 
platen,  by  means  of  the  rod  which  connects  it  therewith. 

Fig.  804.  Uniform  circular  motion  into  rectilinear,  by  means  of  u  rope  or  band, 
which  is  wound  several  times  around  the  drum. 

Fig.  805.  Modification  of  the  triangular  eccentric.  Fig.  761,  used  on  the  steam 
engine  in  the  Paris  Mint.  The  circular  disc  behind  carries  the  triangular  tappet,  which 
communicates  an  alternate  rectilinear  motion  to  the  valve-rod.  Tlie  valve  is  at  rest  at 
the  completion  of  each  stroke  for  an  instant,  and  is  pushed  quickly  across  the  steam- 
ports  to  the  end  of  the  next. 

Fig.  806.  On  turning  the  cam  at  the  bottom  a  variable  alternating  rectilinear  motion 
IS  imparted  to  the  rod  resting  on  it. 

Fig.  807,  A  cam-wheel,  of  which  a  side  view  is  shown,  has  its  rim  formed  into 
teeth,  or  made  of  any  profile  form  desired.  The  rod  to  the  right  is  made  to  press 
constantly  against  the  teeth  or  edge  of  the  rim.  On  turning  the  wheel,  alternate 
rectilinear  motion  is  communicated  to  tlie  rod.  The  character  of  this  motion  may  be 
varied  by  altering  the  shape  of  the  teeth,  or  profile  of  the  edge,  of  the  rim  of  the 
wheel. 

Fig.  808.  Expansion  eccentric,  used  in  France  to  work  the  slide-valve  of  a  steam- 
engine.  The  eccentric  is  fixed  on  the  crank-shaft,  and  communicates  motion  to  the 
forked  vibrating  arm,  to  the  bottom  of  which  the  valve-rod  is  attaclied. 

Fig.  809.  The  internal  rack,  carried  by  the  rectangular  frame,  is  free  to  slide  up 
and  down  within  it  for  a  certain  distance,  so  that  the  pinion  can  gear  with  either  side 
of  the  rack.  Continuous  circular  motion  of  the  pinion  is  made  to  produce  reciprocating 
rectilinear  motion  of  rectangular  frame. 

Fig.  810.  Endless  band-saw.  Continuous  rotary  motion  of  the  pulleys  is  made  to 
produce  continuous  rectilinear  motion  of  the  straight  parts  of  the  saw. 

Fig.  811.  The  toggle-joint  arranged  for  a  punching  machine.  Lever  at  the  right 
is  made  to  operate  upon  the  joint  of  the  toggle  by  means  of  the  horizontal  connecting 
link. 

Fig.  812.  Movement  used  for  varying  the  length  of  the  traversing  guide-bar,  which 
in  silk  machinery  guides  the  silk  on  to  spools  or  bobbins.  The  spur-gear  turning  freely 
on  its  centre,  is  carried  round  by  the  larger  circular  disc,  which  turns  on  a  fixed  central 
stud,  which  has  a  pinion  flist  on  its  end.  Upon  the  spur-gear  is  bolted  a  small  crank,  to 
which  is  jointed  a  connecting-rod  attached  to  traversing  guide-bar.  On  turning  the  disc, 
the  spur-gear  is  made  to  rotate  partly  upon  its  centre  by  means  of  the  fixed  pinion,  and 
consequently  brings  crank  nearer  to  centre  of  disc.  If  the  rotation  of  disc  was  contmueii. 
the  spur-gear  would  make  an  entire  revolution.     Dm-ing  half  a  revolution  tlie  traverse 

^     I     i^ 


484 


Mechanical  Movements. 


^inui'i(/J'/i''i'i'^iifJ""'^'i'''"'^'"-"J'''"' 


815. 


811. 


813. 


812. 


Sll. 


822. 


821. 


820. 


825. 


824. 


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Mechanical  Movements.  485 

would  have  been  sliortened  a  certain  amount  at  every  revolution  of  disc,  according  to  tlio 
size  of  spur-gear ;  and  during  the  other  half  it  would  have  gradually  lengthened  in  the 
same  ratio. 

Fig.  813.  Reciprocating  curvilinear  motion  of  the  beam  gives  a  continuous  rotary 
motion  to  the  crank  and  fly-wheel.  The  small  standard  at  tlio  right,  to  which  is 
attached  one  end  of  the  lever  with  which  the  beam  is  connected  by  the  connecting  rod, 
has  a  horizontal  reciprocating  rectilinear  movement.  " 

Fig.  814.  Continuous  rotary  motion  of  the  disc  produces  reciprocating  rectilinear 
motion  of  the  yoke-bar,  by  means  of  the  wrist  or  crank-pin  on  the  disc  working  in  tlio 
groove  of  the  yoke.  The  groove  may  be  so  shaped  as  to  obtain  a  uniform  reciprocatin"- 
rectilinear  motion.  ° 

Fig.  815.  Steam-engine  governor.  The  operation  is  as  follows  :— On  engine  starting, 
the  spindle  revolves  and  carries  round  the  cross-head,  to  which  fans  are  attached,  and 
on  which  are  also  fitted  two  friction-rollers,  which  bear  on  two  circular  inclined  planes 
attached  securely  to  the  centre  shaft,  the  cross-head  being  loose  on  the  shaft.  The  cross- 
head  is  made  heavy  or  has  a  ball  or  other  weight  attached,  and  is  driven  by  the  circular 
inclined  planes.  As  the  speed  of  the  centre  shaft  increases,  the  resistance  of  the  air  to 
the  wings  tends  to  retard  the  rotation  of  the  cross-head ;  the  friction-rollers,  therefore, 
run  up  the  inclined  planes  and  raise  the  cross-head,  to  the  upper  part  of  whicli  is 
connected  a  lever  operating  upon  the  regulating  valve  of  the  engine. 

Fig.  816.  Continuous  circular  motion  of  the  spur-gears  produces  alternate  circular 
motion  of  the  crank  attached  to  the  larger  gear. 

Fig.  817.  Uniform  circular  converted,  by  the  cams  acting  upon  the  levers,  into 
alternating  rectilinear  motions  of  the  attached  rods. 

Fig.  818.  A  valve-motion  for  working  steam  expansively.  The  series  of  cams  of 
varying  throw  are  movable  lengthwise  of  the  shaft,  so  that  either  may  be  made  to  act 
upon  the  lever  to  which  the  valve-rod  is  connected.  A  greater  or  less  movement  of  the 
valve  is  produced  according  as  a  cam  of  greater  or  less  throw  is  opposite  the  lever. 

Fig.  819.  Circular  motion  into  alternating  rectilinear  motion  by  the  action  of  the 
studs  on  the  rotary  disc  upon  one  end  of  the  bell-crank,  the  other  end  of  which  has 
attached  to  it  a  weighted  cord  passing  over  a  pulley. 

Fig.  820.  An  ellipsograph.  The  traverse  bar,  shown  in  an  oblique  position,  carries 
2  studs,  which  slide  in  the  grooves  of  the  cross-piece.  By  turning  the  traverse  bar  an 
attached  pencil  is  made  to  describe  an  ellipse  by  the  rectilinear  movement  of  the  studs  in 
the  grooves. 

Fig.  821.  Circular  motion  into  alternating  rectilinear  motion.  The  studs  on  the 
rotating  disc  strike  the  projection  on  the  under  side  of  the  horizontal  bar,  moving  it  in 
one  direction.  The  return  motion  is  given  by  means  of  the  bell-crank  or  elbow-lever, 
one  arm  of  which  is  operated  upon  by  the  next  stud,  and  the  other  strikes  the  stud  on 
the  front  of  the  horizontal  bar. 

Fig.  822.  Reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  into  intermittent  circular  motion,  by 
means  of  the  pawl  attached  to  the  elbow-lever,  and  operating  in  the  toothed  wheel. 
Motion  is  given  to  the  wheel  in  either  direction  according  to  the  side  on  which  the  pawl 
works.     This  is  used  in  giving  the  feed-motion  to  planing  machines  and  other  tools. 

Fig,  823.  Circular  motion  into  variable  alternating  rectilinear  motion,  by  the  wrist 
or  crank-pin  on  the  rotating  disc  working  in  the  slot  of  the  bell-crank  or  elbow-lever. 

Fig.  824.  A  modification  of  the  movement  last  described,  a  connecting  rod  being 
substituted  for  the  slot  in  the  bell-crank. 

Fig.  825.  Reciprocating  curvilinear  motion  of  the  treadle  gives  a  circular  motion  fo 
the  elisc.    A  crank  may  be  substituted  for  the  disc. 

Fig.  826.  A  modification  of  Fig.  825,  a  cord  and  pulley  being  substituted  for  the 
connecting  rod. 

Fig.  827.      Alternating  curvilinear  motion  into  alternating  circular.     When  the 


486  Mechanical  Movements. 

treadle  lias  been  depressed,  the  spring  at  the  top  elevates  it  for  the  nest  stroke ;  the 
connecting  band  passes  once  round  the  pulley,  to  which  it  gives  motion. 

Fig.  828.  Centrifugal  governor  for  steam  engines.  The  central  spindle  and  attached 
arms  and  balls  are  driven  from  the  engine  by  the  bevel-gears  at  the  top,  and  the  balls  Qy 
out  from  the  centre  by  centrifugal  force.  If  the  speed  of  the  engine  increases,  the  balls 
liy  out  farther  from  the  centi-e,  and  so  raise  the  slide  at  the  bottom,  and  thereby  reduce 
the  opening  of  the  regulating  valve  which  is  connected  with  the  slide.  A  diminution  of 
speed  produces  an  opposite  effect. 

Fig.  829.  Water-wheel  governor  acting  on  the  same  principle  as  Fig.  828,  but  by 
different  means.  The  governor  is  driven  by  the  top  horizontal  shaft  and  bevel-gears,  and 
the  lower  gears  control  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  shuttle  or  gate  over  or  through  which  the 
water  flows  to  the  wheel.  The  action  is  as  follows : — The  2  bevel-gears  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  centre  spindle,  which  are  furnished  with  studs,  are  fitted  loosely  to  the  spindle, 
and  remain  at  rest  so  long  as  the  governor  has  a  proper  velocity  ;  but  immediately  the 
velocity  increases,  the  balls  flying  farther  out,  draw  up  the  pin  which  is  attached  to  a 
loose  sleeve  which  slides  up  and  down  the  spindle,  and  this  pin,  coming  in  contact  with 
the  stud  on  the  upper  bevel-gear,  causes  that  gear  to  rotate  with  the  spindle,  and  to  give 
motion  to  the  lower  horizontal  shaft  in  such  a  direction  as  to  make  it  raise  the  shuttle  or 
gate,  and  so  reduce  the  quantity  of  water  passing  to  the  wheel.  On  the  contrary,  if  the 
speed  of  the  governor  decreases  below  that  required,  the  pin  falls  and  gives  motion  to  the 
lower  bevel-gear,  which  drives  the  horizontal  shaft  in  the  opposite  direction,  and  produces 
a  contrary  effect. 

Fig.  830.  Another  arrangement  for  a  water-wheel  governor.  In  this  the  governor 
controls  the  shuttle  or  gate  by  means  of  the  cranked  lever,  which  acts  on  the  strap  or 
belt  in  the  following  manner: — The  belt  runs  on  1  of  3  pulleys,  the  middle  one  of 
which  is  loose  on  the  governor  spindle,  and  the  upper  and  lower  ones  fast.  When  the 
governor  is  running  at  the  proper  speed  the  belt  is  on  the  loose  pulle}-,  as  shown ;  but 
when  the  speed  increases,  the  belt  is  thrown  on  the  lower  pulley,  and  thereby  caused 
to  act  upon  suitable  gearing  for  raising  the  gate  or  shuttle  and  decreasing  the  supply 
of  water.  A  reduction  of  the  speed  of  the  governor  brings  the  belt  on  the  upper 
pulley,  which  acts  upon  gearing  for  producing  an  opposite  effect  on  the  shuttle  or  gate. 

Fig.  831.  A  knee-lever,  differing  sliglitly  from  the  toggle-joint  shown  in  Fig.  811. 
It  is  often  used  for  presses  and  stamps,  as  a  great  force  can  be  obtained  by  it.  The 
action  is  by  raising  or  lowering  the  horizontal  lever. 

Fig.  832.  Circular  into  rectilinear  motion.  The  waved  wheel,  or  cam,  on  the 
upright  shaft  communicates  a  rectilinear  motion  to  the  upriglit  bar  through  the 
oscillating  rod. 

Fig.  833.  A  drum,  or  cylinder,  having  an  endless  spiral  groove  extending  all  around 
it,  one  half  of  the  gi-oove  having  its  pitch  in  one,  and  the  other  half  its  pitch  in  the 
opposite  direction.  A  stud  on  a  reciprocating  rectilinearly-moving  rod  works  in  the 
groove,  and  so  converts  reciprocating  into  rotary  motion.  This  has  been  used  as  a 
substitute  for  the  crank  in  a  steam  engine,  and  as  a  means  of  transmitting  motion  in 
Foster's  pressure  gauge. 

Fig.  834.  The  rotation  of  the  disc  carrying  the  crank-pin  gives  a  to-and-fro  motion 
to  the  connecting  rod,  and  the  slot  allows  the  rod  to  remain  at  rest  at  the  termination 
of  each  stroke.  It  has  been  used  in  a  brick  press,  in  which  the  connecting  rod  draws 
a  mould  backward  and  forward,  and  p.imits  it  to  rest  at  the  termination  of  each  stroke, 
that  the  clay  may  be  deposited  in  it  and  the  brick  extracted. 

Fig.  83.5.  The  slotted  crank  at  the  left  hand  of  the  figure  is  on  the  main  shaft  of  an 
engine,  and  the  pitman  which  connects  it  with  the  reciprocating  moving  power  is 
furnished  with  a  pin  which  works  in  the  slot  of  the  crank.  Intermediate  between  the 
first  crank  and  the  moving  power  is  a  shaft  carrying  a  second  crank,  of  an  invariable 
radius,  connected  with  the  same  pitman.     While  the  first  crank  moves  in  a  circular 


Mechanical  Movements.  487 

orbit,  the  pin  at  the  end  of  the  pitman  is  compelled  to  move  in  an  elliptical  orLit,  thus 
increasing  the  leverage  of  the  main  crank  at  those  points  which  are  most  fuvourablo 
for  the  transmission  of  power. 

Fig.  836.  A  modification  of  Fig.  835,  in  which  a  link  is  used  to  connect  the  pitman 
with  the  main  crank,  thereby  dispensing  with  the  slot  in  the  crank. 

Fig.  837.  Another  form  of  steam-engine  governor.  Instead  of  the  arms  being  con- 
nected with  a  slide  working  on  a  spindle,  they  cross  each  other,  and  are  elongated 
upward  beyond  the  top,  and  connected  with  the  valve-rod  by  2  short  links. 

Fig.  838.  Valve-motion  and  reversing  gear,  used  in  oscillating  marine  engines. 
Tlie  two  eccentric- rods  give  an  oscillating  motion  to  the  slotted  link,  which  works  the 
curved  slide  over  the  trunnion.  AVithin  tlie  slot  in  the  curved  slide  is  a  pin  attaclied 
to  the  arm  of  a  rock-shaft,  which  gives  motion  to  the  valve.  The  curve  of  the  slot  in 
the  slide  is  an  arc  of  a  circle,  described  from  the  centre  of  the  trunnion,  and  as  it  moves 
with  the  cylinder  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  stroke  of  the  valve.  The  2  eccentrics 
and  links  are  like  those  of  the  link-motion  used  in  locomotives. 

Fig.  839.  A  mode  of  obtaining  an  egg-shaped  elliptical  movement. 
Fig.  840.  A  movement  used  in  silk  machinery  for  the  same  purpose  as  that 
described  in  Fig.  812.  On  the  back  of  a  disc  or  bevel-gear  is  secured  a  screw,  with  a 
tappet-wheel  at  one  extremity.  On  each  revolution  of  the  disc  the  tappet-wheel  comes 
in  contact  with  a  pin  or  tappet,  and  thus  receives  an  intermittent  rotary  movement.  A 
wrist,  secured  to  a  nut  on  the  screw,  enters  and  works  in  a  slotted  bar  at  the  end  of 
the  rod,  which  guides  the  silk  on  the  bobbins.  Each  revolution  of  the  disc  varies  the 
length  of  stroke  of  the  guide-rod,  as  the  tappet-wheel  on  the  end  of  the  screw  turns 
the  screw  with  it,  and  the  position  of  the  nut  on  the  screw  is  therefore  changed. 

Fig.  841.  Carpenters'-beuch  clamp.  By  pushing  the  clamp  between  the  jaws  they 
are  made  to  turn  on  the  screws  and  clamp  the  sides. 

Fig.  842.  A  means  of  giving  one  complete  revolution  to  the  crank  of  an  engine  to 
each  stroke  of  the  piston, 

Fi"-s.  843,  844.  Contrivance  for  uncoupling  engines.  The  wrist,  wliich  is  fixed  on 
one  arm  of  the  crank,  not  shown,  will  communicate  motion  to  the  arm  of  the  crank 
which  is  represented,  when  the  ring  on  the  latter  has  its  slot  in  the  position  shown  in 
Fig.  843.  But  when  the  ring  is  turned  to  bring  the  slot  in  the  position  shown  in 
Fig.  844,  the  wrist  passes  through  the  slot,  without  turning  the  crank  to  which  the  ring 
is  attached. 

Fig.  845.  Contrivance  for  varying  the  speed  of  the  slide  carrying  the  cutting  tool 
in  slotting  and  shaping  machines.  The  driving  shaft  works  through  an  opening  in  a 
fixed  disc,  in  which  is  a  circular  slot.  At  the  end  of  the  shaft  is  a  slotted  crank.  A 
slide  fits  in  the  slot  of  the  crank  and  in  the  circular  slot ;  and  to  the  outward  extremity 
of  this  slide  is  attached  the  connecting  rod  which  works  the  slide  carrying  the  cutting 
tool.  When  the  driving  shaft  rotates,  the  crank  is  carried  round,  and  the  slide  carrying 
the  end  of  the  connecting  rod  is  guided  by  the  circular  slot,  which  is  placed  eccentrically 
to  the  shaft ;  therefore,  as  the  slide  approaches  the  bottom  the  length  of  the  crank  is 
shortened,  and  the  speed  of  the  connecting  rod  is  diminished. 

Fio-.  846.  Keversing  gear  for  a  single  engine.  On  raising  the  eccentric-rod,  the 
valve-spindle  is  released.  The  engine  can  then  be  reversed  by  working  the  upright 
lever,  after  which  the  eccentric-rod  i.g  let  down  again.  The  eccentric  in  this  case  is 
loose  upon  the  shaft,  and  driven  by  a  projection  on  the  shaft  acting  upon  a  nearly 
semicircular  projection  on  the  side  of  the  eccentric,  which  permits  the  eccentric  to  turn 
half-way  round  on  the  shaft  on  reversing  the  valves. 

Fig.  847.  This  only  differs  from  Fig.  841  in  being  composed  of  a  single  piovted 
clamp  operating  in  connection  with  a  fixed  side-piece. 

Figs.  848,  849.  Diagonal  catch  and  hand-gear  used  in  large  blowing  and  pumping 
en-^ines.     In' Fig.  848  the  lower  steam- valve  and  upper  eductiou-valvo  are  open,  while 


488 


Mechanical  Movements. 


833. 


S32 


831. 


S30. 


S29b 


823. 


I 
^     1 


=□= 


837. 


836. 


835. 


831. 


S4r. 


846, 


."^^SSS^SwSSSSSSSSS^^K 


853. 


£52. 


851. 


SCO. 


849. 


84,8. 


Mechanical  Movements.  48[> 

the  upper  steam-valve  and  lower  etluction-valvo  are  shut ;  consequently  the  piston  will 
be  asuouding.  In  the  ascent  of  the  piston-rod  the  lower  handle  will  bo  struck  l)y  tlie 
projecting  tappet,  and  being  raised  will  become  engaged  by  the  catch,  and  shut  the 
upper  eduction  and  lower  steam  valves ;  at  tlie  same  time  the  upper  handle  bein" 
disengaged  from  the  catch,  tlie  back  weight  will  pull  the  handle  up  and  open  the 
upper  steam  and  lower  eduction  valves,  when  the  piston  will  consequently  dcsceml. 
Fig.  849  represents  the  position  of  the  catches  and  handles  when  the  piston  is  at  the 
top  of  the  cylinder.  In  going  down,  the  tappet  of  the  piston-rod  strikes  the  upper 
handle,  and  throws  tlie  catches  and  handles  to  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  848. 

Figs.  850,  851,  represent  a  modification  of  Figs.  848,  849,  the  diagonal  catches  bein"- 
superseded  by  two  quadrants. 

Fig.  852.  Apparatus  for  disengaging  the  eccentric-rod  from  the  valve-gear.  By 
pulling  up  the  spring  handle  below  until  it  catches  in  the  notch  a,  the  pin  is  disen^-afed 
from  the  gab  in  the  eccentric-rod. 

Fig.  853.  A  mode  of  driving  a  pair  of  feed-rolls,  the  opposite  surfaces  of  which 
require  to  move  in  the  same  direction.  The  2  wheels  are  precisely  similar,  and  both 
gear  into  the  endless  screw  which  is  arranged  between  them.  The  teeth  of  one  wlicel 
only  are  visible,  those  of  the  other  being  on  the  back  or  side  which  is  concealed 
from  view. 

Fig.  854.  Link-motion  valve-gear  of  a  locomotive ;  2  eccentrics  are  used  for  one 
valve,  one  for  the  forward  and  the  other  for  the  backward  movement  of  the  engine.  The 
extremities  of  the  eccentric-rods  are  jointed  to  a  curved  slotted  bar,  or,  as  it  is  termed 
a  link,  which  can  be  raised  or  lowered  by  an  arrangement  of  levers  terminating  in  a 
handle  as  shown.  In  the  slot  of  the  link  is  a  slide  and  pin  connected  with  an  arrange- 
ment of  levers  terminating  at  the  valve-stem.  The  link,  in  moving  with  the  action  of 
the  eccentrics,  carries  with  it  the  slide,  and  thence  motion  is  communicated  to  the 
valve.  Suppose  the  link  raised,  so  that  the  slide  is  in  the  middle,  tlien  the  link  will 
oscillate  on  the  pin  of  the  slide,  and  consequently  the  valve  will  be  at  rest.  If  the  link 
is  moved  so  that  the  slide  is  at  one  of  its  extremities,  the  whole  throw  of  the  eccentric 
connected  with  that  extremity  will  be  given  to  it,  and  the  valve  and  steam-ports  will 
be  opened  to  the  full,  and  it  will  only  be  toward  the  end  of  the  stroke  that  they  will  be 
totally  shut ;  consequently  the  steam  will  have  been  admitted  to  the  cylinder  during 
almost  the  entire  length  of  each  stroke.  But  if  the  slide  is  between  the  middle  and 
the  extremity  of  the  slot,  as  shown  in  the  figure,  it  receives  only  a  part  of  the  throw 
of  the  eccentric,  and  the  steam-ports  will  only  be  partially  opened,  and  are  quickly 
closed  again,  so  that  the  admission  of  steam  ceases  some  time  before  the  termination 
of  tlie  stroke,  and  the  steam  is  worked  expansively.  The  nearer  the  slide  is  to  the 
middle  of  the  slot  the  greater  will  be  the  expansion,  and  vice  versa. 

Figs.  855,  856.     Modifications  of  Fig.  852. 

Fig.  857.     Another  modification  of  Fig.  852. 

Fig.  858.  A  screw-clamp.  On  turning  the  handle  the  screw  thrusts  upward  against 
the  holder,  which  operating  as  a  lever,  hohls  down  the  piece  of  wood  or  other  material 
placed  under  it  on  the  other  side  of  its  fulcrum. 

Fig.  859.  A  variety  of  what  is  known  as  the  mangle-wheel.  One  variety  of  this 
■was  illustrated  by  Fig.  748.  In  this  one  the  speed  varies  in  every  part  of  a  revolution, 
the  groove  h,  d,  in  which  the  pinion-shaft  is  guided,  as  well  as  the  series  of  teeth,  being 
eccentric  to  the  axis  of  the  wheel. 

Fig.  800.  Another  kind  of  mangle-wheel,  with  its  pinion.  "With  tliis  as  well  as 
with  that  in  the  preceding  figure,  although  the  pinion  continues  to  revolve  in  one 
direction,  the  mangle-wheel  will  make  almost  an  entire  revolution  in  one  direction 
and  the  same  in  an  opposite  direction;  but  the  revolution  of  the  wheel  in  one  direction 
will  be  slower  than  that  in  the  other,  owing  to  the  greater  radius  of  the  outer  circle 
of  teeth. 


490 


Mechanical  Movements. 


856. 


855. 


854. 


860. 


859. 


858. 


857. 


l£ 


864. 


863. 


862. 


861. 


12 Q. 


JD         ^ 


% 


S69. 


868. 


86?. 


866. 


8C5. 


^    r^    % 
^    ®     i 


(^       & 


CHB] 

0 — 0" 


874. 


873. 


872. 


871. 


870. 


Mechanical  Movements.  491 

Fig.  8G1.  Another  mangle-wheel.  In  this  the  speed  is  equal  in  Ixith  directions 
of  motion,  only  one  circle  of  teeth  being  provided  on  tlic  wheel.  "Witli  all  of  these 
mangle-wheels  the  pinion-shaft  is  guided,  and  the  pinion  kept  in  gear,  by  a  groove  in 
the  wlieel.  The  said  shaft  is  made  with  a  universal  joint,  which  allows  a  portion  of 
it  to  have  the  vibratory  motion  necessary  to  keep  the  pinion  in  gear. 

Fig.  862.  The  pinion  B  rotates  about  a  fixed  axis,  and  gives  an  irregular  vibratory 
motion  to  the  arm  carrying  the  wheel  A. 

Fig.  863.  A  modification  of  what  is  called  a  mangle-rack.  In  this  the  pinion 
revolves,  but  does  not  rise  and  fall  as  in  the  former  figure.  The  portion  of  the  frame 
carrying  the  rack  is  jointed  to  the  main  portion  of  the  frame  by  rods,  so  that  when 
the  pinion  arrives  at  the  end  it  lifts  the  rack  by  its  own  movement,  and  follows  on  the 
other  side. 

Fig.  864.  An  illustration  of  the  transmission  of  rotary  motion  from  one  shaft  to 
another,  arranged  obliquely  to  it,  by  means  of  rolling  contact. 

Fig.  86a.  Another  form  of  mangle-rack.  The  lantern  pinion  revolves  continuously 
in  one  direction,  and  gives  reciprocating  motion  to  the  square  frame,  which  is  guided 
by  rollers  or  grooves.  The  pinion  has  only  teeth  in  less  tlian  half  of  its  circumference, 
so  tiiat  while  it  engages  one  side  of  the  rack,  the  toothless  half  is  directed  against  the 
other.  Tlie  large  tooth  at  the  commencement  of  each  rack  is  made  to  ensui-e  the  teeth 
of  the  pinion  being  properly  in  gear. 

Fig.  866.  A  reguhar  vibrating  movement  of  the  curved  slotted  arm  gives  a  variable 
vibration  to  the  straight  arm. 

Fig.  867  represents  a  wheel  driven  by  a  pinion  of  2  teetli.  The  pinion  consists  in 
reality  of  2  cams,  which  gear  with  2  distinct  series  of  teeth  on  opposite  sides  of  the 
wheel,  the  teeth  of  one  series  alternating  in  position  with  those  of  the  other. 

Fig.  868.  A  continuous  circular  movement  of  the  ratchet-wheel,  produced  by  the 
vibration  of  the  lever  carrying  2  pawls,  one  of  which  engages  the  ratchet-teeth  in  rising 
and  the  other  in  falling. 

Fig.  869.  By  turning  the  shaft  carrying  the  curved  slotted  arm,  a  rectilinear 
motion  of  variable  velocity  is  given  to  the  variable  bar. 

Fig.  870.     A  modification  of  Fig.  853,  by  means  of  2  worms  and  worm-wheels. 

Fig.  871.  A  pin-wheel  and  slotted  pinion,  by  which  3  changes  of  speed  can  be 
obtained.  There  are  3  circles  of  pins  of  equal  distance  on  the  face  of  the  pin-wheel, 
and  by  shifting  the  slotted  pinion  along  its  shaft,  to  bring  it  in  contact  with  one  or  the 
other  of  the  circles  of  pins,  a  continuous  rotary  motion  of  the  wheel  is  made,  to  pro- 
duce 3  changes  of  speed  of  the  pinion. 

Fig.  872  represents  a  mode  of  obtaining  motion  from  rolling  contact.  The  teeth 
are  for  making  the  motion  continuous,  or  it  would  cease  at  the  point  of  contact  shown 
in  the  figure.     The  fork  catch  is  to  guide  the  teeth  into  proper  contact. 

Fig.  873.  What  is  called  the  Geneva-stop,  used  in  Swiss  watches  to  limit  the 
number  of  revolutions  in  winding-up;  the  convex  curved  part  a,  h,  of  the  wheel  B 
serving  as  the  stop. 

Fig.  874.     Another  kind  of  stop  for  the  same  purpose. 

Fig.  875.  A  continuous  rotary  motion  of  the  large  wheel  gives  an  intermittent 
rotary  motion  to  the  pinion-shaft.  The  part  of  the  pinion  shown  next  the  wheel  is  cut 
of  the  same  curve  as  the  plain  portion  of  the  circumference  of  the  wheel,  and  therefore 
serves  as  a  lock  while  the  wheel  makes  a  part  of  a  revolution,  and  until  the  pin  \ipon 
the  wheel  strikes  the  guide-piece  upon  the  pinion,  when  the  pinion-shaft  commences 
another  revolution. 

Fig.  876,  877.  Other  modifications  of  the  stop,  the  operations  of  which  will  be 
easily  understood  by  comparison  with  Fig.  873. 

Fig.  878.  The  two  crank-shafts  are  parallel  in  direction,  but  not  in  line  with  each 
other.     The  revolution  of  either  will  communicate  motion  to  the  other  with  a  varying 


492 


Mechanical  Movements. 


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886. 


891. 


893. 


892. 


891. 


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898. 


897. 


893. 


S95. 


Mechanical  Movements.  493 

velocity,  for  the  wrist  of  one  crank  working  in  the  slot  of  tbo  other  is  continually  changing 
its  dibtiiuce  from  the  shaft  of  the  latter. 

Fig.  879.     The  external  and  internal  mutilated  cog-wheels  work  alternately  into 
the  pinion,  and  give  slow  forward  and  quick  reverse  motion. 

Figs.  880,  881.  These  are  parts  of  the  same  movement,  which  has  been  used  for  giving 
the  roller  motion  iu  wool-combing  machines.  Tlie  roller  to  wliich  the  wheel  F,  Fig.  881, 
is  secured,  is  required  to  make  i  revolution  backward,  then  |  revolution  forward,  when 
it  must  stop  until  another  length  of  combed  fil)re  is  ready  for  delivery.  This  ia 
accomplished  by  the  grooved  heart-cam  C,  D,  B,  e.  Fig.  880,  the  stud  A  working  in  the 
said  groove ;  from  C  to  D  it  moves  the  roller  backward,  and  from  D  to  e  it  moves  it 
forward,  the  motion  being  transmitted  through  the  catch  G,  to  tlio  notch-wheel  F,  on  the 
roller-shaft  H.  When  the  stud  A  arrives  at  the  point  e  in  the  cam,  a  projection  at  the 
back  of  the  wheel  which  carries  the  cam  strikes  the  projecting  piece  on  the  catch  G,  and 
raises  it  out  of  the  notch  in  the  wheel  F,  so  that  while  the  stud  is  travelling  in  the  cam 
from  e  to  C,  the  catch  is  passing  over  the  plain  surface  between  the  two  notches  in  the 
■wheel  F,  without  imparting  any  motion  ;  but  when  stud  A  arrives  at  the  part  C,  the  catch 
has  dropped  in  another  notch  and  is  again  ready  to  move  wheel  F  and  roller  as  required. 
Fig.  882.  An  arrangement  for  obtaining  variable  circular  motion.  The  sectors  are 
arranged  on  different  planes,  and  the  relative  velocity  changes  according  to  the  rcsi^ec- 
tive  diameters  of  the  sectors. 

Fig.  883.  Intermittent  circular  motion  of  the  ratchet-wheel  from  vibratory  motion 
of  the  arm  carrying  a  pawl. 

Fig.  884.  Drag-link  motion.  Circular  motion  ia  transmitted  from  one  crank  to  the 
other. 

Fig.  885.  This  represents  an  expanding  pulley.  On  turning  pinion  d  to  the  right 
or  left,  a  similar  motion  is  imparted  to  wheel  c,  which,  by  means  of  curved  slots  cut 
therein,  thrust  the  studs  fastened  to  arms  of  pulley  outward  or  inward,  thus  augmenting 
or  diminishing  the  size  of  the  pulley. 

Fig.  886  represents  a  chain  and  chain  pulley.     The  links  being  in  different  planes, 
spaces  are  left  between  them  for  the  teeth  of  the  pulley  to  enter. 
Fig.  887.    Another  kind  of  chain  and  pulley. 
Fig.  888,    Another  variety. 

Fig.  889  shows  two  different  kinds  of  stops  for  a  lantern-wheel. 
Fig.  890.    Transmitted  circular  motion.     The  connecting  rods  are  so  arranged  that 
when  one  pair  of  connected  links  is  over  the  dead-point,  or  at  the  extremity  of  its  stroke, 
the  other  is  at  right  angles  ;  continuous  motion  is  thus  ensured  without  a  fly-wheel. 

Fig.  891.  Intermittent  circular  motion  is  imparted  to  the  toothed  wheel  by  vibrating 
the  arm  B.  When  the  arm  B  is  lifted,  the  pawl  C  is  raised  from  between  the  teeth  of 
the  wheel,  and  travellmg  backward  over  the  circumference  again  drops  between  two'teeth 
on  lowering  the  arm,  and  draws  with  it  the  wheel. 

Fig.  892.  The  oscillating  of  the  tappet-arm  produces  an  intermittent  rotary  motion 
of  the  ratchet-wheel.  The  small  spring  at  the  bottom  of  the  tappet-arm  keeps  the 
tappet  in  the  position  shown  iu  the  drawing,  as  the  arm  rises,  yet  allows  it  to  pass  the 
teeth  on  the  return  motion. 

Fig.  893.     A  nearly  continuous  circular  motion  is  imparted  to  the  ratchet-wheel  on 
vibrating  the  lever  a,  to  which  the  2  pawls  h  and  c  are  attached. 
Fig.  894.     An  arrangement  of  stops  for  a  spur-gear. 

Fig.  895.     A  reciprocating  circular  motion  of  the  top  arm  makes  its  attached  pawl 
produce  an  intermittent  circular  motion  of  the  crown-ratchet,  or  rag-wheel. 
Fig.  896  represents  varieties  of  stops  for  a  ratchet-wheel. 

Fig.  897.  Intermittent  circular  motion  is  imparted  to  the  wheel  A  by  the  contmuous 
circular  motion  of  the  smaller  wheel  with  one  tooth. 


494  Mechanical  Movements. 

Fig.  S98.  A  brake  used  in  crnncs  and  hoisting  machines.  By  pulling  down  the 
end  of  the  lever,  the  ends  of  the  brake-strap  are  drawn  towards  each  other,  and  the 
strap  tightened  on  the  brake- wheel. 

Fig.  899.  A  dynamometer,  or  instrument  used  for  ascertaining  the  amount  of  useful 
effect  given  out  by  any  motive  power.  It  is  used  as  follows; — A  is  a  smoothly-turned 
pulley,  secured  on  a  shaft  as  near  as  possible  to  the  motive  power.  Two  blocks  of  wood 
are  fitted  to  this  pulley,  or  one  block  of  wood  and  a  series  of  straps  fastened  to  a  band  or 
chain,  as  in  the  drawing,  instead  of  a  common  block.  The  blocks,  or  block  and  straps, 
are  so  arranged  that  they  may  be  made  to  bite  or  press  upon  the  pulley  by  means  of  the 
screws  and  nuts  on  the  top  of  the  lever  D.  To  estimate  the  amount  of  power  trans- 
mitted through  the  shaft,  it  is  only  necessary  to  ascertain  the  amount  of  friction  of  the 
drum  A  when  it  is  in  motion,  and  the  nuuiber  of  revolutions  made.  At  the  end  of  the 
lever  D  is  hung  a  scale  B,  in  wiiich  weights  are  placed.  The  two  stops  C,  C,  are  to 
maintain  the  lever  as  nearly  as  possible  in  a  horizontal  position.  Now,  suppose  the  shaft 
to  be  in  motion,  the  screws  are  to  be  tightened  and  weights  added  in  B,  until  the  lever 
takes  the  position  shown  in  the  drawing,  at  the  required  number  of  revolutions.  There- 
fore, the  useful  effect  would  be  equal  to  the  product  of  the  weights,  multiplied  by  the 
velocity  at  which  the  point  of  suspension  of  the  weights  would  revolve  if  the  lever 
were  attached  to  the  shaft. 

Fig.  900  represents  a  pantograph  for  copying,  enlarging,  and  reducing  plans.  One 
ai-m  is  attaclied  to  and  turns  on  the  fixed  jjoiot  C.  B  is  an  ivory  tracing  point,  and  A 
the  pencil.  Arranged  as  shown,  if  we  trace  the  lines  of  a  plan  with  the  point  B,  the 
pencil  will  reproduce  it  double  the  size.  By  shifting  the  slide  attached  to  the  fixed 
point  C,  and  the  slide  carrying  the  pencil  along  their  respective  arms,  the  proportion 
to  which  the  plan  is  traced  will  be  varied. 

Fig.  901.  Union  coupling.  A  is  a  pipe,  with  a  small  flange  abutting  against  the 
pipe  C,  with  a  screwed  end ;  B,  a  nut  which  holds  them  together. 

Fig.  902.  Anti-friction  bearing.  Instead  of  a  shaft  revolving  in  an  ordinary  bearing, 
it  is  sometimes  supported  on  the  circumference  of  wheels.  The  friction  is  thus  reduced 
to  the  least  amount. 

Fig.  903.  A  mode  of  releasing  a  sounding  weight.  When  the  piece  projecting  from 
the  bottom  of  the  rod  strikes  toe  bottom  of  the  sea,  it  is  forced  upwards  relatively  to  the 
rod,  and  withdraws  the  catch  from  under  the  weight,  which  drops  off  and  allows  the  rod 
to  be  lifted  without  it. 

Fig.  904.  Keleasing  hook  used  in  pile-driving  machines.  When  the  weight  W  is 
sufficiently  raised,  the  upper  ends  of  the  hooks  A,  by  which  it  is  suspended,  are  pressed 
inward  by  the  sides  of  the  slot  B,  in  the  top  of  the  frame ;  the  weight  is  thus  suddenly 
released,  and  falls  with  accumulating  force  on  to  the  pile-head. 

Fig.  905.  A  and  B  are  two  rollers,  which  require  to  be  equally  moved  to  and  fro  in 
the  slot  C.  This  is  accomplished  by  moving  the  piece  D,  with  oblique  slotted  arms,  up 
and  down. 

Fig.  906.  Centrifugal  check-hooks,  for  preventing  accidents  in  case  of  the  breakage 
of  machinery  which  raises  and  lowers  workmen,  or  ores,  in  mines.  A  is  a  framework 
fixed  to  the  side  of  the  shaft  of  the  mine,  and  having  fixed  studs  D,  attached.  The 
drum  on  which  the  rope  is  wound  is  provided  with  a  flange  B,  to  which  the  check-hooks 
are  attached.  If  the  drum  acquires  a  dangerously  rapid  motion,  the  hooks  fly  out  by 
centrifugal  force,  and  one  or  other,  or  all  of  them,  catch  hold  of  the  studs  D,  and  arrest 
the  drum,  and  stop  the  descent  of  whatever  is  attached  to  the  rope.  The  drmn  ought, 
besides  this,  to  have  a  spring  applied  to  it,  otherwise  the  jerk  arising  from  the  sudden 
stoppage  of  the  rope  might  produce  worse  effects  than  its  rapid  motion. 

Fig.  907.    A  sprocket-wheel  to  drive  or  to  be  driven  by  a  chain. 

Fig.  908.  A  differential  movement.  The  screw  C  works  in  a  nut  secured  to  the 
hub  of  the  wheel  E,  the  nut  being  free  to  turn  in  a  bearing  in  the  shorter  standard,  but 


Mecuanical  Movements.  495 

prevented  by  the  bearing  from  any  lateral  motion.  The  sorow-shaft  is  seonred  to  tho 
wheel  D.  Tho  driving  shaft  A  carries  2  pinions  F  and  B.  If  tliosc  pinions  were  of 
such  size  as  to  turn  the  2  wheels  D  and  E  with  an  equal  velocity,  the  screw  would 
remain  at  rest ;  but  the  said  wheels  being  driven  at  unequal  velocities,  tho  screw  travels 
according  to  the  difference  of  velocity. 

Fig.  909.  A  combination  movement,  in  which  the  weight  W  moves  vertically  with 
a  reciprocating  movement,  the  down-stroke  being  shorter  than  the  up-stroke.  B  is  a 
revolving  disc,  currying  a  drum,  which  winds  round  itself  the  cord  D.  An  arm  C  is 
jointed  to  the  disc  and  to  the  upper  arm  A,  so  that  when  the  disc  revolves,  tho  arm  A 
moves  up  and  down,  vibrating  on  the  point  G.  This  arm  carries  with  it  tlie  i)ullfy  E. 
Suppose  we  detach  the  cord  from  the  drum  and  tie  it  to  a  fixed  point,  and  then  move  the 
arm  A  up  and  down,  the  weight  W  will  move  the  same  distance,  and  in  addition  the 
movement  given  to  it  by  the  cord,  that  is  to  say,  the  movement  will  be  doubled.  Now,  lot 
us  attach  the  cord  to  the  drum,  and  revolve  the  disc  B,  and  the  weight  will  move  vi  rti- 
cally  witli  the  reciprocating  motion,  in  which  the  down-stroke  will  be  shorter  than  the 
up-stroke,  because  the  drum  is  continually  taking  up  the  cord. 

Figs.  910,  911.  The  first  of  these  figures  is  an  end  view,  and  the  second  a  side 
view,  of  an  arrangement  of  mechanism  for  obtaining  a  series  of  changes  of  velocity  and 
direction.  D  is  a  screw  on  which  is  placed  eccentrically  the  cone  B,  and  C  is  a  friction- 
roller,  which  is  pressed  against  the  cone  by  a  spring  or  weight.  Continuous  rotary 
motion,  at  a  uniform  velocity  of  the  screw  D  carrying  the  eccentric  cone,  gives  a  series 
of  changes  of  velocity  and  direction  to  the  roller  C.  It  will  be  understood  that  during 
every  revolution  of  the  cone  the  roller  would  press  against  a  diflferent  part  of  the  cone, 
and'  that  it  would  describe  thereon  a  spiral  of  the  same  pitch  as  the  screw  D.  The 
roller  C  would  receive  a  reciprocating  motion,  the  movement  in  one  direction  being 
shorter  than  that  in  the  other. 

Fig.  912.  The  shaft  has  two  screws  of  different  pitches  cut  on  it,  one  screwing  into 
a  fixed  bearing,  and  the  other  into  a  bearing  free  to  move  to  and  fro.  Rotary  motion  of 
the  shaft  gives  rectilinear  motion  to  the  movable  bearing,  a  distance  equal  to  the 
differences  of  pitches  at  each  revolution. 

Fig.  913.  Two  worm-wheels  of  equal  diameter,  but  one  having  one  tooth  more  than 
the  other,  both  in  gear  with  the  same  worm.  Suppose  the  first  wheel  has  100  teeth  and 
the  second  101,  one  wheel  will  gain  one  revolution  over  the  other  during  the  passage  of 
100  X  101  teeth  of  either  wheel  across  the  plane  of  centres,  or  during  10,000  revolutions 
of  the  worm. 

Fig.  914.  Variable  motion.  If  the  conical  drum  has  a  regular  circular  motion, 
and  the  friction-roller  is  made  to  traverse  lengthwise,  a  variable  rotary  motion  of  the 
friction-roller  will  be  obtained. 

Fig.  915.  Circular  into  reciprocating  motion  by  means  of  a  crank  and  oscillating 
rod. 

Fig.  916.  Continued  rectilinear  movement  of  the  frame  with  mutilated  racks 
gives  an  alternate  rotary  motion  to  the  spur-gear. 

Fig.  917.     Rotary  moCion  of  the  worm  gives  a  rectilinear  motion  to  tho  rack. 

Fig.  918.     Anti-friction  bearing  for  a  pulley. 

Fig.  919.  On  vibrating  the  lever  to  which  the  2  pawls  are  attached,  a  nearly  con- 
tinuous rectilinear  motion  is  given  to  the  ratchet-bar. 

Fig.  920.  Rotary  motion  of  the  bevelled  disc  cam  gives  a  reciprocating  rectilinear 
motion  to  the  rod  bearing  on  its  circumference. 

Fig.  921.  Rectilinear  into  rectilinear  motion.  When  the  rods  A  and  B  are  brought 
together,  the  rods  C  and  D  are  thrust  farther  apart,  and  the  reverse. 

Fig.  922.  An  engine  governor.  The  rise  and  fall  of  the  balls  K  are  guided  by  tho 
parabolic  curved  arms  B,  on  which  the  anti-friction  wheels  L  run.  The  rods  F,  con- 
necting the  wheels  L  with  the  sleeve,  move  it  up  and  down  the  spindle  C,  D. 


Mechanical  ]\[oyements. 


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921. 


920, 


919. 


918. 


Mechanical  Movements.  497 

Fi,2;.  923.  Continiimis  rotary  motion  of  the  cam  gives  a  reciprocating  rectilinear 
moti(m  to  the  bar.  The  cam  is  of  equal  diameter  in  every  direction  measured  across  its 
centre. 

Fig.  924.  Colt's  invention  for  obtaining  tlio  movement  of  tho  cylinder  of  a  re- 
volving fire-arm  by  the  act  of  cocking  the  hammer.  As  the  hammer  is  drawn  back  to 
cock  it,  the  dog  a,  attached  to  the  tumbler,  acts  on  the  ratchet  h,  on  tho  back  of  tho 
cylinder.     The  dog  is  held  up  to  the  ratchet  by  a  spring  c. 

Fig.  925.  C.  R.  Otis's  safety-stop  for  tho  platform  of  a  hoisting  apparatus.  A  arc 
the  stationary  uprights,  and  B  is  the  u^iper  part  of  the  platform  working  between  them. 
The  rope  a,  by  which  the  platform  is  hoisted,  is  attached  by  a  pin  h  and  spring  c,  and 
the  pin  is  connected  by  2  elbow-levers  Avith  2  pawls  d,  which  work  in  ratchets  secured 
to  the  uprights  A.  The  weight  of  the  platform  and  the  tension  of  the  rope,  keep  the 
pawls  out  of  gear  from  the  ratchets  in  hoisting  or  lowering  the  platform,  but,  in  case 
of  the  breakage  of  rope,  the  spring  c  presses  down  the  pin  h  and  the  attached  ends 
of  the  levers,  and  so  presses  the  pawls  into  the  ratchets  and  stops  the  descent  of  the 
platform. 

Fig.  926.  Crank  and  slotted  cross-head,  with  Clayton's  sliding  journal-box  applied 
to  the  crank-wrist.  This  box  consists  of  2  taper  lining  pieces  and  2  taper  jibs  adjustable 
by  screws,  which  serve  at  the  same  time  to  tighten  the  box  on  the  wrist,  and  to  set  it  out 
to  the  slot  in  the  cross-head  as  the  box  and  wrist  wear. 

Fig.  927.  Pickering's  governor.  The  balls  are  attached  to  springs,  the  upper  end 
of  each  of  which  is  attached  to  a  collar  fixed  on  the  spindle,  and  the  lower  end  to  a 
collar  on  the  sliding  sleeve.  The  springs  yield  in  a  proper  degree  to  the  centrifugal 
force  of  the  balls,  and  raise  the  sleeve;  and  as  the  centrifugal  force  diminishes,  they 
draw  the  balls  toward  the  spindle  and  depress  the  sleeve. 

Fig.  928.  A  mode  of  working  a  windlass.  By  the  alternating  motion  of  the  long 
hand-lever  to  the  right,  motion  is  commuiucated  to  the  short  lever,  the  end  of  which  is 
in  immediate  contact  with  the  rim  of  the  wheel.  The  short  lever  has  a  very  limited 
motion  upon  a  pin,  which  is  fixed  in  a  block  of  cast  iron,  which  is  made  with  2  jaws, 
each  having  a  flange  projecting  inward  in  contact  with  the  inner  surface  of  the  rim  of 
the  wheel.  By  the  upward  motion  of  the  outward  end  of  the  short  lever,  the  rim  of  the 
wheel  is  jammed  between  the  end  of  the  lever  and  the  flanges  of  the  block,  so  as  to 
cause  friction  sufScient  to  turn  the  wheel  by  the  further  upward  movement  of  the  lever. 
The  backward  movement  of  the  wheel  is  prevented  by  a  common  ratchet-wheel  and 
pawls  ;  as  the  short  lever  is  pushed  down  it  frees  the  wheel  and  slides  freely  over  it. 

Fig.  929.  The  revolution  of  the  disc  causes  the  lever  at  the  right  to  vibrate,  by  the 
pin  moving  in  the  groove  in  the  face  of  the  disc. 

Fig.  930.  By  the  revolution  of  the  disc,  in  which  is  fixed  a  pin  working  in  a  slot  in 
the  upright  bar  which  turns  on  a  centre  near  the  bottom,  both  ends  of  the  bar  are  made 
to  traverse,  the  tooth  sector  producing  alternate  rectilinear  motion  in  the  horizontal 
bar  at  the  bottom,  and  also  alternate  perpendicular  motion  of  the  weight. 

Fig.  931.  By  a  vibrating  motion  of  the  handle,  motion  is  communicatod  by  tlie 
pinion  to  the  racks.    This  is  used  in  working  small  air-pumps  for  scientific  oxiJurimonts. 

Fig.  932  represents  a  feeding  apparatus  for  the  bed  of  a  sawing  machine.  By  the 
revolution  of  the  crank  at  the  lower  part  of  the  figure,  alternate  motion  is  commimicated 
to  the  horizontal  arm  of  the  bell-crank  lever,  whose  fulcrum  is  at  a,  near  the  top  left- 
hand  corner  of  the  figure.  By  this  means,  motion  is  communicated  to  the  catch  attached 
to  the  vertical  arm  of  the  lever,  and  the  said  catch  communicates  motion  to  the  ratchet- 
wheel,  upon  the  shaft  of  which  is  a  toothed  pinion,  working  in  the  rack  attached  to  the 
side  of  the  carriage.     The  feed  is  varied  by  a  screw  in  the  bell-crank  lever. 

Fig.  933  is  the  movable  head  of  a  turning  lathe.  By  turning  the  wheel  to  the  right, 
motion  is  communicated  to  the  screw,  producing  rectilinear  motion  of  the  spindle,  in  the 
end  of  which  the  centre  ie  fixed. 

2s 


498 


Mechanical  Movements. 


927. 


/ 

C3 


O 


d 


926. 


O 


h 


925. 


924. 


i_js_in 


923. 


932. 


931. 


930. 


929. 


928. 


942. 


941. 


940. 


939. 


93S. 


945. 


944. 


913. 


Mechanical  Movements.  499 

Fig.  OSi.  Toe  and  lifter  for  working  poppet-valves  in  steam  engines.  The  curved 
toe  on  the  rock-shaft  operates  on  the  lifter  attached  to  the  lifting  rod  to  raise  the  valve. 

Fig.  9oo.  Conical  pendulum,  liung  by  a  thin  piece  of  round  wire.  Lower  end  con- 
nected with  and  driven  in  a  circle  by  an  arm  attached  to  a  vertical  rotating  spindle. 
The  pendulum-rod  describes  a  cone  in  its  revolution. 

Fig.  936.  Mercurial  compensation  pendulum.  A  glass  jar  of  mercury  is  used  for  the 
bob  or  weight.  As  the  pendulum-rod  is  expanded  lengthwise  by  increased  temperature, 
the  expansion  of  mercury  in  the  jar  carries  it  to  a  greater  height  therein,  and  so  raises  its 
centre  of  gravity  relatively  to  the  rod  sufficiently  to  compensate  for  downward  expansion 
of  the  rod.  As  rod  is  contracted  by  a  reduction  of  temperature,  contraction  of  mercury 
lowers  it  relatively  to  rod.  In  this  way  the  centre  of  oscillation  is  always  kept  in  the 
same  place,  and  the  eifective  length  of  pendulum  always  the  same. 

Fig.  937.  Compound  bar  compensation  pendulum.  C  is  a  compound  bar  of  brass 
and  iron,  or  steel  brazed  together  with  brass  downward.  As  brass  expands  more  than 
iron,  the  bar  will  bend  upward  as  it  gets  warmer,  and  carry  the  weights  W,  W,  up  with 
it,  raising  the  centre  of  the  aggregate  weight  M,  to  raise  the  centre  of  oscillation  aa 
much  as  elongation  of  the  pendulum-rod  would  let  it  down. 

Fig.  938.  Watch  regulator.  The  balance-spring  is  attached  at  its  outer  end  to  a 
fixed  stud  E,  and  at  its  inner  end  to  stafif  of  balance.  A  neutral  point  is  formed  in  the 
spring  at  P,  by  inserting  it  between  2  curb-pins  in  the  lever,  which  is  fitted  to  turn  oa 
a  fixed  ring  concentric  with  staff  of  balance,  and  the  spring  only  vibrates  between  this 
neutral  point  and  staff  of  balance.  By  moving  lever  to  the  right,  the  curb-pins  ara 
made  to  reduce  the  length  of  acting  part  of  spring,  and  the  vibrations  of  balance  are 
made  faster,  and  by  moving  it  to  left  an  opposite  effect  is  produced. 

Fig.  939.  Compensation  balance,  t,  a,  t'  is  the  main  bar  of  balance,  with  timing 
screws  for  regulation  at  the  ends,  t  and  t'  are  2  compound  bars,  of  which  the  outside  is 
brass  and  the  inside  steel,  carrying  weights  h,  h'.  As  heat  increases,  these  bars  are 
bent  inward  by  the  greater  expansion  of  the  brass,  and  the  weights  are  thus  drawn 
inward,  diminishing  the  inertia  of  the  balance.  As  the  heat  diminishes,  an  opposite 
effect  is  produced.  Tliis  balance  compensates  both  for  its  own  expansion  and  contraction, 
and  that  of  the  balance-spring. 

Fig.  9i0.  Endless  chain,  maintaining  power  on  going  barrel,  to  keep  a  clock  going 
while  winding,  during  which  operation  the  action  of  the  weight  or  main-spring  is  taken 
•off  the  barrel.  The  wheel  to  the  right  is  the  going  wheel,  and  that  to  the  left  the 
striking  wheel.  P  is  a  pulley  fixed  to  the  great  wheel  of  the  going  part,  and  roughened, 
to  prevent  a  rope  or  chain  hung  over  it  from  slipping.  A  similar  pulley  rides  on  another 
iirbor  p,  which  may  be  the  arbor  of  the  great  wheel  of  the  striking  part,  and  attached 
by  a  ratchet  and  click  to  that  wheel,  or  to  clock  frame,  if  there  is  no  striking  part.  The 
weights  are  hung,  as  may  be  seen,  the  small  one  being  only  large  enough  to  keep  the 
rope  or  chain  on  the  pulleys.  If  the  part  h  of  the  rope  or  chain  is  pulled  down,  the 
ratchct-puUey  runs  under  the  click,  and  the  great  weight  is  pulled  up  by  c,  without 
taking  its  pressure  off  the  going  wheel  at  all. 

Fig.  941.  Harrison's  going  barrel.  Larger  ratchet-wheel,  to  which  the  click  R  is 
attached,  is  connected  with  the  great  wheel  Gr  by  a  spring  S,  S'.  While  the  clock  is 
going  the  weight  acts  upon  the  great  wheel  G,  through  the  spring ;  but  as  soon  as  the 
weight  is  taken  off  by  winding,  the  click  T,  whose  pivot  is  set  in  the  frame,  prevents 
the  larger  ratchet  from  falling  back,  and  so  the  spring  S,  S',  still  drives  tlie  great  wheel 
during  the  time  the  clock  takes  to  wind,  as  it  need  only  just  keep  the  escapement 
going,  the  pendulum  taking  care  of  itself  for  that  short  time.  Good  watches  have  a 
substantially  similar  apparatus. 

Fig.  942.  A  very  convenient  construction  of  parallel  ruler  for  drawing,  made  by 
cutting  a  quadrangle  through  the  diagonal,  forming  two  right-angle  triangles  A  and  B. 
It  is  used  by  sliding  the  hypothenuse  of  one  triangle  upon  that  of  the  other. 

2  E  2 


500  Mechanical  Movements. 

Fig.  943.  Parallel  ruler,  consisting  of  a  simple  straight  ruler  B,  with  an  attached 
axle  C,  and  pair  of  wheels  A,  A.  The  wheels,  which  protrude  but  slightly  through  the 
under  side  of  the  ruler,  have  their  edges  nicked  to  take  hold  of  the  paper  and  keep  the 
ruler  always  parallel  witli  any  lines  drawn  upon  it. 

Fig.  944.  Compound  parallel  ruler,  composed  of  2  simple  rulers  A,  A,  connected 
by  2  crossed  arms  pivoted  together  at  the  middle  of  their  length,  each  pivoted  at  one 
end  to  one  of  the  rulers,  and  connected  with  the  other  one  by  a  slot  and  sliding  pin, 
as  shown  at  B.  In  thia  the  ends  as  well  as  the  edges  are  kept  parallel.  The  principle 
of  construction  of  the  several  rulers  represented  is  taken  advantage  of  in  the  formation 
of  some  parts  of  machinery. 

Fig.  945.  Parallel  ruler  composed  of  2  simple  rulers  A,  B,  connected  by  2  pivotecJ 
swinging  arms  C,  C. 

Fig.  946.  A  simple  means  of  guiding  or  obtaining  a  parallel  motion  of  the  piston- 
rod  of  an  engine.  The  slide  a  moves  in  and  is  guided  by  the  vertical  slot  in  the  frame, 
which  is  planed  to  a  true  surface. 

Fig.  947  diifers  from  Fig.  946  in  having  rollers  substituted  for  the  slides  on  the 
cross-head,  said  rollers  working  against  straight  guide-bars  a,  a,  attached  to  the  frame. 
This  is  used  for  small  engines  in  France. 

Fig.  948.  A  parallel  motion  invented  by  Dr.  Cartwright  in  the  year  1787.  The 
toothed  wheels  C,  C,  have  equal  diameters  and  numbers  of  teeth,  and  the  cranks  a,  a,  have 
equal  radii,  and  are  set  in  opposite  directions,  and  consequently  give  an  equal  obliquity 
to  the  connecting  rods  during  tlie  revolution  of  the  wheels.  The  cross-liead  on  the 
piston-rod  being  attached  to  the  2  connecting  rods,  the  piston-rod  is  caused  to  move  in  a 
right  line. 

Fig.  949.  A  piston-rod  guide.  The  piston-rod  A  is  connected  with  a  wrist  attached 
to  a  cog-wheel  B,  which  turns  on  a  crank-pin,  carried  by  a  plate  C,  which  is  fast  on  the 
shaft.  The  wheel  B  revolves  around  a  stationary  internally-toothed  gear  D,  of  double 
the  diameter  of  B,  and  so  motion  is  given  to  the  crank-pin,  and  the  piston-rod  is  kept 
upright. 

Fig.  950.  The  piston-rod  is  prolonged  and  works  in  a  guide  A,  which  is  in  line  with 
the  centre  of  the  cylinder.  The  lower  part  of  the  connecting  rod  is  forked  to  permit 
the  upper  part  of  the  piston-rod  to  pass  between. 

Fig.  951.  Table  engine.  The  cylinder  is  fixed  on  a  table-like  base.  The  piston-rod 
has  a  cross-head  working  in  straight  slotted  guides  fixed  on  top  of  cylinder,  and  is  con- 
nected by  2  side  connecting  rods  with  2  parallel  cranks  on  shaft  under  the  table. 

Fig.  952.  An  engine  with  crank  motion  like  that  represented  in  Fig.  753  and 
Fig.  926,  the  crank-wrist  journal  working  in  a  slotted  cross-head  A.  This  cross-head 
works  between  the  pillar-guides  D,  D,  of  the  engine  framing. 

Fig.  953.  A  parallel  motion  used  for  the  piston-rod  of  side-lever  marine  engines. 
F,  C  is  the  radius  bar,  and  E  the  cross-head  to  which  the  parallel  bar  E,  D,  is  attached. 

Fig.  954.    A  parallel  motion  used  only  in  particular  cases. 

Fig.  955  shows  a  parallel  motion  used  in  some  of  the  old  single-acting  beam-engines. 
The  piston-rod  is  formed  with  a  straight  rack  gearing  with  a  toothed  segment  on  the 
beam.     The  back  of  the  rack  works  against  a  roller  A. 

Fig.  956.  An  arrangement  of  parallel  motion  for  side-lever  marine  engines.  The 
parallel  rods  connected  with  the  side  rods  from  the  beams  or  side  levers  are  also  con- 
nected with  short  radius  arms  on  a  rack-shaft  working  in  fixed  bearings. 

Fig.  957.    A  parallel  motion  commonly  used  for  stationary  beam-engines. 

Fig.  958.  Parallel  motion  for  direct-action  engines.  In  tliis,  the  end  of  the  bar 
B,  C,  is  connected  with  the  piston-rod,  and  the  end  B  slides  in  a  fixed  slot  D.  The 
radius  bar  F,  A,  is  connected  at  F  with  a  fixed  pivot,  and  at  A  midway  between  the 
ends  of  B,  C. 

Fig.  959.    Mode  of  obtaining  2  reciprocating  movements  of  a  rod  by  one  revolution 


95L 


950 


Mechanical  Movements. 

919. 


9413. 


(501 


923. 


S62. 


/ToTilM 


I    r 


971. 


t^ 


970, 


9G9, 


968. 


502  Mechanical  Movements. 

of  a  shaft,  patented  in  183G  by  B.  F.  Snyder,  has  been  used  for  operating  the  needle  of 
a  sewing  machine,  by  J.  S.  McCurday,  also  for  driving  a  gang  of  saws.  The  disc  A  on 
the  central  rotating  shaft  has  2  slots  a,  a,  crossing  each  other  at  a  right  angle  in  the 
centre,  and  the  connecting  rod  B  has  attached  to  it  2  pivoted  slides  c,  c,  one  working  iu 
each  slot. 

Fig.  960.  Another  parallel  motion.  Beam  D,  C,  with  joggling  pillar  support  B,  F, 
which  vibrates  from  the  centre  F.  The  piston-rod  is  connected  at  C.  The  radius  Lar 
E,  A,  produces  the  parallel  motion. 

Fig.  961.  Grasshopper  beam-engine.  The  beam  is  attached  at  one  end  to  a  rocking 
pillar  A,  and  the  shaft  arranged  as  near  to  the  cylinder  as  the  crank  will  work.  A  is 
the  radius  bar  of  the  parallel  motion. 

Fig.  962.    A  modification,  in  wliich  the  radius  bar  is  placed  above  the  beam. 

Fig.  963.  Old-fashioned  single-actiug  beam  pumping  engine  on  the  atmospheric 
principle,  with  chain  connection  between  piston-rod  and  a  segment  at  end  of  beam. 
The  cylinder  is  open  at  top.  Very  low  pressxire  steam  is  admitted  below  piston,  and 
the  weight  of  pump-rod  and  connections  at  the  other  end  of  beam  helps  to  raise  piston. 
Steam  is  then  condensed  by  injection,  and  a  vacuum  thus  produced  below  piston,  which 
is  then  forced  down  by  atmospheric  pressure,  thereby  drawing  up  pump-rod. 

Fig.  964.  Parallel  motion  for  upright  engine.  A,  A  are  radius  rods  connected  at 
one  end  with  the  framing,  and  at  the  otlier  with  a  vibrating  i^iece  on  top  of  piston-rod. 

Fig.  965.  Oscillating  engine.  The  cylinder  has  trunnions  at  the  middle  of  its 
length  working  in  fixed  bearings,  and  the  piston-rod  is  connected  directly  with  the 
crank,  and  no  guides  are  used. 

Fig.  966.  Inverted  oscillating  or  pendulum  engine.  The  cylinder  has  trunnions  at 
its  ujDper  end,  and  swings  like  a  pendulum.  The  crank-shaft  is  below,  and  the  piston- 
rod  connected  directly  with  crank. 

Fig.  967.  Stamp.  Vertical  percussive  falls  derived  from  horizontal  rotating  shaft. 
The  mutilated  tooth-pinion  acts  upon  the  rack  to  raise  the  rod  until  its  teeth  leave  the 
rack  and  allow  the  rod  to  fall. 

Fig.  968.  Another  form  of  parallel  ruler.  The  arms  are  jointed  in  the  middle  and 
connected  witli  an  intermediate  bar,  by  which  means  the  ends  of  the  ruler,  as  well  as 
the  sides,  are  kept  parallel. 

Fig.  969.  Traverse,  or  to-and-fro  motion.  The  pin  in  the  upj^er  slot  being  stationary, 
and  the  one  in  the  lower  slot  made  to  move  in  the  direction  of  the  hoi  izontal  dotted  line, 
the  lever  will  by  its  connection  with  the  bar  give  to  the  latter  a  traversing  motion  in  its 
guides  a,  a. 

Fig.  970.  Parallel  motion  in  which  the  radius  rod  is  connected  with  the  lower  end 
of  a  short  vibrating  rod,  the  upper  end  of  whicli  is  connected  with  the  beam,  and  to  the 
centre  of  which  the  piston-rod  is  connected. 

Fig.  971.  A  modification  of  the  crank  and  slotted  cross-head.  Fig.  763.  The  cross- 
head  contains  an  endless  groove,  in  which  the  crank-wrist  works,  and  which  is  formed 
to  produce  a  uniform  velocity  of  movement  of  the  wrist  or  reciprocating  rod. 

Fig.  972.  Section  of  disc-engine.  Disc-piston,  seen  edgewise,  has  a  motion  sub- 
stantially like  a  coin  when  it  first  falls  after  being  spun  in  the  air.  The  cylinder-heads 
arc!  cones.  The  piston-rod  is  made  with  a  ball  to  which  the  disc  is  attached,  said  ball 
working  in  concentric  seats  in  cylinder-heads,  and  the  left-hand  end  is  attached  to  the 
crank-arm  or  fly-wheel  on  end  of  shaft  at  left.  Steam  is  admitted  alternately  on  either 
side  of  piston. 

Fig.  973.     Another  arrangement  of  the  Chinese  windlass,  illustrated  by  Fig.  798. 

Fig.  974.  The  gyroscope,  or  rotascope,  an  instrument  illustrating  the  tendency  of 
rotating  bodies  to  preserve  their  plane  of  rotation.  The  spindle  of  the  metallic  disc  C 
is  fitted  to  return  easily  in  bearings  in  the  ring  A.  If  the  disc  is  set  in  rapid  rotary 
motion  on  its  axis,  and  the  pintle  F  at  one  side  of  the  ring  A  pislaced  on  the  bearing 


Mechanical  Movements.  503 

in  tlic  top  of  the  pillar  G,  the  disc  and  ring  seem  indifferent  to  gravity,  and  instead  of 
dropping  begin  to  revolve  about  the  vertical  axis. 

Fig.  975.  Bohneuberger's  machine,  illustrating  the  same  tendency  of  rotating 
bodies.  This  consists  of  3  rings,  A,  A',  A-,  placed  one  within  the  other,  imd  connected 
by  pivots  at  right  angles  to  each  other.  The  smallest  ring  A-  contains  the  bearings  for 
the  axis  of  a  heavy  ball  B.  The  ball  being  set  iu  rapid  rotation,  its  axis  will  continue 
in  the  same  direction,  no  matter  how  tlie  position  of  the  rings  may  be  altered ;  and  the 
ring  A-  which  supports  it  will  resist  a  considerable  pressure  tendmg  to  displace  it. 

Fig.  970.  What  is  called  the  gyroscope  governor,  for  steam  engines,  introduced  by 
Alban  Anderson,  in  1858.  A  is  a  heavy  wheel,  the  axle  B,  B',  of  which  is  made  in 
2  pieces  connected  together  by  a  universal  joint.  The  wheel  A  is  on  one  piece  B,  and 
a  pinion  I  on  the  other  piece  B'.  The  piece  B  is  connected  at  its  middle  by  a  hinge- 
joint  with  the  revolving  frame  H,  so  that  variations  in  the  inclination  of  the  wheel  A 
will  cause  the  outer  end  of  the  piece  B  to  rise  and  fall.  The  frame  H  is  driven  by  bevel- 
gearing  from  the  engine,  and  by  that  means  the  pinion  I  is  carried  round  the  stationary 
toothed  circle  G,  and  the  wheel  A  is  thus  made  to  receive  a  rapid  rotary  motion  on  its 
axis.  When  the  frame  H  and  wheel  A  are  in  motion,  the  tendency  cf  the  wheel  A  is 
to  assume  a  vertical  position,  but  this  tendency  is  opposed  by  a  spring  L.  The  greater 
velocity  of  the  governor,  the  stronger  is  the  tendency  above  mentioned,  and  the  more  it 
overcomes  the  force  of  the  spring,  and  the  reverse.  The  piece  B  is  connected  with  the 
valve-rods  by  rods  C,  D,  and  the  spring  L  is  connected  with  the  said  rotls  by  levers  N 
and  rod  P. 

Fig.  977.  Primitive  drilling  apparatus.  Being  once  set  in  motion,  it  is  kept  going 
by  hand,  by  alternately  pressing  down  and  relieving  the  transverse  bar  to  which  the 
bands  are  attached,  causing  the  bands  to  wind  upon  the  spindle  alternately  in  opposite 
directions,  while  the  heavy  disc  or  fly-wheel  gives  a  steady  momentum  to  the  drill- 
spindle  in  its  rotary  motion. 

Fig.  978.  Traverse  of  carriage,  made  variable  by  fusee,  according  to  the  variation 
in  diameter  where  the  band  acts. 

Fig.  979.  Continuous  rotary  motion  from  oscillating.  The  beam  being  made  to 
vibrate,  the  drum  to  which  the  cord  is  attached,  working  loose  on  fly-wheel  shaft,  gives 
motion  to  said  shaft  through  the  pawl  and  ratchet-wheel,  the  pawl  being  attached  to 
drum  and  the  ratchet-wheel  fast  on  shaft. 

Fig.  980.  Another  simple  form  of  clutch  for  pulleys,  consisting  of  a  pin  on  the 
lower  shaft  and  a  pin  on  side  of  pulley.  The  pulley  is  moved  lengthwise  of  the  shaft 
by  means  of  a  lever  or  other  means,  to  bring  its  pin  into  or  out  of  contact  with  the  pin 
on  shaft. 

Fig.  981.  Alternating  traverse  of  upper  shaft  and  its  drum,  produced  by  pin  on  the 
end  of  the  shaft  working  in  oblique  groove  in  the  lower  cylinder. 

Fig.  982.  See-saw,  one  of  the  simplest  illustrations  of  a  limited  oscillating  or 
alternate  circular  motion. 

Fig.  983.  Cylindrical  rod  arranged  between  2  rollers,  the  axes  of  wiiich  are  oblique 
to  each  other.  The  rotation  of  the  rollers  produces  both  a  longitudinal  and  a  rotary 
motion  of  the  rod. 

Fig.  984.  Intermittent  rotary  motion  from  continuous  rotary  motion  about  an  axis  at 
right  angles.  Small  wheel  on  left  is  driver ;  and  the  friction-rollers  on  its  radial  stu<ls 
work  against  the  faces  of  oblique  grooves  or  projections  across  the  face  of  the  larger  wheel, 
and  impart  motion  thereto. 

Fig.  985.  A  parallel  ruler  with  which  lines  may  be  drawn  at  required  distances 
apart  without  setting  out.  Lower  edge  of  upper  blade  has  a  graduated  ivory  scale,  on 
which  the  incidence  of  the  outer  edge  of  the  brass  arc  indicates  the  width  between  the 
blades. 

Fig.  986.    Drilling  machine.    By  the  large  bevel-gear  rotary  motion  is  given  to 


504 


Mechanical  Movements. 


977. 


97G. 


975 


974. 


973. 


972. 


983. 


982. 


981. 


980. 


979. 


978. 


087. 


986. 


935. 


984. 


992. 


988. 


998. 


997. 


996. 


995. 


094. 


993. 


Mechanical  Movements.  505 

vertical  drill  shaft,  which  slides  through  small  bevel-gear  but  is  made  to  turn  witli  it  l>y 
a  feather  and  groove,  and  is  depressed  by  treadle  connected  with  upi)cr  lever. 

Fig.  1)87.  Helicograph,  or  instrument  for  descril)ing  helices.  Tho.  siuiill  wliecl,  by 
revolving  about  the  tised  central  point,  describes  a  vohite  or  spiral  by  movin"  along 
the  screw-threaded  axle  either  way,  and  tiansniits  the  same  to  drawing  paper  on  wliicli 
transfer  paper  is  laid  witli  coloured  side  downward. 

Fig.  988.  Describing  spiral  line  on  a  cylinder.  The  spur-gear  which  drives  tiio 
bevel-gears,  and  thus  gives  rotary  motion  to  the  cylinder,  also  gears  into  tlie  toothed  ruck, 
and  thereby  causes  the  marking  point  to  traverse  from  end  to  end  of  the  cylinder. 

Fig.  989.  Cycloidal  surfaces,  causing  pendulum  to  move  in  cycloidal  curve,  rendering 
oscillations  isochronous,  or  equal-timed. 

Fig.  990.  Motion  for  polishing  mirrors,  the  rubbing  of  which  should  be  varied  as  much 
as  practicable.  The  handle  turns  the  crank  to  which  the  long  bar  and  attached  ratcliet- 
wheel  are  connected.  The  mirror  is  secured  rigidly  to  the  ratchet-wheel.  The  long  bar, 
which  is  guided  by  pins  in  the  lower  rail,  has  both  a  longitudinal  and  an  oscillating 
movement,  and  the  ratchet-wheel  is  caused  to  rotate  intermittently  by  a  click  operated 
by  an  eccentric  on  the  crank-shaft,  and  hence  the  mirror  has  a  compound  movement. 

Fig.  991.  White's  dynamometer  for  determining  the  amount  of  i)ower  required  to 
give  rotary  motion  to  any  piece  of  mechanism.  The  2  horizontal  bevel-gears  are 
arranged  in  a  hoop-shaped  frame,  which  revolves  freely  on  the  middle  of  the  horizontal 
shaft,  on  which  there  are  2  vertical  bevel-gears  gearing  to  the  horizontal  ones,  one  fast 
and  the  other  loose  on  the  shaft.  Suppose  the  hoop  to  be  held  stationary,  motion  given 
to  either  vertical  bevel-gear  will  be  imparted  through  the  horizontal  gears  to  the  other 
vertical  one ;  but  if  the  hoop  be  permitted  it  will  revolve  with  the  vertical  gear  put  in 
motion,  and  the  amount  of  power  required  to  hold  it  stationary  will  correspond  with  that 
transmitted  from  the  first  gear,  and  a  band  attached  to  its  periphery  will  indicate  that 
power  by  the  weight  required  to  keep  it  stilh 

Fig.  992.  Pair  of  edge  runners  or  chasers  for  crushing  or  grinding.  The  axles  are 
connected  with  vertical  shaft,  and  the  wheels  or  chasers  run  in  an  annular  pan  or 
trough. 

Fig.  993.  Modification  of  mangle-wheel  motion.  The  large  wheel  is  toothed  on 
bolh  faces,  and  an  alternating  circular  motion  is  produced  by  the  uniform  revolution  of 
the  pinion,  which  passes  from  one  side  of  the  wheel  to  the  other  through  an  opening  on 
the  left  of  the  figure. 

Fig.  994.  Robert's  contrivance  for  proving  that  friction  of  a  wheel  carriage  does  not 
increase  with  velocity,  but  only  with  load.  Loaded  wagon  is  supported  on  surface  of 
large  wheel,  and  connected  with  indicator  constructed  with  spiral  spring,  to  show  force 
required  to  keep  carriage  stationary  when  large  wheel  is  put  in  motion.  It  was  found 
that  difference  in  velocity  produced  no  variation  in  the  indicator,  but  difference  in  weight 
immediately  did  so. 

Fig.  995.  Eotury  motion  of  shaft  from  treadle  by  means  of  an  endless  band  running 
from  a  roller  on  the  treadle  to  an  eccentric  on  the  shaft. 

Figs.  996,  997.  Portable  cramp  drills.  In  Fig.  99G  the  feed-screw  is  opposite  the 
drill,  and  in  Fig.  997  the  drill-spindlo  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  feed-screw. 

Fig.  998.  Bowery's  joiners'  clamp,  plan  and  transverse  section.  Oblong  bed  has,  at 
one  end,  two  wedge-formed  cheeks,  adjacent  sides  of  which  lie  at  an  angle  to  each  other, 
and  are  dovetailed  inward  from  upper  edge  to  receive  2  wedges  for  clamping  the  piece  or 
pieces  of  wood  to  be  planed. 

Fig.  999.  Tread-wheel  horse-power  turned  by  the  weight  of  an  animal  attempting  to 
walk  up  one  side  of  its  interior  ;  has  been  used  for  driving  the  paddle-wheels  of  ferry- 
boats and  other  purposes  by  horses.  The  turn-spit  dog  used  also  to  be  employed  in  such 
a  wheel  in  ancient  times  for  turning  meat  whfle  roasting  on  a  spit. 

Fig.  1000.     The  treadmill  employed  in  jails  in  some  countries  for  exercising  criminala 


506  Mechanical  Movements. 

condemned  to  labour,  and  employed  in  grinding  grain ;  turns  by  weight  of  persons  step- 
ping on  tread-boards  on  periphery.  This  is  supposed  to  be  a  Chinese  invention,  and  it  is 
still  used  in  China  for  raising  water  for  irrigation. 

Fig.  1001.  Saw  for  cutting  trees  by  motion  of  pendulum,  is  represented  as  cutting  a 
lyinc:  tree. 

Fig.  1002.  Adjustable  stand  for  mirrors,  by  which  a  glass  or  other  article  can  be 
raised  or  lowered,  turned  to  the  right  or  left,  and  varied  in  its  inclination.  Tlie  stem  is 
fitted  into  a  socket  of  pillar,  and  secured  by  a  set  screw,  and  the  glass  is  hinged  to  the 
stem,  and  a  set  screw  is  ai^plied  to  the  hinge  to  tighten  it.  The  same  thing  is  used  for 
photographic  camera-stands. 

Fig.  1003  represents  the  principal  elements  of  machinery  for  dressing  cloth  and  warps, 
consisting  of  2  rollers,  from  one  to  the  other  of  which  the  yarn  or  cloth  is  wound,  and  an 
interposed  cylinder  having  its  j^eriphery  either  smooth-faced  or  armed  with  brushes, 
teasels,  or  other  contrivances,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  work  to  be  done.  These 
elements  are  used  in  machines  for  sizing  warps,  gig-mills  for  dressing  woollen  goods,  and 
in  most  machines  for  finishing  woven  fabrics. 

Fig.  1004.  Feed-motion  of  Woodworth's  planing  machine,  a  smooth  supporting  roller, 
and  a  toothed  top  roller. 

Fig.  1005.  Contrivance  employed  in  Russia  for  shutting  doors.  One  pin  is  fitted  to 
and  turns  in  socket  attached  to  door,  and  the  other  is  similarly  attached  to  frame.  In 
opening  the  door,  pins  are  brought  together,  and  weight  is  raised.  Weight  closes  door 
by  depressing  the  joint  of  the  toggle  towards  a  straight  line,  and  so  widening  the  space 
between  the  pins. 

Fig.  1006.  Folding  library  ladder.  It  is  shown  open,  partly  open,  and  closed  ;  the 
rounds  are  pivoted  to  the  side-pieces,  which  are  fitted  together  to  form  a  round  pole  when 
closed,  the  rounds  shutting  up  inside. 

Fig.  1007.  Self-adjusting  step-ladder  for  wliarfs  at  which  there  are  rise  and  fall  of 
tide.  The  steps  are  pivoted  at  one  edge  into  wooden  bars  forming  string-pieces,  and 
their  other  edge  is  supported  by  rods  suspended  from  bars  forming  hand-rails.  The  steps 
remain  horizontal  whatever  position  the  ladder  assumes. 

Fig.  IOCS.  Lifting  jack  operated  by  an  eccentric,  pawl,  and  ratchet.  The  upper 
pawl  is  a  stop. 

Fig.  1009.  Jig-saw,  the  lower  end  connected  with  a  crank  which  works  it,  and  the 
upper  end  connected  witli  a  spring  which  keeps  it  strained  without  a  gate. 

Fig.  1010.  Contrivance  for  polishing  lenses  and  bodies  of  spherical  form.  The 
polishing  material  is  in  a  cup  connected  by  a  ball-and-socket  joint  and  bent  piece  of 
metal,  with  a  rotating  upright  shaft  set  concentric  to  the  body  to  be  polished.  The  cup 
is  set  eccentric,  and  by  that  means  is  caused  to  have  an  independent  rotary  motion 
about  its  axis  on  the  universal  joint,  as  well  as  to  revolve  about  the  common  axis  of  the 
shaft  and  the  body  to  be  polished.  This  prevents  the  parts  of  the  surface  of  the  cup 
from  coming  repeatedly  in  contact  with  the  same  parts  of  surface  of  the  lens  or  other 
body. 

Fig.  1011.  Device  for  converting  oscillating  into  rotary  motion.  The  semicircular 
piece  A  is  attaclied  to  a  lever  which  works  on  a  fulcrum  a,  and  it  has  attached  to  it  the 
ends  of  2  bands  C  and  D,  which  run  round  2  pulleys,  loose  on  the  shaft  of  the  fly-wheel  B. 
Band  C  is  open,  and  band  D  crossed.  The  pulleys  have  attached  to  them  pawls  which 
engage  with  two  ratchet-wheels  fast  on  the  fly-wheel  shaft.  One  pawl  acts  on  its  ratchet- 
wheel  when  the  piece  A  turns  one  way,  and  the  other  when  the  said  piece  turns  the  other 
way,  and  thus  a  continuous  rotary  motion  of  the  shaft  is  obtained. 

Fig.  1012.  Reciprocating  into  rotary  motion.  The  weiglited  racks  a,  a',  are  pivoted 
to  the  end  of  a  piston-rod,  an  1  pins  at  the  end  of  the  said  racks  work  in  fixed  guide- 
grooves  h,  h,  in  such  manner  that  one  rack  operates  upon  the  cog-wheel  in  ascending  and 
the  other  in  descending,  and  so  continuous  rotary  motion  is  produced.     The  elbow- 


Mechanical  Movements. 


507 


1004. 


1003. 


1002. 


1001. 


lOOC. 


999. 


1010. 


1000.      1003. 


100?. 


lOOG. 


u 


1005. 


lOlG. 


1015. 


1014. 


1013. 


1012. 


1011. 


1021. 


2020. 


1019. 


1018. 


lOlt 


1026. 


1025. 


1024. 


1023. 


1022. 


508  BIeCHANICAL   ]\r0VEMENTS. 

lever  c  and  spring  d  are  for  carrying  the  pin  of  tlie  riglit-liand  rack  over  the  upper 
angle  in  its  guide-groove  b. 

Fig.  1013.  C.  Parsnns's  device  for  converting  reciprocating  motion  into  rotary,  and 
endless  rack  provided  with  grooves  on  its  side  gearing  v/ith  a  lainion  having  2  con- 
centric flanges  of  difierent  diameters.  A  substitute  for  crank  in  oscillating  cylinder 
engines. 

Fig.  1014.  Four-way  cock,  used  many  years  ago  on  steam  engines  to  admit  and 
■exhaust  steam  from  the  cylinder.  The  2  positions  represented  are  produced  by  a  quarter 
turn  of  the  plug.  Supposing  the  steam  to  enter  at  tlie  top,  in  the  upper  figure  the 
exhaust  is  from  the  riglit  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  in  the  lower  figure  the  exhaust  is 
from  the  left — the  steam  entering,  of  course,  in  the  opposite  port. 

Fig.  1015.  Continuous  circular  into  intermittent  rectilinear  reoiprocating.  A  motion 
used  on  several  sewing  machines  for  driving  the  shuttle.  Same  motion  applied  to  3 
revolution  cylinder  printing-presses. 

Fig.  lOlG.  A  method  of  repairing  cliains,  or  tightening  chains  used  as  guys  or 
braces.  Link  is  made  in  two  parts,  one  end  of  each  is  provided  with  swivel- nut,  and 
■other  end  with  screw;  the  screw  of  each  part  fits  into  nut  of  other. 

Fig.  1017.  Continuous  circular  motion  iuto  intermittent  circular — the  cam  C  being 
the  driver. 

Fig.  1018.  A.  B.  "Wilson's  4-motion  feed,  used  in  "Wheeler  and  "Wilson's,  Sloat's,  and 
other  sewing  machines.  The  bar  A  is  forked,  and  lias  a  second  bar  B,  carrying  the  spur 
or  feeder,  pivoted  in  the  said  fork.  The  bar  B  is  lifted  by  a  ladial  projection  on  the  cam 
C,  at  the  same  time  the  2  bars  are  carried  forward.  A  spring  produces  the  return 
stroke,  and  the  bar  B  drops  of  its  own  gravity. 

Fig.  1019.  E.  P.  Brownell's  crank-motion  to  obviate  dead-centres.  The  pressure  on 
the  treadle  causes  the  slotted  slide  A  to  mcve  forward  with  thewiist  until  the  latter  has 
passed  the  centre,  when  the  spring  B  forces  the  slide  against  the  stops  until  it  is 
again  required  to  move  forward. 

Fig.  1020.  Mechanical  means  of  describing  parabolas,  the  base,  altitude,  focus,  and 
directrix  being  given.  Lay  straight-edge  with  near  side  coinciding  with  directrix,  and 
square  with  stouk  against  the  same,  so  that  the  blade  is  parallel  with  the  axis,  and 
proceed  with  pencil  in  bight  of  thread,  as  in  the  preceding. 

Fig.  1021.  Mechanical  means  of  describing  hyperbolas,  their  foci  and  vertices  being 
given.  Suppose  the  curves  2  opposite  hyperbolas,  the  points  in  vertical  dotted  centre 
line  their  foci.  One  end  of  thread  being  looped  on  pin  inserted  at  the  other  focus,  and 
other  end  held  to  other  end  of  rule,  with  just  enough  tlack  between  to  permit  height  to 
Jeach  vertex  when  rule  coincides  with  centre  line.  A  pencil  held  in  bight,  and  kept 
close  to  rule,  while  latter  is  moved  from  centre  line,  describes  one  half  of  parabola  ;  the 
rule  is  then  reversed  for  the  other  half. 

Fig.  1022.  Cyclograpli  for  describing  circular  arcs  in  drawings  where  the  centre  is 
inaccessible.  This  is  composed  of  3  straight  rules.  The  chord  and  versed  sine  being 
laid  down,  draw  straight  sloping  line,  fmm  ends  of  former  to  top  of  latter;  and  to  these 
lines  lay  2  of  the  rides  crossing  at  the  apex.  Fasten  these  rules  together,  and  another 
rule  across  them  to  serve  as  a  brace,  and  insert  a  pin  or  point  at  each  end  of  chord  to 
guide  the  apparatus,  which,  on  being  moved  against  these  points,  will  describe  the  arc 
by  means  of  pencil  in  the  rmgle  of  the  crossing  edges  of  the  sloping  rules. 

Fig.  1023.  Another  cyi  los:raph.  The  elastic  arched  bar  is  made  half  the  depth  at 
the  ends  that  it  is  at  the  middle,  and  is  formed  so  that  its  outer  edge  coincides  with  a 
true  circular  arc  when  bent  to  its  greatest  extent ;  3  points  in  the  required  arc  being 
given,  the  bar  is  bent  to  them  by  means  of  the  screw,  each  end  being  confined  to  the 
straight  bar  by  means  of  a  small  roller. 

Fig.  1024.  Instrument  for  describing  pointed  arches.  Horizontal  bar  is  slotted  and 
fitted  with  a  slide  having  pin  for  loop  of  cord.     Arch  bar  of  elastic  wood  is  fixed  in 


Mechanical  Movements.  50& 

horizonM  at  right  angles.  Horizontal  bar  is  placed  with  upper  edge  on  springing  line, 
and  back  of  arch  bar  ranging  with  jamp  of  opening,  and  the  latter  bar  is  bent  till  the 
upper  side  meets  apex  of  arch,  fulcrum-piece  at  its  base  ensuring  its  retaining 
tangential  relation  to  jamb;  the  pencil  is  secured  to  arched  bar  at  its  connection  wilii 
cord. 

Fig.  1025.  Centrolinead  for  drawing  lines  toward  an  inaccessible  or  inconveniently 
distant  point ;  chiefly  used  in  perspective.  Upper  or  drawing  edge  of  blade  and  back  of 
movable  legs  sliouhl  intersect  centre  of  joint.  Geometrical  diagram  indicates  mode  of 
setting  instruments,  legs  forming  it  may  form  unequal  angles  with  blade.  At  either 
end  of  dotted  line  crossing  central,  a  pin  is  inserted  vertically  for  instrument  to  work 
against.  Supposing  it  to  be  inconvenient  to  produce  the  convergent  lines  until  th(>y 
iutersect,  even  temporarily,  for  the  purpose  of  setting  the  instrument  as  shown,  a  cor- 
responding convergence  may  be  found  between  them  by  drawing  a  line  parallel  to  and 
inward  from  each. 

Fig.  102G.  P.  Dickson's  device  for  converting  an  oscillating  motion  into  intermittent 
circular,  in  either  direction.  Oscillating  motion  communicated  to  lever  A,  which  is 
provided  with  2  pawls  B  and  C,  hinged  to  its  upper  side,  near  shaft  of  wheel  D. 
Small  crank  E  on  upjjer  side  of  lever  A  is  attached  by  cord  to  each  of  pawls,  so  that  when 
pawl  C  is  let  into  contact  with  interior  of  lim  of  wheel  D,  it  moves  in  one  direction,  and 
pawl  B  is  out  of  gear.  Motion  of  wheel  D  may  be  reversed  by  lifting  pawl  C,  which 
was  in  gear,  and  letting  opposite  one  into  gear  by  crank  E. 
^  Fig.  1027.  Proportional  compasses  used  in  copying  drawings  on  a  given  larger  or 
emaller  scale.  The  pivot  of  compasses  is  secured  in  a  slide  which  is  adjustable  in  the 
longitudinal  slots  of  legs,  and  capable  of  being  secured  by  a  set  screw  ;  the  dimensions 
are  taken  between  one  pair  of  points  and  transferred  with  the  other  pair,  and  thus 
enlarged  or  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  relative  distances  of  the  points  from  the 
pivot.    A  scale  is  provided  on  one  or  both  legs  to  indicate  the  proportion. 

Fig.  1028.  Buchanan  and  Righter's  slide-valve  motion.  Valve  A  is  attached  to 
lower  end  of  rod  B,  and  free  to  slide  horizontally  on  valve-seat.  Upper  end  of  rod  B 
ie  attached  to  a  pin,  which  slides  in  vertical  slots,  and  a  roller  C,  attached  to  the  .said 
lod,  slides  in  2  suspended  and  vertically  adjustable  arcs  D.  This  arrangement  is 
intended  to  prevent  the  valve  from  being  pressed  with  too  great  force  against  its  seat  by 
the  pressure  of  steam,  and  to  relieve  it  of  friction. 

Fig.  1029.  Trunk-engine  used  for  marine  purposes.  The  piston  has  attached  to  it  a 
trunk,  at  the  lower  end  of  which  the  pitman  is  connected  directly  with  the  piston.  The 
trunk  works  through  a  stuffing  box  in  cylinder-head.  The  effective  area  of  the  upper 
side  of  tiio  piston  is  greatly  reduced  by  the  trunk.  To  equalize  the  power  on  both 
sides  of  piston,  high-pressure  steam  has  been  first  used  on  the  upper  side,  and  after- 
wards exhausted  into  and  used  expansively  in  the  part  of  cylinder  below. 

Fig.  1030.  Oscillating  piston  engine.  The  profile  of  the  cylinder  A  is  of  the  form  of 
a  sector.  The  piston  B  is  attached  to  a  rock-shaft  C,  and  steam  is  admitted  to  the 
cylinder  to  operate  on  one  and  the  other  side  of  piston  alternately,  by  means  of  a  sliile- 
valve  D,  substantially  like  that  of  an  ordinary  reciprocating  engine.  The  rock-shaft  is 
connected  with  a  crank  to  produce  rotary  motion. 

Fig.  1031.  Root's  double-quadrant  engine.  This  is  on  the  same  principle  as  Fig.  1030  ; 
but  2  single-acting  pistons  B,  B,  are  used,  and  both  connected  with  one  crank  D.  The 
steam  is  admitted  to  act  on  the  outer  sides  of  the  2  pistons  alternately  by  means  of  one 
induction-valve  a,  and  is  exhausted  through  the  space  between  the  pistons.  The  piston 
and  crank  connections  are  such  that  the  steam  acts  on  each  piston  during  about  ^  revo- 
lution of  the  crank,  and  hence  there  are  no  dead-points. 

Fig.  1032,  One  of  the  many  forms  of  rotary  engine.  A  is  the  cylinder  having  the 
shnft  B  pass  centrally  through  it.  Tlie  piston  C  is  simply  an  eccentric  fast  on  the  shaft, 
and  working  in  contact  with  the  cylinder  at  one  point.     The  induction  and  eduction  of 


510  Mechanical  Movements. 

steam  take  place  as  indicated  by  arrows,  and  the  pressure  of  the  steam  on  one  side  of 
the  piston  produces  its  rotation  and  that  of  the  shaft.  The  sliding  abutment  D,  between 
the  induction  and  eduction  ports,  moves  out  of  the  way  of  the  piston  to  let  it  pass. 

Fig.  1033.  Another  form  of  rotary  engine,  in  which  there  are  2  stationary  abutments 
D,  D,  within  the  cylinder;  and  the  two  pistons  A,  A,  in  order  to  enable  them  to  pass 
the  abutments,  are  made  to  slide  radially  in  grooves  in  the  hub  C  of  the  main  shaft  B. 
The  steam  acts  on  both  pistons  at  once,  to  produce  the  rotation  of  the  hub  and  shaft. 
The  induction  and  eduction  are  indicated  by  arrows. 

Fig.  1034.  Bisecting  gauge.  Of  2  parallel  cheeks  on  the  cross-bar  one  is  fixed  and  the 
other  adjustable,  and  held  by  thumb-screw.  In  either  cheek  is  entered  one  of  2  short 
bars  of  equal  length,  united  by  a  pivot,  having  a  sharp  point  for  marking.  This  point 
is  always  in  a  central  position  between  the  cheeks,  whatever  their  distance  apart,  so  that 
any  parallel-sided  solid  to  whicli  the  cheeks  are  adjusted  may  be  bisected  from  end  to 
end  by  drawing  the  gauge  along  it.  Solids  not  parallel-sided  may  be  bisected  in  like 
manner,  by  leaving  one  cheek  loose,  but  keeping  it  in  contact  with  solid. 

Fig.  1035.  Self-recording  level  for  surveyors,  consists  of  a  carriage,  the  shape  of 
which  is  governed  by  an  isosceles  triangle,  having  horizontal  base.  The  circumference 
of  each  wheel  equals  the  base  of  the  triangle.  A  pendulum,  when  the  instrument  is  on 
level  ground,  bisects  the  base ;  and  when  on  an  inclination,  gravitates  to  right  or  left 
from  centre  accordingly.  A  drum,  rotated  by  gearing  from  one  of  the  carriage  wheels, 
carries  sectionally  ruled  paper,  upon  which  pencil  on  pendulum  traces  profile  correspond- 
ing with  that  of  ground  travelled  over.  The  drum  can  be  shifted  vertically  to  accord 
with  any  given  scale ;  and  horizontally,  to  avoid  removal  of  filled  paper. 

Fig.  1036.  A  device  for  assisting  the  crank  of  a  treadle  motion  over  the  dead-centrea. 
The  helical  spring  A  has  a  tendency  to  move  the  crank  B  in  direction  at  right  angles  to 
dead-centres. 

Fig.  1037.  Continuous  circular  motion  into  a  rectilinear  reciprocating.  The  shaft  A, 
working  in  a  fixed  bearing  D,  is  bent  on  one  cud,  and  fitted  to  turn  in  a  socket  at  the 
upper  end  of  a  rod  B,  the  lower  end  of  which  works  in  a  socket  in  the  slide  C.  Dotted 
lines  show  the  position  of  the  rod  B  and  slide,  when  the  shaft  has  made  J  revolution 
from  the  position  shown  in  bold  lines. 

Fig.  1038.  Continuous  circular  motion  converted  into  a  rocking  motion.  Used  in 
self-rocking  cradles.  Wheel  A  revolves  and  is  connected  to  a  wheel  B,  of  greater  radius, 
which  receives  an  oscillating  motion,  and  wheel  B  is  provided  with  two  flexible  bands 
C,  D,  which  connect  each  to  a  standard  or  post,  attached  to  the  rocker  E  of  the 
cradle. 

Fig.  1039.  Boot's  double-reciprocating  or  square  piston  engine.  The  cylinder  A  of 
this  engine  is  of  oblong  square  form,  and  contains  2  pistons  B  and  C,  the  former  working 
horizontally,  and  the  latter  working  vertically  within  it.  The  piston  C  is  connected 
with  the  wrist  a  of  the  crank  on  the  main  shaft  h.  The  ports  for  the  admission  of 
steam  are  shown  black.  The  2  pistons  produce  the  rotation  of  the  crank  without  dead- 
points. 

Fig.  1040.  Another  rotary  engine,  in  which  the  shaft  B  works  in  fixed  bearings, 
eccentric  to  the  cylinder.  The  pistons  A,  A,  are  fitted  to  slide  in  and  out  from  grooves 
in  the  hub  C,  which  is  concentric  with  the  shaft,  but  they  are  always  radial  to  the 
cylinder,  being  kept  so  by  rings  (shown  dotted),  fitting  to  hubs  on  the  cylinder-heads. 
The  pistons  slide  through  rolling  packings  A,  A,  in  the  hub  C. 

Fig.  1041.  The  indiarubber  rotary  engine,  in  which  the  cylinder  has  a  flexible 
lining  E  of  indiarubber,  and  rollers  A,  A,  are  substituted  for  pistons,  said  rollers  being 
attached  to  arms  radiating  from  the  main  shaft  B.  The  steam  acting  between  the  india- 
rubber  and  the  surrounding  rigid  portion  of  the  cylinder  presses  the  indiarubber  against 
the  rollers,  and  causes  them  to  revolve  around  the  cylinder  and  turn  the  shaft. 

Fig.  1042.     Holly's  double-elliptical  rotary  engine.     The  2  elliptical  pistons  geared 


JMechanical  Movements. 


511 


1033. 


1032. 


10:n. 


1030. 


1020. 


102'f. 


1027. 


1l37. 


103G. 


1035. 


1034. 


//\ 


//  c  \ 

l//7;,'-!y<'-...l'0r«1 


S$Si!SJ$5S^$Jj!!;SJiS^N\\ 


10-11. 


1010. 


1039. 
A- 


-i-ir 


■■-0* 


1050. 


10:9. 


104?. 


1047 


lOlC. 


1045. 


1056. 


1055. 


1034. 


1053. 


1052. 


1051. 


512  Mechanical  Movements. 

together  are  operated  upon  by  the  steam  entering  between  them  in  such  manner  as  to 
produce  their  rotary  motion  in  opposite  directions. 

These  rotary  engines  can  all  be  converted  into  pumps. 

Fig.  1043.  Jonval  turbine.  Tlie  shutes  are  arranged  on  the  outside  of  a  drum, 
radial  to  a  common  centre,  and  stationary  within  the  trunk  or  casing  h.  Tlie  -wheel  c  is 
made  in  nearly  the  same  way  ;  the  buckets  exceed  in  number  those  of  the  shutes,  and 
are  set  at  a  slight  tangent  instead  of  radially,  and  the  curve  generally  used  is  that  of  the 
cycloid  or  parabola. 

Fig.  1044.  A  method  of  obtaining  a  reciprocating  motion  from  a  continuous  fall  of 
■water,  by  means  of  a  valve  in  the  bottom  of  the  bucket  which  opens  by  striking  the 
ground,  and  thereby  emptying  the  bucket,  wliich  is  caused  to  rise  again  by  the  action  of 
a  counterweight  on  tiie  other  side  of  tlic  pulley  over  which  it  is  suspended. 

Fig.  1045.     Overshot  water-wheel. 

Fig.  1046.     Undershot  water-wheel. 

Fig.  1047.  Breast-wheel.  Tliis  holds  intermediate  place  between  overshot  and  under- 
shot wheels ;  has  float-boards  like  the  former,  but  the  cavities  between  are  converted 
into  buckets  by  moving  in  a  channel  adapted  to  circumference  and  width,  and  into 
which  water  enters  nearly  at  the  level  of  axle. 

Fig.  1048.     Horizontal  overshot  water-wheel. 

Fig.  1049.  A  plan  view  of  the  Fourneyrou  turbine  water-wheel.  In  the  centre  are  a 
number  of  tixed  curved  shutes  or  guides  A,  which  direct  the  water  against  the  buckets 
of  the  outer  wheel  B,  which  revolves,  and  the  water  discharges  at  the  circumference. 

Fig.  1050.  "Warren's  central  discharge  turbine,  plan  view.  The  guides  a  are  outside, 
and  the  wheel  h  revolves  within  them,  discharging  the  water  at  the  centre. 

Fig.  1051.  Volute  wheel,  having  radial  vanes  a,  against  which  the  water  impinges 
and  carries  the  wheel  around.  Tiie  scroll  or  volute  casing  b  confines  the  water  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  acts  against  the  vanes  all  around  the  wheel.  By  the  addition  of  the 
inclined  buckets  c,  c,  at  the  bottom,  the  water  is  made  to  act  with  additional  force  as  it 
escapes  through  the  openings  of  said  buckets. 

Fig.  1052.  Barker,  or  reaction  mill.  Rotary  motion  of  central  hollow  shaft  is 
obtained  by  the  reaction  of  the  water  escaping  at  the  ends  of  its  arms,  the  rotation  being 
in  a  direction  the  reverse  of  the  escape. 

Fig.  1053  represents  a  trough  divided  transversely  into  equal  parts,  and  supported  on 
an  axis  by  a  frame  beneath.  The  fall  of  water  filling  one  side  of  the  division,  the 
trough  is  vibrated  on  its  axis,  and  at  the  tame  time  that  it  delivers  the  water  the 
opposite  side  is  brought  under  the  stream  and  filled,  which  in  like  manner  produces 
the  vibration  of  the  trough  back  again.     This  has  been  used  as  a  water  meter. 

Fig.  1054.  Persian  wheel,  used  in  Eastern  countries  for  irrigation.  It  has  a  hollow 
shaft  and  curved  floats,  at  the  extremities  of  which  are  suspended  buckets  or  tubs.  The 
wheel  is  partly  immersed  in  a  stream  acting  on  the  convex  surfiice  of  its  floats ;  and 
as  it  is  thus  caused  to  revolve,  a  quantity  of  water  will  be  elevated  by  each  float 
at  each  revolution,  and  conducted  to  the  hollow  shaft  at  the  same  time  that  one  of  the 
buckets  carries  its  fill  of  water  to  a  higher  level,  where  it  is  emptied  by  coming  in  contact 
with  a  stationary  pin  placed  in  a  convenient  position  for  tilting  it. 

Fig.  1055.  Machine  of  ancient  origin,  still  employed  on  the  river  Eisach,  in  the 
Tyrol,  for  raising  water.  A  current  keeping  the  wheel  in  motion,  the  pots  on  its 
periphery  are  successively  immersed,  filled,  and  emptied  into  a  trough  above  the 
stream. 

Fig.  105G.  Application  of  Archimedes'  screw  to  raising  water,  the  supply  stream 
boing  the  motive  power.  The  oblique  shaft  of  the  wheel  has  extending  through  it 
a  spiral  passage,  the  lower  end  of  which  is  immersed  in  water,  and  the  stream,  acting 
upon  the  wheel  at  its  lower  end,  produces  its  revolution,  by  which  the  water  is  conveyed 
upward  continuously  through  the  spiral  passage  and  discharged  at  the  top. 


Mechanical  Movements.  513 

Fig.  1057.  Slontgolfier's  hydraulic  ram.  Small  fall  of  water  made  to  throw  a  jet  to 
a  great  height  or  furnish  a  supply  at  high  level.  The  right-hand  valve  being  kept 
open  by  a  weight  or  spring,  the  current  flowing  through  the  pipe  in  the  dircctioa 
of  the  arrow  escapes  thereby  till  its  pressure,  overcoming  the  resistance  of  weight  or 
spring,  closes  it.  On  the  closing  of  this  valve  the  momentum  of  the  current  over- 
comes the  pressure  on  the  other  valve,  opens  it,  and  throws  a  quantity  of  water  into 
the  globular  air-chamber  by  the  expansive  force  of  the  air  in  which  the  upward 
stream  from  tlie  nozzle  is  maintained.  On  equilibrium  taking  place,  the  right-hand 
valve  opens  and  left-hand  one  shuts.  Thus,  by  the  alternate  action  of  the  valves,  a 
quantity  of  water  is  raised  into  the  air-chamber  at  every  stroke,  and  the  elasticity  of 
the  air  gives  uniformity  to  the  efflux. 

Figs.  1058,  1059.  D'Ectol's  oscillating  column,  for  elevating  a  portion  of  a  given  fall 
of  water  above  the  level  of  the  reservoir  or  head,  by  means  of  a  machine,  all  the 
parts  of  which  are  absolutely  fixed.  It  consists  of  an  upper  and  smaller  tube,  which 
is  constantly  supplied  with  water,  and  a  lower  and  larger  tube,  provided  with  a 
circular  plate  below  concentric  with  the  orifice  which  receives  the  stream  from  the 
tube  above.  Upon  allowing  the  water  to  descend,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1058,  it  forms  itself 
gradually  into  a  cone  ou  the  circular  plate,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1059,  which  cone  protrudes 
into  the  smallt-r  tube  so  as  to  check  the  flow  of  water  downward ;  and  the  regular  supply 
contiuuing  from  above,  the  column  in  the  upper  tube  rises  until  the  cone  on  the  cir- 
cular plate  gives  way.  This  action  is  renewed  periodically,  and  is  regulated  by  the 
supply  of  water. 

Figv  1060.  This  method  of  passing  a  boat  from  one  shore  of  a  river  to  the  other  is 
common  on  the  Rhine  and  elsewhere,  and  is  effected  by  the  action  of  the  stream  on  the 
rudder,  which  carries  the  boat  across  the  stream  in  the  arc  of  a  circle,  the  centre  of  which 
is  the  anchor  which  holds  the  boat  from  floating  down  the  stream. 

Fig.  lOtjl.  Common  lift-pump.  In  the  up-stroke  of  piston  or  bucket  the  lower  valve 
opens  and  the  valve  in  piston  shuts ;  air  is  exhausted  out  of  suction-pipe,  and  water 
rushes  up  to  fill  the  vacuum.  In  down-stroke  lower  valve  is  shut  and  valve  in  piston 
opens,  and  the  water  simply  passes  through  the  piston.  The  water  above  piston  is 
lifted  up,  and  runs  over  out  of  spout  at  each  up-stroke.  This  pump  cannot  raise  water 
over  30  ft.  high. 

Fig.  10G2.  Ordinary  force-pump,  with  2  valves.  The  cylinder  is  above  water,  and  is 
fitted  with  solid  piston;  one  valve  closes  outlet-pipe,  and  other  closes  suction-pipe. 
When  piston  is  rising  suction-valve  is  open,  and  water  rushes  into  cylinder,  outlet-valve 
being  closed.  On  descent  of  piston  suction-valve  closes,  and  water  is  forced  up  througli 
outlet-valve  to  any  distance  or  elevation. 

Fig.  10G3.  Blodern  lifting  pump.  This  pump  operates  in  same  manner  as  one  in 
previous  figure,  except  that  piston-rod  passes  through  stuffing  box,  and  outlet  is  closed 
by  a  flap-valve  opening  upward.     Water  can  be  lifted  to  any  height  above  this  pump. 

Fig.  1064.  Force-pump,  same  as  1062,  with  addition  of  air-chamber  to  the  outlet, 
to  produce  a  constant  flow.  The  outlet  from  air-chamber  is  shown  at  2  places,  from 
either  of  which  water  may  bo  taken.  The  air  is  compressed  by  the  water  during 
the  downward  stroke  of  the  piston,  and  expands  and  presses  out  the  water  from  the 
chamber  during  the  up-stroke. 

Fig.  1065.  Double-acting  pump.  Cylinder  closed  at  each  end,  and  piston-rod  passes 
through  stuffing  box  on  one  end,  and  the  cylinder  has  4  openings  covered  by  valves, 
2  for  admitting  water  and  like  number  for  discharge.  A  is  suction-pipe,  and  B  discharge- 
pipe.  When  piston  moves  down,  water  rushes  in  at  suction-valve  1,  on  upper  end  of 
cylinder,  and  that  below  piston  is  forced  through  valve  3  and  discharge-pipe  13  ;  on  the 
piston  ascending  again,  water  is  forced  through  discharge-valve  4,  on  upper  end  of 
cylinder,  and  water  enters  lower  suction-valve  2. 

Fig.  1006.    Double  lantern-bellows  pump.    As  one  bellows  is  distended  by  lever,  air 

2  L 


514  Mechanical  Movements. 

is  rarefied  within  it,  and  water  passes  up  suction-pipe  to  fill  space  ;  at  same  time  other 
bellows  is  compressed,  and  expels  its  contents  through  discharge-pipe  ;  valves  working 
the  same  as  in  the  ordinary  force-pump. 

Fig.  1067.  Old  rotary  pump.  Lower  aperture  entrance  for  water,  and  upper  for  exit. 
Central  part  revolves  with  its  valves,  which  fit  accurately  to  inner  surface  of  outer 
cylinder.  The  projection  shown  in  lower  side  of  cylinder  is  an  abutment  to  close  the 
valves  when  they  reach  that  point. 

Fig.  1068.  Gary's  rotary  pump.  Within  the  fixed  cylinder  there  is  placed  a  revolving 
drum  B,  attached  to  an  axle  A.  Heart-shaped  cam  A,  surrounding  axle,  is  also  fixed. 
Eevolution  of  drum  causes  sliding  pistons  c,  c,  to  move  in  and  out,  in  obedience  to  form 
of  cam.  Water  enters  and  is  removed  from  the  chamber  through  ports  L  and  M;  the 
directions  are  indicated  by  arrows.  Cam  is  so  placed  that  eacli  piston  is,  in  succession, 
forced  back  to  its  seat  when  opposite  E,  and  at  same  time  other  piston  is  forced  fully 
against  inner  side  of  chamber,  thus  driving  before  it  water  already  there  into  exit-pipe 
H,  and  drawing  after  it,  through  suction-pipe  F,  the  stream  of  supply. 

Fig.  1069.  Hiero's  fountain.  Water  being  poured  into  upper  vessel  descends  tube  on 
right  into  lower  ;  intermediate  vessel  being  also  filled  and  more  water  poured  into  upper, 
confined  air  in  cavities  over  water  in  lower  and  intermediate  vessels,  and  in  com- 
munication tube  on  left,  being  compressed,  drives  by  its  elastic  force  a  jet  up  central 
tube. 

Fig.  1070.  Diaphragm  forcing  pump.  A  flexible  diaphragm  is  employed  instead  of 
bellows,  and  valves  are  arranged  same  as  in  preceding. 

Fig.  1071.  Common  mode  of  raising  water  from  wells  of  inconsiderable  depth. 
Counterbalance  equals  about  J  weight  to  be  raised,  so  that  the  bucket  has  to  be  pulled 
down  when  empty,  and  is  assisted  in  elevating  it  when  full  by  counterbalance. 

Fig.  1072.  The  common  pulley  and  buckets  for  raising  water;  the  empty  bucketij 
pulled  down  to  raise  the  full  one. 

Fig.  1073.  Reciprocating  lift  for  wells.  Top  part  represents  horizontal  wind-wheel 
on  a  shaft  which  carries  spiral  thread.  Coupling  of  latter  allows  small  vibration,  that 
it  may  act  on  one  worm-wheel  at  a  time.  Behind  worm-wheels  are  pulleys,  over  which 
passes  rope  which  carries  bucket  at  each  extremity.  In  centre  is  vibrating  tappet,  against 
which  bucket  strikes  in  its  ascent,  and  which,  by  means  of  arm  in  step  wherein  spiral 
and  shaft  are  supported,  traverses  spiral  from  one  wheel  to  other,  so  that  the  bucket 
which  has  delivered  water  is  lowered  and  other  one  raised. 

Fig.  1074.  Fairbaim's  bailing  scoop,  for  elevating  water  short  distances.  The  scoop 
is  connected  by  pitman  to  end  of  a  lever  or  of  a  beam  of  single-acting  engine.  Distance 
of  lift  may  be  altered  by  placing  end  of  rod  in  notches  shown  in  figure. 

Fig.  1075.  Another  apparatus  operating  on  the  same  principle  as  Fig.  1086.  It 
is  termed  a  Lansdell's  steam  siphon  pump.  A  is  the  jet-pipe ;  B,  B,  are  2  suction-pipes, 
having  a  forked  connection  with  the  discharge-pipe  C.  The  steam  jet-pipe  entering  at 
the  fork  offers  no  obstacle  to  the  upward  passage  of  the  water,  which  moves  upward  in 
an  unbroken  current. 

Fig.  1076.  Pendulums  or  swinging  gutters  for  raising  water  by  their  pendulous 
motions.  Terminations  at  bottom  are  scoops,  and  at  top  open  pipes ;  intermediate  angles 
are  formed  with  boxes  and  flap-valve,  each  connected  with  2  branches  of  pipe. 

Fig.  1077.  Chain  pumps ;  lifting  water  by  continuous  circular  motion.  Wood  or 
metal  discs,  carried  by  endless  chain,  are  adapted  to  water-tight  cylinder,  and  form  with 
it  a  succession  of  buckets  filled  with  water.    Power  is  applied  at  upper  wheel. 

Fig.  1078.  Self-acting  weir  and  scouring  sluice.  Two  leaves  turn  on  pivots  below 
centres ;  upper  leaf  much  larger  than  lower,  and  turns  in  direction  of  stream,  while 
lower  turns  against  it.  Top  edge  of  lower  leaf  overlaps  bottom  edge  of  upper  one,  and 
is  forced  against  it  by  pressure  of  water.  In  ordinary  states  of  stream,  counteracting 
pressures  keep  weir  vertical  and  closed,  as  in  the  left-hand  figure,  and  water  flows 


1062. 


Mechanical  Movements. 


1061. 


1060. 


1059.  1058. 


515 

105T. 


1076. 


lou 


1012. 


1071. 


1076. 


-r^ 


7%a 


-_^& 


1087. 


1086.  1085 


1083. 


108Z 


SwT^^^^S^Ss^SsJPv^ 


L  2 


516  Mechanical  Movements. 

through  notch  in  upper  leaf  but  on  water  rising  above  ordinary  level,  pressure  above 
from  greater  surface  and  leverage  overcomes  resistance  below,  upper  leaf  turns  over, 
pushing  back  lower,  reducing  obstructions,  and  opening  at  bed  a  passage  to  deposit. 

Fig.  1079.  Balance  pumps.  Pair  worked  reciprocally  by  a  person  pressing  alter- 
nately on  opposite  ends  of  lever  or  beam. 

Fig.  1080.  Steam  hammer.  Cylinder  fixed  above  and  hammer  attached  to  lower  end 
of  piston-rod.  Steam  being  alternately  admitted  below  piston  and  allowed  to  escape, 
raises  and  lets  fall  the  hammer. 

Fig.  1081.  Hotchkiss's  atmospheric  hammer  ;  derives  the  force  of  its  blow  from  com- 
pressed air.  Hammer-head  C  is  attached  to  a  piston  fitted  to  a  cylinder  B,  which  is 
connected  by  a  rod  D  with  a  crank  A  on  the  rotary  driving  shaft.  As  the  cylinder 
ascends,  air  entering  hole  e  is  compressed  below  piston  and  lifts  hammer.  As  cylinder 
descends,  air  entering  hole  e  is  compressed  above,  and  is  stored  up  to  produce  the  blow 
by  its  instant  expansion  after  the  crank  and  connecting  rod  turn  bottom  centre. 

Fig.  1082.  French  invention  for  obtaining  rotary  motion  from  different  temperatures 
in  2  bodies  of  water.  Two  cisterns  contain  water ;  that  in  left  at  natural  temperature, 
and  that  in  right  higher.  In  right  is  a  water-wheel  geared  with  Archimedean  screw  in 
left.  From  spiral  screw  of  the  latter  a  pipe  extends  over  and  passes  to  tlie  under  side 
of  wheel.  Machine  is  started  by  turning  screw  in  opposite  direction  to  that  for  raising 
water,  thus  forcing  down  air,  which  ascends  in  tube,  crosses  and  descends,  and  imparts 
motion  to  wheel ;  and  its  volume  increasing  with  change  of  temperature,  it  is  said,  keeps 
the  machine  in  motion.  We  are  not  informed  how  the  difference  of  temperature  is  to  bo 
maintained. 

Fig.  1083.  Flexible  water-main,  plan  and  section:  2  pipea  of  15  in.  and  18  in. 
interior  diameter,  having  some  of  their  joints  thus  formed,  conduct  water  across  the 
Clyde  to  Glasgow  Water-works.  Pipes  are  secured  to  strong  log  frames,  having  hinges 
Avith  horizontal  pivots.  Frames  and  pipes  were  put  together  on  south  side  of  tlie  river, 
and,  the  north  end  of  pipe  being  plugged,  they  were  hauled  across  by  machinery  on 
uortli  side,  their  flexible  structure  enabling  them  to  follow  the  bed. 

Fig.  1081.  Air-pump  of  simple  construction.  Smaller  tube  inverted  in  larger  one. 
The  latter  contains  water  to  upper  dotted  line,  and  the  pipe  from  shaft  or  space  to  bo 
exhausted  passes  through  it  to  a  few  inches  above  water,  terminating  with  valve  opening 
upward.  Upper  tube  has  short  pipe  and  upwardly-opening  valve  at  top,  and  is 
suspended  by  ropes  from  levers.  When  upper  tube  descends,  great  part  of  air  within  is 
expelled  through  upper  valve,  so  that,  when  afterward  raised,  rarefaction  within  causes 
gas  or  air  to  ascend  through  the  lower  valve.  This  pump  was  successfully  used  foi 
drawing  off  carbonic  acid  from  a  large  and  deep  shaft. 

Fig.  1085.  Aeolipile,  or  Hero's  steam  toy,  described  by  Hero  of  Alexandria,  130  years 
B.C.,  and  now  regarded  as  the  first  steam  engine,  the  rotary  form  of  which  it  may  be 
considered  to  represent.  From  the  lower  vessel,  or  boiler,  rise  2  pipes  conducting  steam 
to  globular  vessel  above,  and  forming  pivots  on  which  the  said  vessel  is  caused  to  revolve 
in  the  direction  of  arrows,  by  the  escape  of  steam  through  a  nxunber  of  bent  arms.  This 
works  on  the  same  principle  as  Barker's  mill. 

Fig.  108G.  Brear's  bilge  ejector,  for  discharging  bilge-water  from  vessels,  or  for 
raising  and  forcing  water  under  various  circumstances.  D  is  a  chamber  having  attached 
a  suction-pipe  B  and  discharge-pipe  C,  and  having  a  steam-pipe  entering  at  one  side, 
witli  a  nozzle  directed  toward  the  discharge-pipe.  A  jet  of  steam  entering  through  A 
oxpels  the  au-  from  D  and  C,  produces  a  vacuum  in  B,  and  causes  water  to  rise  tlirough 
B,  and  pass  through  D  and  C  in  a  regular  and  constant  stream.  Compressed  air  may 
be  used  as  a  substitute  for  steam. 

Fig.  1087.  Gasometer.  The  open-bottomed  vessel  A  is  arranged  in  the  tank  B  of 
water,  and  partly  counterbalanced  by  weights  C,  C.  Gas  enters  the  gasometer  by  one 
and  leaves  it  by  the  other  of  the  2  pipes  inserted  through  the  bottom  of  the  tank.    As 


Mechanical  Movements.  517 

gas  enters,  vessel  A  rises,  and  vice  versa.    The  pressure  is  regulated  by  adding  to  or 
reducing  the  weights  C,  C. 

Fig.  1088.  Hoard  and  Wiggin's  steam  trap  for  shutting  in  steam,  but  providing  for 
the  escape  of  water  from  steam  coils  and  radiators.  It  consists  of  a  box,  connected  at  A 
with  the  end  of  the  coil  or  the  waste-pipe,  liaving  an  outlet  at  B  and  furnished  with  a 
hollow  valve  D,  the  bottom  of  which  is  composed  of  a  flexible  diaphragm.  Valvo  is 
filled  with  liquid,  and  hermetically  sealed,  and  its  diaphragm  rests  upon  a  bridge  over 
the  outlet-pipe.  The  presence  of  steam  in  the  outer  box  so  heats  the  water  in  valve 
that  the  diaphragm  expands  and  raises  valve  up  to  the  seat  a  a.  Water  of  condensation 
accumulating  reduces  the  temperature  of  valve ;  and  as  the  liquid  in  valve  contracts, 
diaphragm  allows  valve  to  descend  and  let  water  off. 

Fig.  1089.  Ray's  steam  trap.  Valve  a  closes  and  opens  by  longitudinal  expansion 
and  contraction  of  waste-pipe  A,  which  terminates  in  the  middle  of  an  attached  hollow 
sphere  C  A  portion  of  the  pipe  is  firmly  secured  to  a  fixed  support  B.  Valve  consista 
of  a  plunger  which  works  in  a  stuffing  box  in  the  sphere,  opposite  the  end  of  the  pipe, 
and  it  is  pressed  toward  the  end  of  the  pipe  by  a  loaded  elbow  lever  D  as  far  as  per- 
mitted by  a  stop- screw  h  and  stop  c.  When  pipe  is  filled  with  water,  its  length  is  so 
reduced  that  valve  remains  open ;  but  when  filled  with  steam  it  is  expanded  so  that 
valve  closes  it.     Screw  b  serves  to  adjust  the  action  of  valve. 

Fig.  1090.  Another  kind  of  gasometer.  The  vessel  A  has  permanently  secured 
within  it  a  central  tube  a  which  slides  in  a  fixed  tube  b  in  the  centre  of  the  tank. 

Fig.  1091.  Wet  gas  meter.  The  stationary  case  A  is  filled  with  water  up  to  above 
the  centre.  The  inner  revolving  drum  is  divided  into  4  compartments  B,  B,  with  inlets 
around  the  central  pipe  a  which  introduces  the  gas  through  one  of  the  hollow  journals 
of  the  drum.  This  pipe  is  turned  up  to  admit  the  gas  above  the  water,  as  indicated  by 
the  arrow  near  the  centre  of  the  figure.  As  gas  enters  the  compartments  B,  B,  one  after 
another,  it  turns  the  drum  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  shown  near  its  periphery,  dis- 
placing the  water  from  them.  As  the  chambers  pass  over  they  fill  with  water  again. 
The  cubic  contents  of  the  compartments  being  known,  and  the  number  of  the  revolu- 
tions of  the  drum  being  registered  by  dial- work,  the  quantity  of  gas  passing  through 
the  meter  is  registered. 

Fig.  1092.  Powers's  gas  regulator  for  equalizing  the  supply  of  gas  to  all  the  burners 
of  a  building  or  apartment,  notwithstanding  variations  in  the  pressure  on  the  main,  or 
variations  produced  by  turning  gas  on  or  off,  to  or  from  any  number  of  the  burners. 
The  regulator-valve  D,  of  which  a  separate  outside  view  is  given,  is  arranged  over  inlet- 
pipe  E,  and  connected  by  a  lever  d,  with  an  inverted  cup  H,  the  lower  edges  of  which, 
as  well  as  those  of  valve,  dip  into  channels  containing  quicksilver.  There  is  no  escape 
of  gas  around  the  cup  H,  but  there  are  notches  b  in  the  valve  to  permit  the  gas  to  pass 
over  the  surface  of  the  quicksilver.  As  the  pressure  of  gas  increases  it  acts  upon  the  inner 
surface  of  cup  H,  which  is  larger  than  valve,  and  the  cup  is  thereby  raised,  causing  a 
depression  of  the  valve  into  the  quicksilver,  and'contracting  the  opening  notches  b,  and 
diminishing  the  quantity  of  gas  passing  through.  As  the  pressure  diminishes,  an 
opposite  result  is  produced.     The  outlet  to  burners  is  at  F. 

Fig.  1093.  Dry  gas  meter.  Consists  of  2  bellows-like  chambers  A,  A,  which  are 
alternately  filled  with  gas  and  discharged  through  a  valve  B,  something  like  the  slide- 
valve  of  a  steam  engine,  worked  by  the  chambers,  A,  A.  The  capacity  of  the  chambers 
being  known,  and  the  number  of  times  they  are  filled  being  registered  by  dial-work,  the 
quantity  of  gas  passing  through  the  meter  is  indicated  on  the  dials. 

Fig.  1094.  A  spiral  wound  round  a  cylinder  to  convert  the  motion  of  the  wind,  or  a 
stream  of  water,  into  rotary  motion. 

Fig.  1095.  Common  windmill,  illustrating  the  production  of  circular  motion  by  the 
direct  action  of  the  wind  upon  the  oblique  sails. 

Fig.  1096.    Plan  of  a  vertical  windmill.    The  sails  are  so  pivoted  as  to  present  llieir 


518 


Mechanical  Movements. 


1093. 


1092. 


1091. 


1090. 


1089. 


m 


^m 


^  T^ 


^1 


1083. 
A. 


A=i=^3^#Q 


\:-'-^^''py™ryyyyy>-y^//^^y'^^'^^ 


\\  vy/z^y/^v^/y/yA^y//,^ 


^^Sil^,is-.',>&ti.Vil 


1100.  1099.  109S. 


1097. 


1096. 


1095. 


1094. 


1108. 


1110. 

M 

B 


1109.' 


l^>^m.\\ii////4^ 


'lfr!-|^r»T1F 


tm^riiiiiiac 


fc         W  V       ^ 


^;M^////I\\\\^^j 


]? 


' '   A 


llli. 


Mechanical  Movements.  519 

edges  in  returning  toward  tho  wind,  but  to  present  their  faces  to  tlio  action  of  the  wind, 
the  directiou  of  wliich  is  supposed  to  be  as  indicated  by  the  arrow. 

Fig.  1097.  Common  paddle-wheel  for  propelling  vessels.  Tho  revolution  of  tho 
wheel  causes  the  buckets  to  press  backward  against  the  water,  and  so  produce  the  forward 
movement  of  the  vessel. 

Fig.  1098.  Screw-propeller.  Tho  blades  are  sections  of  a  screw-thread,  and  their 
revolution  in  the  water  has  tho  same  cfiept  as  tlio  working  of  a  screw  in  a  nut,  producing 
motion  in  tlio  directiou  of  the  axis,  and  so  propelling  the  vessel. 

Fig.  1099.  Vertical  bucket  paddle-wheel.  The  buckets  a,  a,  are  pivoted  into  tke 
arms  6,  h,  at  equal  distances  from  tho  shaft.  To  the  pivots  are  attached  cranks  c,  c 
which  are  pivoted  at  their  ends  to  the  arms  of  a  ring  d,  which  is  fitted  looaely  to  a 
stationary  eccentric  e.  Tlie  revolution  of  the  arms  and  buckets  with  the  shaft  causes 
the  ring  d  also  to  rotate  upon  the  eccentric,  and  tiie  action  of  this  ring  on  the  cranks 
keeps  the  buckets  always  upright,  so  that  they  enter  the  water  and  leave  it  edgewise 
■without  resistanco  or  lift,  and  while  in  tho  water  arc  in  the  most  eifective  position  for 
propulsion. 

Fig.  1100.  Brown  and  Level's  boat-detaching  hook.  The  upright  standard  is 
secured  to  the  boat,  and  the  tongue,  hinged  to  its  upper  end,  enters  an  eye  in  tho  lever, 
which  works  on  a  fulcrum  at  the  middle  of  the  standard.  A  similar  apparatus  is 
applied  at  each  end  of  the  boat.  The  hooks  of  the  tackles  hook  into  the  tongues,  which 
are  secure  until  it  is  desired  to  detach  the  boat,  when  a  rope  attached  to  the  lower  end 
of  each  lever  is  pulled  in  such  a  direction  as  to  slip  the  eye  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
lever  from  off  the  tongue,  which,  being  then  liberated,  slips  out  of  tho  hook  of  tho  tackle 
and  detaches  the  boat. 

Fig.  1101.  Ordinary  steering  apparatus.  Plan  view.  On  the  shaft  of  tho  hand- 
wheel  there  is  a  barrel,  on  whicli  is  wound  a  rope,  which  passes  round  the  guide-pulleys, 
and  has  its  opposite  ends  attached  to  tho  tiller,  or  lever,  on  toiJ  of  the  rudder ;  by  turn- 
ing the  wheel,  one  end  of  the  rope  is  wound  on  and  the  other  let  off,  and  the  tiller  is 
moved  in  one  or  the  other  direction,  according  to  the  direction  in  which  the  wheel  is 
turned. 

Fig.  1102.  Capstan.  The  cable  or  rope  wound  on  the  barrel  of  the  capstan  is  hauled 
in  by  turning  the  capstan  on  its  axis  by  means  of  handspikes,  or  bars  inserted  into  holes 
in  the  head.  The  capstan  is  prevented  from  turning  back  by  a  pawl  attached  to  its 
lower  part  and  working  in  a  circular  ratchet  on  the  base. 

Fig.  1103.  Lewis,  for  lifting  stone  in  building.  It  is  composed  of  a  central  taper 
pin  or  wedge,  with  2  wedge-like  packing  pieces  arranged  one  on  each  side  of  it.  The 
3  pieces  are  inserted  together  in  a  hole  drilled  into  the  stone,  and  when  the  central  wedge 
is  hoisted  upon  it  wedges  the  packing  pieces  out  so  tightly  against  the  sides  of  the  hole 
as  to  enable  the  stone  to  be  lifted. 

Fig.  1104.  Tongs  for  lifting  stones.  The  pull  on  the  shackle  which  connects  th.e  2 
links  causes  the  latter  so  to  act  on  the  upper  arms  of  tlie  tongs  as  to  make  their  points 
press  themselves  against  or  into  the  stone.  The  greater  tho  weight  the  harder  tho 
tongs  bite. 

Fig.  1105.  Drawing  and  twisting  in  spinning  cotton,  wool,  &c.  The  front  drawing- 
rolls  B  rotate  faster  than  tho  back  ones  A,  and  so  pruduce  a  draught,  and  draw  out  the 
fibres  of  tho  sliver  or  roving  passing  between  them.  Eoving  passes  from  the  front 
drawing-rolls  to  throstle,  which,  by  its  rotation  around  the  bobbin,  twists  and  winds  the 
yarn  on  the  bobbin. 

Fig.  1106.  Fan-blower.  The  casing  has  circular  openings  in  its  sides,  through  which, 
by  the  revolution  of  the  shaft  and  attached  fan-blades,  air  is  drawn  in  at  the  centre  of 
the  casing,  to  be  forced  out  under  pressure  through  the  spoilt. 

Fig.  1107.  Siphon  pressure  gauge.  Lower  part  of  bent  tube  contains  mercury.  The 
leg  of  the  tube,  against  which  the  scale  is  marked,  is  open  at  top,  the  other  log  con- 


520  Mechanical  Movements. 

nected  with  the  steam  boiler  or  other  apparatus  on  wliich  the  pressure  is  to  be  indicated. 
The  pressure  on  the  mercury  in  the  one  leg  causes  it  to  be  depressed  in  that  and  raised 
in  the  other,  until  there  is  an  equilibrium  establislied  between  the  weight  of  mercury 
and  pressure  of  steam  in  one  leg,  and  the  weight  of  mercury  and  pressure  of  atmosphere 
in  the  other.  This  is  the  most  accurate  gauge  known  ;  but  as  high  pressure  requires  so 
long  a  tube,  it  has  given  place  to  those  which  are  practically  accurate  enough,  and  of 
more  convenient  form. 

Fig.  1108.  Mercurial  barometer.  Longer  leg  of  bent  tube,  against  wliich  is  marked 
the  scale  of  inches,  is  closed  at  top,  and  shorter  one  is  open  to  the  atmot^pliere,  or  merely 
covered  with  some  porous  material.  Column  of  mercury  in  longer  leg,  from  which  the 
air  has  been  extracted,  is  held  up  by  tlie  pressure  'f  air  on  the  surface  of  that  in  the 
shorter  leg,  and  rises  or  falls  as  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  varies.  The  old- 
fashioned  weather-glass  is  composed  of  a  similar  tube  attached  to  the  back  of  a  dial,  and 
a  float  inserted  into  the  shorter  leg  of  the  tube,  and  geared  by  a  rack  and  pinion,  or 
cord  and  pulley,  with  the  spindle  of  the  pointer. 

Fig.  1109.  A  very  simple  form  of  the  epicyclic  train,  in  which  F,  G  is  the  arm, 
secured  to  the  central  shaft  A,  upon  which  are  loosely  fitted  the  bevel-wheels  C,  D. 
The  arm  is  formed  into  an  axle  for  the  bevel-wheel  B,  which  is  fitted  to  turn  freely  upon 
it.  Motion  may  be  given  to  the  two  wheels  C,  D,  in  order  to  produce  aggregate  motion 
of  the  arm,  or  else  to  the  arm  and  one  of  said  wheels  in  order  to  produce  aggregate 
motion  of  the  other  wheel. 

Fig.  1110.  Ferguson's  mechanical  paradox,  designed  to  show  a  curious  property  of 
the  epicyclic  train.  The  wheel  A  is  fixed  upon  a  stationary  stud,  about  which  the  arm 
C.  D,  revolves.  In  this  arm  arc  2  pins  M,  N,  upon  one  of  which  is  fitted  loosely  a  thick 
wheel  B  gearing  with  A,  and  upon  the  other  are  3  loose  wheels  E,  F,  G,  all  gearing 
with  B.  When  the  arm  C,  D,  is  turned  round  on  the  stud,  motion  is  given  to  the  3 
wheels  E,  F,  G,  on  their  common  axis,  namely,  the  pin  N ;  the  3  forming  with  the 
intermediate  wheel  B  and  the  wheel  A  3  distinct  epicyclic  trains.  Suppose  A  to  have 
20  teeth,  F  20,  E  21,  and  G  19  ;  as  the  arm  E,  C,  D,  is  turned  round  F  will  appear  not 
to  turn  on  its  axis,  as  any  point  in  its  circumference  will  always  point  in  one  direction, 
while  E  will  appear  to  turn  slowly  in  one,  and  G  in  the  other  direction,  which — an 
apparent  paradox — gave  rise  to  the  name  of  the  apparatus. 

Fig.  1111.  Aneroid  gauge,  known  as  the  Bourdon  gauge,  from  the  name  of  its 
inventor,  a  Frenchman.  B  is  a  bent  tube  closed  at  its  ends,  secured  at  C,  the  middle  of 
its  length,  and  having  its  ends  free.  Pressure  of  steam  or  other  fluid  admitted  to  tube 
tends  to  straighten  it  more  or  less,  according  to  its  intensity.  The  ends  of  tube  are 
connected  with  a  toothed  sector-piece,  gearing  with  a  pinion  on  the  spindle  of  a  pointer, 
which  indicates  the  pressure  on  a  dial. 

Fig.  1112.  Pressure  gauge  now  seldom  used.  Sometimes  known  as  the  Magdeburg 
gauge,  from  the  name  of  the  place  where  first  manufactured.  Face  view  and  section. 
The  fluid  whose  pressure  is  to  be  measured  acts  upon  a  circular  metal  disc  A,  generally 
corrugated,  and  the  deflection  of  the  disc  under  the  pressure  gives  motion  to  a  toothed 
sector  e,  which  gears  with  a  pinion  on  the  spindle  of  the  pointer. 

Fig.  1113.  An  epicyclic  train.  Any  train  of  gearing  the  axes  of  the  wheels  of  which 
revolve  around  a  common  centre  is  properly  known  by  this  name.  The  wheel  at  one 
end  of  such  a  train,  if  not  those  at  both  ends,  is  always  concentric  with  the  revolving 
frame.  C  is  the  frame  or  train-bearing  arm.  The  centre  wheel  A,  concentric  with 
this  frame,  gears  with  a  pinion  F  to  the  same  axle,  with  which  is  secured  a  wheel  E 
that  gears  with  a  wheel  B.  If  the  first  wheel  A  be  fixed,  and  a  motion  be  given  to  the 
frame  C,  the  train  will  revolve  round  the  fixed  wheel,  and  the  relative  motion  of  the 
frame  to  the  fixed  wheel  will  communicate  through  the  train  a  rotary  motion  to  B  on  its 
axis.  Or  the  first  wheel  as  well  as  the  frame  may  be  made  to  revolve  with  difl"erent 
velocities,  with  the  same  result  except  as  to  the  velocity  of  rotation  of  B  upon  its  axis. 


Mechanical  Movements.  521 

In  the  epicycUc  train  as  thus  described,  only  the  wheel  at  one  extremity  is  concentric 
with  the  revolving  frame;  but  if  the  wheel  E,  instead  of  gearin<^  with  B,  be  matlo  to 
gear  with  the  wheel  D,  which,  like  the  wheel  A,  is  concentric  witli  tlie  frame,  wo  have 
anepicyclic  train,  of  which  the  wheels  at  both  extremities  are  concentric  with  the  frame. 
In  this  train  we  may  either  communicate  tlio  driving  motion  to  the  arm  and  one  extreme 
wheel,  in  order  to  produce  an  aggregate  rotation  of  the  other  extreme  wlieol,  or  motion 
may  be  given  to  the  2  extreme  wheels  A  and  D  of  the  train,  and  the  aggregate  motion 
will  thus  be  communicated  to  tlio  arm. 

Fig.  1114.  Another  simple  form  of  the  epicyclic  train,  in  which  the  arm  D  carries  a 
pinion  B,  which  gears  both  with  a  spur-wheel  A  and  an  annular  wheel  C,  both  concentric 
Avith  the  axis  of  the  arm.  Either  of  the  wheels  A,  C,  may  be  stationary,  and  the 
revolution  of  the  arm  and  pinion  will  give  motion  to  the  other  wheel. 

Fig.  1115.  Another  epicyclic  train  in  which  neither  the  first  nor  last  wheel  is  fixed. 
m,n  is  a  shaft  to  which  is  firmly  secured  the  train-bearing  arm  }c,  I,  which  carries  the 
2  wheels  d,  e,  secured  together  but  rotating  upon  the  arm  itself.  The  wlieels  h  and  c 
are  united,  and  turn  together  freely  upon  the  shaft  m,n;  the  wheels  /  and  g  are  also 
secured  together,  but  turn  together  freely  on  the  shaft  m,  n.  The  wheels  c,  d,  e,  and  /, 
constitute  an  epicyclic  train,  of  which  c  is  the  firat  and  /  the  last  wheel.  A  shaft  A  is 
employed  as  a  driver,  and  has  firmly  secured  to  it  2  wheels  a  and  h,  the  first  of  which  gears 
with  the  wheel  h,  and  thus  communicates  motion  to  the  first  wheel  c  of  the  epicyclic 
train,  and  the  wheel  h  drives  the  wheel  g,  which  thus  gives  motion  to  the  lust  wheel  /. 
Motion  communicated  this  way  to  tiio  two  ends  of  the  train  produces  an  aggregate 
motion  of  the  arm  k,  I,  and  shaft  m,  7i. 

This  train  may  be  modified  ;  for  instance,  suppose  the  wheels  g  and  /  to  bo  disunited, 
g  to  bo  fixed  to  the  .shaft  m,  n,  and/  only  running  loose  upon  it.  The  driving  shaft  A 
will,  as  before,  communicate  motion  to  the  first  wheel  c  of  the  epicyclic  train  by  means 
of  the  wheels  a  and  b,  and  will  also  by  h  cause  the  wheel  g,  the  shaft  vi,  ?i,  and  the 
train-bearing  arm  Ic,  I,  to  revolve,  and  the  aggregate  rotation  will  be  given  to  the  loose 
wheel  /. 

Fig.  1116.  Another  form  of  epicyclic  train,  designed  for  producing  a  very  slow  motion. 
m  is  a  fixed  shaft,  upon  which  is  loosely  fitted  a  long  sleeve,  to  the  h»wer  end  of  which 
is  fixed  a  wheel  D,  and  to  the  upper  end  a  wheel  E.  Upon  this  long  sleeve  there  is 
fitted  a  shorter  one  which  carries  at  its  extremities  the  wheels  A  and  H.  A  wheel  C 
gears  with  both  D  and  A,  and  a  train-bearing  arm  m,  n,  which  revolves  freely  upon  the 
shaft  TO,  p,  carries  upon  a  stud  at  n  the  united  wheels  F  and  G.  If  A  have  10  teeth, 
C  100,  D  10,  E  Gl,  F  49,  G  41,  and  H  51,  there  will  be  25,000  revolutions  of  the  train- 
bearing  arm  m,  w,  for  one  of  the  wheel  C. 

Fig.  1117.  A  method  of  engaging,  disengaging,  and  reversing  the  upright  shaft  at 
the  left.  The  belt  is  shown  on  the  middle  one  of  the  3  pulleys  on  the  lower  shafts  a,  h, 
which  pulley  is  loose,  and  consequently  no  movement  is  communicated  to  the  said  shafts. 
When  the  belt  is  traversed  on  the  left-hand  pulley,  which  is  fast  on  the  hollow  shaft  h, 
carrying  the  bevel-gear  B,  motion  is  communicated  in  one  direction  to  the  upright  shaft; 
and  on  its  being  traversed  on  to  the  right-hand  pulley,  motion  is  transmitted  through 
the  gear  A,  fast  on  the  shaft  a,  which  runs  inside  of  I,  and  the  direction  of  the  upright 
shaft  is  reversed. 

Fig.  1118.     Spur-gears. 

Fig.  1119.  The  wheel  to  the  right  is  termed  a  "  crown-wheel";  that  gearing  with 
it  is  a  spur-gear.  These  wheels  are  not  much  used,  and  are  only  available  for  light 
work,  as  the  teeth  of  the  crown-wheel  must  necessarily  be  thin. 

Fig.  1120.  Multiple-gearing— a  recent  invention.  The  smaller  triangular  wheel 
drives  the  larger  one  by  the  movement  of  its  attached  friction-rollers  in  the  radial 
grooves. 

Fig.  1121.     Thcie  are  sometimes  called  brush-wheels.    The  relative  speeds  can  be 


522 


Mechanical  Movements. 


lilt. 


13     h\ 


Jj>^ 


1118. 


1119. 


1120. 


1121. 


1122. 


-^ 


\_/ 


^ 


1123. 


1124. 


1125. 


o 


.'VVl/i. 


■^feKr^ 


1126. 


1127. 


1128. 


Mechanical  Movements.  523 

varied  by  changing  tho  distance  of  the  tipper  wlieel  from  the  centre  of  the  lower  one. 
The  one  drives  the  other  by  tho  friction  or  adhesion,  and  this  may  bo  increased  by 
facing  the  lower  one  with  indiarubber. 

Fig.  1122.  Transmission  of  rotary  motion  from  one  shaft  at  riglit  angles  to  another. 
The  spiral  thread  of  the  disc-wheel  drives  the  spur-gear,  moving  it  the  distance  of  ono 
tooth  at  every  revolution. 

Fig.  1123.  Worm  or  endless  screw  and  a  worm-wheel.  This  effects  tho  same  result 
as  Fig.  1122  ;  and  as  it  is  more  easily  constructed,  it  is  oftener  used. 

Fig.  112'1.  Friction-wheels.  The  surfaces  of  these  wheels  are  made  rougli,  so  as  to 
''bite"  as  much  as  possible;  one  is  sometimes  faced  with  leather,  or,  better,  with 
vulcanized  indiarubber. 

Fig.  1125.  Elliptical  spur-gears.  These  are  used  where  a  rotary  motion  of  varying 
speed  is  required,  and  the  variation  of  speed  is  determined  by  tho  relation  between  the 
lengths  of  the  major  and  minor  axes  of  the  ellipses. 

Fig.  1126.  An  internally-toothed  spur-gear  and  pinion.  With  ordinary  spur-gears 
the  direction  of  rotation  is  opposite ;  but  with  the  internally-toothed  gear,  the  two  rotate 
in  tlie  same  direction ;  and  with  the  same  strength  of  tooth  the  gears  are  capable  of 
transmitting  greater  force,  because  more  teeth  are  engaged. 

Fig.  1127.  Variable  rotary  motion  produced  by  uniform  rotary  motion.  The  small 
spui-pinion  works  in  a  slut  cut  in  the  bar,  which  turns  loosely  upon  the  shaft  of  the 
elliptical  gear.  The  bearing  of  the  pinion-sliaft  has  applied  to  it  a  spring,  which  keeps 
it  engaged ;  the  slot  in  the  bar  is  to  allow  for  tlie  variation  of  length  of  radius  of  tho 
elliptical  gear. 

Fig.  1128.  Uniform  into  variable  rotary  motion.  The  bevel-wheel  or  pinion  to  tho 
left  has  teeth  cut  through  the  whole  width  of  its  face.  Its  teeth  work  with  a  spirally- 
arranged  series  of  studs  on  a  conical  wheel. 

Fig.  1129.  A  means  of  converting  rotary  motion,  by  which  the  speed  is  made 
imiform  during  a  part,  and  varied  during  anoth(  r  part,  of  the  revolution. 

Fig.  1130.  Sun-and-planet  motion.  The  spur-gear  to  the  right,  called  the  planet- 
gear,  is  tied  to  the  centre  of  tho  other,  or  sun-gear,  by  an  arm  which  preserves  a  constant 
distance  between  their  centres.  This  was  used  as  a  substitute  for  the  crank  in  a  steam 
engine  by  James  Watt,  after  the  use  of  the  crank  had  been  patented  by  another  party. 
Each  revolution  of  the  planet-gear,  which  is  rigidly  attached  to  the  connecting  rod,  gives 
two  to  the  sun-gear,  which  is  keyed  to  the  fly-wheel  shaft. 

Figs.  1131,  1132.  Different  kinds  of  gears  for  transmitting  rotary  motion  from  one 
shaft  to  another  arranged  obliquely  thereto. 

Fig.  1133.  A  kind  of  gearing  used  to  transmit  great  force  and  give  a  continuous 
bearing  to  the  teeth.  Each  wheel  is  composed  of  2,  3,  or  more  distinct  spur -gears.  Tho 
teeth,  instead  of  being  in  line,  are  arranged  in  steps  to  give  a  contiuuous  bearing.  This 
system  is  sometimes  used  for  driving  screw-piopellers,  and  sometimes,  with  a  rack  of 
similar  character,  to  drive  the  beds  of  large  iron -planing  machines. 

Fig.  1134.  Frictional  grooved  gearing — a  comparatively  recent  invention.  The 
diagram  to  the  right  is  an  enlarged  section,  which  can  be  more  easily  understood. 

Fig.  1135.  Alternate  circular  motion  of  the  horizontal  shaft  produces  a  continuous 
rotary  motion  of  the  vertical  sliaft,  by  means  of  tlie  ratchet-wheels  secured  to  the  bevel- 
gears,  the  ratchet-teeth  of  the  two  wheels  being  set  opposite  ways,  and  the  pawls  acting 
in  opposite  directions.  The  bevel-gears  and  ratchet-wheels  are  loose  on  the  shaft,  and 
the  pawls  attached  to  arms  firmly  secured  on  the  shaft. 

Fig.  1136.  The  vertical  shaft  is  made  to  drive  the  horizontal  ono  in  either  direction, 
as  may  be  desired,  by  means  of  the  double-clutch  and  bevel-gears.  The  gears  on  the 
horizontal  shaft  are  loose,  and  are  driven  in  opposite  directions  by  the  third  gear  ;  tho 
double-clutch  slides  upon  a  key  or  feather  fixed  on  the  horizontal  shaft,  which  is  made 
to  rotate  either  to  the  right  or  loft,  according  to  the  side  on  which  it  is  engaged. 


524 


Mechanical  Movements. 


1129. 


1130. 


1131. 


1132. 


1132. 


1134. 


u_ 

I 
—J 

r^ 

n:^ 

r 

- 

r~i 

i 

^^ 

■V'VAA/ 


^iMM 


'/////////////////////////A 


1136. 


liar. 


1138 


1139. 


1140. 


1141. 


Mechanical  Movements.  525 

Fig.  1137.    Mangle  or  star-wheel,  for  producing  an  alternating  rotary  motion. 

Fig.  1138.  Diflerent  velocity  given  to  2  gears,  A  and  C,  on.  the  same  sliaft,  by 
the  pinion  D. 

Fig.  1139.  The  small  pulley  at  the  top  being  the  driver,  the  large,  internally- 
toothed  gear  and  the  concentric  gear  within  will  bo  driven  in  opposite  directions  by  the 
bands,  and  at  the  same  time  will  impart  motion  to  the  intermediate  pinion  at  the  bottom, 
both  around  its  own  centre  and  also  around  the  common  centre  of  the  two  concentric 
gears. 

Fig.  1140.  Jumping  or  intermittent  rotary  motion,  used  for  meters  and  revolution- 
counters.  The  drop  and  attached  pawl,  carried  by  a  spring  at  the  kft,  are  lifted  by  pins 
in  the  disc  at  the  right.  Pins  escape  first  from  pawl,  wbich  drops  into  next  space  of  tlie 
star-wheel.  Wlien  pin  escapes  from  drop,  spring  throws  down  suddenly  tlie  drop,  the 
\)'u\  on  which  strikes  the  pawl,  which,  by  its  action  on  star-wheel,  rapidly  gives  it  a 
portion  of  a  revolution.     Tiiis  is  repeated  as  each  pin  passes. 

Fig.  1141.  Another  arrangement  of  jumping  motion.  Motion  is  communicated  to 
worm-gear  B  by  worm  or  endless  screw  at  the  bottom,  which  is  fixed  upon  the  driving 
shaft.  Upon  the  shaft  carrying  the  worm-gear  works  another  hollow  shaft,  on  which  is 
fixed  cam  A.  A  short  piece  of  this  hollow  shaft  is  half  cut  away.  A  pin  fixed  in  worm- 
gear  shaft  turns  hollow  shaft  and  cam,  the  spring  which  presses  on  cam  holding  hollow 
shaft  back  against  the  pin  until  it  arrives  a  little  farther  than  shown  in  the  figure,  when, 
the  direction  of  the  pressure  being  changed  by  the  peculiar  shape  of  cam,  the  latter  falls 
down  suddenly,  independently  of  worm-wheel,  and  remains  at  rest  till  the  pin  overtakes 
it,  when  the  same  action  is  repeated. 

Fig.  1142,  The  left-hand  disc  or  wheel  C  is  the  driving  wheel,  upon  which  is  fixed 
the  tappet  A.  The  other  disc  or  wheel  D  has  a  series  of  equidistant  studs  projecting 
from  its  face.  Every  rotation  of  the  tappet  acting  upon  one  of  the  studs  in  the  wheel  D 
causes  the  latter  wheel  to  move  the  distance  of  one  stud.  In  order  that  this  may  not  bo 
exceeded,  a  lever-like  stop  is  arranged  on  a  fixed  centre.  This  stop  operates  in  a  notch 
cut  in  wheel  C,  and  at  the  same  instant  tappet  A  strikes  a  stud,  said  notch  faces  the 
lever.  As  wheel  D  rotates  the  end  between  studs  is  thrust  out,  and  the  other  extremity 
enters  the  notch;  but  immediately  on  the  tappet  leaving  stud,  the  lever  is  again 
forced  up  in  front  of  next  stud,  and  is  there  held  by  periphery  of  C  pressing  on  its 
other  end. 

Fig.  1143.  A  modification  of  Fig.  1141 ;  a  weight  D,  attached  to  an  arm  secured 
in  the  shaft  of  the  worm-gear,  being  used  instead  of  spring  and  cam. 

Fig.  1144.  Another  modification  of  Fig.  1141  ;  a  weight  or  tumbler  E,  secured  on 
the  hollow  shaft,  being  used  instead  of  spring  and  cam,  and  operating  in  combination 
with  pin  C,  in  the  shaft  of  worm-gear. 

Fig.  1145.  The  single  tooth  A  of  the  driving  wheel  B  acts  in  the  notclies  of  the 
wheel  C,  and  turns  the  latter  the  distance  of  one  notch  in  every  revolution  of  0.  No 
stop  is  necessary  in  this  movement,  as  the  driving  wheel  B  serves  as  a  lock  by  fitting 
into  the  hollows  cut  in  the  circumference  of  the  wheel  C  between  its  notches. 

Fig.  1146.  B,  a  small  wheel  with  one  tooth,  is  the  driver,  and  the  circumference 
entering  between  the  teeth  of  the  wheel  A,  serves  as  a  lock  or  stop  while  the  tooth  of 
the  small  wheel  is  out  of  operation. 

Fig.  1147.  The  driving  wheel  C  has  a  rim,  shown  in  dotted  outline,  the  exterior  of 
which  serves  as  a  bearing  and  stop  for  the  studs  on  the  other  wheel  A,  when  the 
tappet  B  is  out  of  contact  with  the  studs.  An  opening  in  this  rim  serves  to  allow 
one  stud  to  pass  in  and  another  to  pass  out.  The  tappet  is  opposite  the  middle  of  this 
opening. 

Fig.  1148.  The  inner  circumference  (shown  by  dotted  lines)  of  the  rim  of  the 
driving  wheel  B  serves  as  a  lock  against  which  two  of  the  studs  in  the  wheel  C  rest 
until  the  tappet  A,  striking  one  of  the  studs,  fne  next  one  below  passes  out  from  the 


626 


Mechanical  Movements. 


U42. 


1143. 


1144. 


1145. 


1146. 


1147. 


1148. 


1149. 


1150. 


I  I 


^ 


ZD 


1151. 


1162. 


1153. 


n 

o 


^Mechanical  Movements.  527 

guard-rim  through  the  lower  notch,  and  another  stud  enters  the  rim  through  the  upper 
notch. 

Fig.  1149.  To  the  driving  wheel  D  is  secured  a  bent  spring  B;  another  spring  C 
is  attached  to  a  fixed  support.  As  the  wheel  D  revolves,  the  spring  B  passes  under 
the  strong  spring  C,  which  presses  it  into  a  tooth  of  the  ratchet-wheel  A,  whirh  is  thus 
made  to  rotate.  The  catch-spring  B,  being  released  on  its  escape  from  tliu  strong 
spring  C,  allows  the  wheel  A  to  remain  at  rest  till  D  has  made  another  revolution.  The 
spring  C  serves  as  a  stop. 

Fig.  1150.  A  uniform  intermittent  rotary  motion  in  opposite  directions  is  given  to 
the  bevel-gears  A  and  B  by  means  of  the  mutilated  bevel-gear  C. 

Fig.  1151.  Reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  of  the  rod  C  transmits  an  intermittent 
circular  motion  to  the  wheel  A,  by  means  of  the  pawl  B  at  the  end  of  the  vibratin"- 
bar  D. 

Fig.  1152  is  another  contrivance  for  registering  or  counting  revolutions.  A  tappet  B, 
supported  on  tlie  fixed  pivot  C,  is  struck  at  every  revolution  of  the  large  wheel  (partly 
represented)  by  a  stud  D  attached  to  the  said  wheel.  This  causes  the  end  of  the  tappet 
next  the  ratchet-wheel  A  to  be  lifted,  and  to  turn  tlie  wheel  the  distance  of  one  tooth. 
The  tappet  returns  by  its  own  weight  to  its  original  position  after  the  stud  D  has 
passed,  the  end  being  jointed  to  permit  it  to  pass  the  teeth  of  the  ratchet-wheel. 

Fig.  1153.  The  vibration  of  the  lever  C  on  the  centre  or  fulcrum  A  produces  a 
rotary  movement  of  the  wheel  B,  by  means  of  the  two  pawls,  which  act  alternately. 
This  is  almost  a  continuous  movement. 

Fig.  1154.    A  modification  of  Fig.  1153. 

Fig.  1155.  Reciprocating  rectilinear  motion  of  the  rod  B  produces  a  nearly  con- 
tinuous rotary  movement  of  the  ratchet-faced  wheel  A,  by  the  pawls  attached  to  the 
extremities  of  the  vibrating  radial  arms  0  C. 

Fig.  1156.  Rectilinear  motion  is  imparted  to  the  slotted  bar  A  by  the  vibration  of 
the  lever  C  through  the  agency  of  the  two  hooked  pawls,  which  drop  alternately  into  the 
teeth  of  the  slotted  rack-bar  A. 

Fig.  1157.  Alternate  rectilinear  motion  is  given  to  the  rack-rod  B  by  the  continuous 
revolution  of  the  mutilated  spur-gear  A,  the  spiral  spring  C  forcing  the  rod  back  to  its 
original  position  on  the  teeth  of  the  gear  A  quitting  the  rack. 

Fig.  1158.  On  motion  being  given  to  the  two  treadles  D  a  nearly  continuous  motion 
is  imparted,  through  the  vibrating  arms  B  and  their  attached  pawls,  to  the  ratchet- 
wheel  A.  A  chain  or  strap  attached  to  each  treadle  passes  over  the  pulley  C,  and  as 
one  treadle  is  depressed  the  other  is  raised. 

Fig.  1159,  A  nearly  continuous  rotary  motion  is  given  to  the  wheel  D  by  two 
ratchet-toothed  arcs  C,  one  operating  on  each  side  of  the  ratchet-wheel  D.  These 
arcs  (only  one  of  which  is  shown)  are  fast  on  the  same  rock-shaft  B,  and  have  their 
teeth  set  opposite  ways.  The  rock-shaft  is  worked  by  giving  a  reciprocating  rectilinear 
motion  to  the  rod  A.  The  arcs  should  have  springs  applied  to  them,  so  that  each 
may  be  capable  of  rising  to  allow  its  teeth  to  slide  over  those  of  the  wheel  in  moving 
one  way. 

Fig.  1160.  The  double-rack  frame  B  is  suspended  from  the  rod  A.  Continuous 
rotary  motion  is  given  to  the  cam  D.  When  the  shaft  of  the  cam  is  midway  between 
the  two  racks,  the  cam  acts  upon  neither  of  them ;  but  by  raising  or  lowering  tiie  rod  A 
either  the  lower  or  upper  rack  is  brought  within  range  of  the  cam,  and  the  rack-frame 
moved  to  the  left  or  right.  This  movement  has  been  used  in  connection  with  the 
governor  of  an  engine,  the  rod  A  being  connected  with  the  governor,  and  the  rack-frame 
with  the  throttle  or  regulating  valve. 

Fig.  1161.  Uniform  circular  motion  into  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion,  by  means 
of  mutilated  pinion,  which  drives  alternately  the  top  and  bottom  rack. 

Fig.  1162.    Circular  motion  into  alternate  rectilinear  motion.    Motion  is  transmitted 


528 


]\Iechanical  Movements. 


1164. 


1165. 


1156. 


115Y. 


1158. 


1159. 


1160. 


1161. 


1162. 


1163. 


1164. 


,-uvr^ 


Mechanical  Movements.  529 

through  pulley  at  the  left  upon  the  worm-shaft.  "Worm  slides  upon  shaft,  hut  is  made 
to  turn  with  it  by  means  of  a  groove  cut  in  shaft,  and  a  key  in  hub  of  worm.  Worm  is 
carried  by  a  small  traversing  frame,  which  slides  upon  a  horizontal  b;ir  of  tlin  fixed 
frame,  and  the  traversing  frame  also  carries  the  toothed  wliccl  int(j  which  (ho  worm 
gears.  One  end  of  a  connerting  rod  is  attached  to  fi.xed  frame  at  tlie  ri'_dit  :ind  the 
other  end  to  a  wrist  secured  in  toothed  wheel.  On  turning  worm-shaft  rotary  motion 
is  transmitted  by  worm  to  wheel,  which,  as  it  revolves,  is  forced  by  connecting  rod  to 
make  an  alternating  traverse  motion. 

Fig.  1163.  Continuous  circular  into  continuous  but  much  slower  rectilinear  motion. 
The  worm  on  the  upper  shaft,  acting  on  the  toothed  wheel  on  the  screw-shaft,  causes 
the  right-  and  left-hand  screw-threads  to  move  the  nuts  upon  tlicm  toward  or  from  each 
other  according  to  the  direction  of  rotation. 

Fig.  1164.     Scroll-gears  for  obtaining  a  gradually  increasing  speed. 

Fig.  1165.  What  is  called  a  "mangle-rack.'  A  continuous  rotation  of  the  pinion 
will  give  a  reciprocating  motion  to  the  square  frame.  The  pinion-shaft  must  be  free  to 
rise  and  fall,  to  pass  round  the  guides  at  the  ends  of  the  rack.  This  motion  may  be 
modified  as  follows  : — If  the  square  frame  be  fixed,  and  the  pinion  be  iixed  upon  a  shaft 
made  with  a  universal  joint,  the  end  of  the  shaft  will  describe  a  line,  similar  to  that 
shown  in  the  drawing,  around  the  rack. 

Fig.  1166.  A  mode  of  obtaining  two  different  speeds  on  tiie  same  shaft  from  one 
driving  wheel. 

Fig.  1 167.  A  continual  rotation  of  the  pinion  (obtained  through  the  irregular-shaped 
gear  at  the  left)  gives  a  variable  vibrating  movement  to  the  horizontal  arm,  and  a 
variable  reciprocating  movement  to  the  rod  A. 

Fig.  1168.  Worm  or  endless  screw  and  worm-wheel.  Used  when  steadiness  or  great 
power  is  required. 

Fig.  1169.  Variable  circular  motion  by  crown-wheel  and  pinion.  The  crown-wheel 
is  placed  eccentrically  to  the  shaft,  therefore  the  relative  radius  changes. 

Fig.  1170.  Irregular  circular  motion  imparted  to  wheel  A.  C  is  an  elliptical  spur- 
gear  rotating  round  centre  D,  and  is  the  driver,  B  is  a  small  pinion  with  teeth  of  the 
same  pitch,  gearing  with  C.  The  centre  of  this  pinion  is  not  fixed,  but  is  carried  by  an 
arm  or  frame  which  vibrates  on  a  centre  A,  so  that  as  C  revolves  the  frame  rises  and 
falls  to  enable  pinion  to  remain  in  gear  with  it,  notwithstanding  the  variation  in  its 
radius  of  contact.  To  keep  the  teeth  of  C  and  B  in  gear  to  a  proper  depth,  and  prevent 
them  from  riding  over  each  other,  wheel  0  has  attached  to  it  a  plate  which  extends 
beyond  it  and  is  furnished  with  a  groove  g  h  of  similar  elliptical  form,  for  the  reception 
of  a  pin  or  small  roller  attached  to  the  vibrating  arm  concentric  with  pinion  B. 

Fig.  1171.  If  for  the  eccentric  wheel  described  in  the  last  figure  on  ordinary  spur- 
gear  moving  on  an  eccentric  centre  of  motion  be  substituted,  a  simi^lc  link  connecting 
tho  centre  of  the  wheel-  with  that  of  the  pinion  with  which  it  gears  will  maintain  proper 
pitching  of  teeth  in  a  more  simple  manner  than  the  groove. 

Fig.  1172.  This  movement  is  designed  to  double  the  speed  by  gears  of  equal 
diameters  and  numbers  of  teeth — a  result  once  generally  supposed  to  be  impossible. 
Six  bevel-gears  are  employed.  The  gear  on  the  shaft  B  is  in  gear  with  two  others — 
one  on  the  shaft  F,  and  the  other  on  the  same  hollow  shaft  with  C,  which  turns  loosely 
on  F.  The  gear  D  is  carried  by  the  frame  A,  which,  being  fast  on  the  shaft  F,  is  made 
to  rotate,  and  therefore  takes  round  D  with  it.  E  is  loose  on  the  shaft  F,  and  gears 
with  D.  Now,  suppose  tho  two  gears  on  the  hollow  shaft  0  were  removed  and.D 
prevented  from  turning  on  its  axis,  one  revolution  given  to  the  gear  on  B  would  cause 
the  frame  A  also  to  receive  one  revolution,  and  as  this  frame  carries  with  it  the  gear  D, 
gearing  with  E,  one  revolution  would  bo  imparted  to  E  ;  but  if  the  g(  ars  on  the  hollow 
shaft  0  were  replaced  D  would  receive  also  a  revolution  on  its  axis  during  the  one 
revolution  of  B,  and  thus  would  produce  two  revolutions  of  E. 

2  M 


53a 


Mechanical  Movements. 


1167. 


1168. 


1169. 


1170. 


,!AjMVf 


1171. 


1173, 


1172. 


•S'W'.yM 


4 


1174. 


1175. 


c^HH 


TuKNiNG— Lathes.  531 

Fig.  1173.  ■Wheel--work  in  tho  base  of  capstan.  Thus  provided,  the  capstan  can  be 
used  as  a  simple  or  compound  machine,  single  or  trii>lo  purchase.  The  drumhead  and 
barrel  rotate  independently ;  the  former,  being  fixed  on  spindle,  turns  it  round,  and 
when  locked  to  barrel  turns  it  also,  forming  single  purchase  ;  but  when  unlocked  wheel- 
work  acts,  and  drumhead  and  barrel  rotate  in  opposite  directions,  with  velocities  aa 
three  to  one. 

Fig.  1174.  J.  W.  Hewlett's  adjustable  frictional  gearing.  This  is  an  improvement 
on  that  shown  in  Fig.  1134.  The  upper  wheel  A  shown  in  section,  is  composed  of  a 
rubber  disc  with  V-edge,  clamped  between  two  metal  plates.  By  screwing  up  tho  nut 
B,  which  holds  the  parts  together,  the  rubber  disc  is  made  to  expand  radially,  and 
greater  tractive  power  may  be  produced  between  tho  two  wheels. 

Fig.  1175.  Scroll-gear  and  sliding  pinion,  to  produce  an  increasing  velocity  of  scroll- 
plate  A,  in  one  direction,  and  a  decreasing  velocity  when  the  motion  is  reversed.  Pinion 
B  moves  on  a  feather  on  the  shaft. 

Fig.  1176.  Entwistle's  geariii-.  Bevel-gear  A  is  fixed.  B,  gearing  with  A,  is  fitted 
to  rotate  on  stud  E,  secured  to  shaft  D,  and  it  also  gears  with  bevel-gear  C  loose,  on  the 
shaft  D.  On  rotary  motion  being  given  to  shaft  D,  the  gear  E  revolves  around  A,  and 
also  rotates  upon  its  own  axis,  and  so  acts  upon  C  in  two  ways,  namely,  by  its  rotation 
on  its  own  axis  and  by  its  revolution  around  A.  With  three  gears  of  equal  size,  tho 
gear  0  makes  two  revolutions  for  every  one  of  tho  shaft  D.  This  velocity  of  revolution 
may,  however,  be  varied  by  changing  the  relative  sizes  of  the  gears.  C  is  represented 
with  an  attached  drum  C  This  gearing  may  be  used  for  steering  apparatus,  driving 
screw-propellers,  &c.  By  applying  power  to  C  action  may  be  reversed,  and  a  slow  motion 
of  D  obtained. 

TURNING-. — This  operation  consists  in  giving  a  new  form  to  objects  in  wood, 
metal,  ivory,  &c.,  by  means  of  fixed  tools  held  against  the  object  while  it  is  revolved 
within  reach  of  the  tool.  The  machine  employed  for  rotating  the  object  is  called  a 
lathe. 

Xiathes. — These  are  now  made  in  a  great  variety  of  form  and  capacity.  In 
looking  back  to  the  early  days  of  the  turning  lathe,  before  the  introduction  of  the 
transfer  principle  in  the  sliding  rest,  it  is  interesting  to  observe  that  even  then  the  lathe 
was  a  perfect  instrument  so  far  as  it  was  a  copying  machine  ;  those  common  lathes  that 
were  made  with  a  perfectly  round  spindle-neck,  if  any  such  existed,  would  yield  a  round 
figure  in  the  article  under  operation,  providing  that  the  cutting  instrument  was  held 
steadily.  And  even  in  a  still  higher  degree  was  correct  workmanship  attained  iu  the 
old-fashioned  dead-centre  lathes ;  if  the  centre  holes  in  the  article  to  be  turned  were 
formed  with  moderate  care,  and  the  article  held  steadily  between  the  centres,  then  tho 
surface  developed  by  the  cutting  instrument  when  firmly  held  would  be  as  perfect  a 
circle  as  one  described  by  a  pair  of  compasses.  With  such  apparatus,  however,  tho 
chances  of  error  were  numerous,  arising  principally  from  the  spindle-necks  not  being 
perfectly  round  ;  for  even  in  the  case  of  modern  lathes,  a  perfect  spindle-neck  is  more 
rarely  obtained  than  is  generally  supposed,  as  a  close  examination  will  show,  tho 
polygonal  form  being  much  more  predominant  than  the  true  circle.  There  are  lathes, 
even  among  those  of  the  most  recent  make,  which  have  only  to  be  handled  gently  to 
show  their  condition  in  this  respect.  Until  recently  such  approximations  to  round- 
ness were  sufficient ;  but  the  extensive  introduction  of  accurate  gauges  into  work- 
shops has,  besides  teaching  the  imiDortance  of  precise  dimensions,  made  engineers 
familiar  with  true  circles.  Hence  there  is  now  a  much  greater  appreciation  of  positive 
truth  of  workmanship,  and  positive  truths  are  always  important ;  and  in  well-conducted 
workshops  there  is  a  constant  striving  after  that  condition  and  a  gi'adual  closing  up  of 
every  avenue  whereby  error  can  creep  in. 

Such  extreme  accuracy  is  sometimes  thought  to  be  more  costly  than  a  less  careful 
system ;  but  practical  men,  like  Anderson,  have  arrived  at  a  contrary  opinion,  and  are 

2  M  2 


532 


Turning  — Lathes. 


convinced  that  while  extreme  accuracy  may  be  more  expensive  at  the  outset,  especially 
from  the  want  of  workmen  competent  to  carry  it  out,  yet  with  a  little  perseverance  the 
advantage  arising  from  it  will  be  clearly  perceived,  and  the  apparently  inordinate  cost 
■will  shortly  be  brought  below  that  of  less  perfect  arrangements.  Many  articles  after 
being  carefully  turned  and  planed  have  to  imdergo  a  long  course  of  filing  and  scraping 
before  they  are  brought  to  the  required  quality  of  surface ;  whereas,  if  a  small  fraction 
of  this  outlay  were  spent  in  making  the  copy  in  the  lathe  spindle  or  the  copy  in  the 
plane  perfect  as  patterns,  the  great  expense  of  subsequent  fitting  would  be  avoided. 
Many  examples  bearing  on  this  point  could  be  given.  The  lathe  is  a  copying  machine, 
and  just  as  its  bearing  surfaces  are  so  is  the  work  produced. 

The  apparatus  generally  employed  by  wood  and  ivory  turaers  is  termed  a  foot-lathe, 
on  account  of  its  being  driven  by  the  foot  in  the  same  manner  as  the  common  grinders' 
wheel ;  some  are  constructed  partly  in  metal  and  partly  in  wood,  but  those  made  entirely 
of  metal  are  far  superior  to  these,  and  are  of  the  following  construction.     A,  Fig.  1177, 

iin. 


M  dip  L 


^)H 


Qq 


is  the  bed  of  the  lathe,  upon  which  2  supports,  called  poppet-heads,  rest ;  the  surfaces  of 
contact  vary  in  form,  in  some  beds  both  are  flat,  in  others  both  angular,  and  in  others 
one  angular  and  the  other  flat.  By  many  the  angular  or  V  heds  are  preferred,  from  the 
idea  that  the  heads  are  more  likely  to  retain  tlieir  proper  position  than  when  resting  on 
plane  surfaces ;  but  the  latter,  when  accurately  planed  and  fitted,  are  quite  as  worthy 
of  reliance,  and  far  more  convenient  than  the  angular-bedded  lathes.  B  represents  the 
liead  to  which  the  chucks  are  attached,  and  by  means  of  which  the  power  requisite  for 
rotating  the  work  is  applied.  This  jjoppet-head  consists  of  a  strong  frame  of  cast  iron 
r  B  E ;  in  the  standard  E  is  fixed  a  hard  conical  bearing,  in  which  one  end  of  the 
mandrel  D  revolves,  and  by  which  it  is  supported,  the  other  end  resting  against  the  hard 
conical  point  of  a  screw  placed  in  a  nut  at  F ;  by  means  of  this  screw  the  mandrel  is 


Turning — Lathes.  533 

kept  tight  up  to  its  bearings,  any  tendency  of  the  screw  to  shift  being  prcveuteJ  by  one 
or  two  nuts  upon  it,  which  are  screwed  up  tight  against  the  standard  F. 

At  the  bottom  of  tlie  head  is  a  solid  projection,  which  is  made  to  fit  the  opening 
between  the  sides  of  the  lathe-bed,  and  by  which  the  parallelism  of  the  lathe-bed  and 
mandrel  is  maintained.  The  Iiead  is  firmly  fixed  in  its  position  by  a  bolt,  which  draws 
a  strip  of  metal  up  tight  against  the  bottom  of  the  lathe-bed.  A  immber  of  groove 
pidleys  G  are  attached  to  the  mandrel,  one  of  which  is  connected  with  the  pulleys  S  on 
the  driving  shaft  R  by  means  of  a  cord  of  catgut  or  guttapercha,  although  in  a  caSe  of 
necessity  a  sash-lino  may  be  made  to  answer  the  purpose.  The  catgut  is,  however,  tho 
most  satisfactory,  on  account  of  its  great  durability.  The  plan  usually  adopted  for  join- 
ing the  ends  is  to  screw  on  hooks  and  eyes ;  the  end  of  the  gut  is  slightly  tapered  and 
damped,  so  that  the  hooks  and  eyes  may  squeeze  the  gut  into  a  screw  rather  than  cut- 
ting it,  by  which  latter  the  band  would  be  much  weakened. 

It  must  not  be  used  until  the  gut  is  dry  and  hard.  Guttapercha  bands  are  united 
by  heat,  the  ends  being  cut  off  obliquely,  thus,  BB^  ^HS  ^^^  gently  lieated  by 
means  of  a  hot  piece  of  smooth  clean  iron,  until  soft,  when  they  are  firmly  pressed 
together,  and  kept  in  that  position  until  cold.  This,  of  course,  necessitates  the  stoppage 
of  the  latlie  for  some  time,  besides  shortening  the  band  every  time  it  is  united. 

When  the  work  is  too  long  to  be  supported  entirely  by  one  end,  a  second  poppet- 
head  is  required,  which  is  of  the  form  shown  at  C ;  this  head  is  accurately  fitted  to  the 
lathe-bed,  and  can  slide  upon  it  to  allow  of  adjustment  to  the  length  of  the  work  ;  it  is 
fitted  with  a  clamping  screw  H  to  fix  it  when  in  position,  also  a  conical  point  I,  called  a 
centre,  which  is  movable  through  a  small  space  by  the  handle  J,  to  allow  the  removal  of 
the  work  from  the  lathe  without  shifting  the  poppet-head.  The  mandrel  carrying  the 
centre  is  fixed  after  adjustment  by  the  capstan-headed  screw  K. 

The  next  part  of  the  apparatus  to  which  attention  is  called  is  the  rest,  upon  which 
the  operator  supports  the  turning  tool.  There  are  2  kinds,  the  common  rest  and  the 
slide-rest;  the  former  is  that  represented  in  the  figure.  M  L  is  a  short  hollow  column, 
provided  with  a  foot  sufficiently  long  to  reach  across  the  lathe-bed  ;  in  the  bottom  of  the 
foot  is  planed  a  dovetailed  groove  N,  which  retains  the  head  of  a  clamping  screw  O,  but 
at  the  same  time  allows  of  a  sliding  motion  when  not  clamped.  From  this  it  is  evident 
that  the  rest  can  be  placed  and  fixed  in  any  position. 

Within  the  hollow  column  is  a  cylindrical  rod,  which  carries  a  straiglit  strip  of 
metal,  the  whole  being  raised  or  lowered  by  sliding  the  rod  vertically  in  the  column  ; 
when  the  proper  elevation  has  been  attained,  the  rest  is  fixed  by  a  screw  working  in  a 
thread  cut  in  the  thickness  of  the  column. 

The  lathe-bed  is  supported  on  standards  or  frames  P  P,  which  also  serve  to  carry  tho 
crank-shaft  R  by  means  of  2  conical-pointed  screws  Q  Q,  which  enter  countersunk 
recesses  in  the  ends  of  the  shaft.  The  shaft  is  made  with  one  or  two  cranks,  or  throws, 
according  to  its  length.  This  shaft  is  also  fitted  with  grooved  driving  pulleys  S,  made 
of  various  diameters,  in  order  to  obtain  any  speed  which  may  be  required.  The  pressure 
imparted  to  the  treadle  T  is  communicated  to  the  crank  by  a  link  with  a  hook  at  each 
end,  or  by  a  chain ;  some  turners  preferring  the  former,  and  others  the  latter. 

The  next  consideration  is  the  means  by  which  the  work  i^  held  in  tho  lathe  and 
caused  to  rotate  with  the  mandrel. 

Fig.  1178  represents  tho  fork,  prong,  or  strut-chuck,  so  called  from  the  steel  fork  or 
prong  a,  which  is  fitted  into  the  square  socket  of  the  chuck  ;  this  chuck  is  used  for  long 
pieces,  the  point  supporting  one  end  of  the  work,  the  other  being  supported  by  the  back 
centre.  The  chisel  edges  on  each  side  of  the  point  take  hold  of  the  work  and  ensure 
its  rotation.  The  fork  being  fitted  into  a  square  recess  iu  the  chuck  may  be  replaced  by 
drills,  &c.,  or  small  pieces  of  wood  or  ivory  to  be  turned.  It  is  usually  made  of  metal, 
and  attached  to  the  mandrel  by  an  internal  screw  corresponding  to  th»t  on  the  nose  of 
the  mandrel. 


534 


TuENiNG — Lathes. 


Fig.  1179  illustrates  the  hollow  or  cup-chuck ;  it  is  used  for  holding  short  pieces,  or 
pieces  that  are  to  be  turned  out  hollow.  Its  inside  is  turned  slightly  conical  so  that  the 
■work  may  be  driven  tightly  into  it.  This  chuck  is  usually  made  of  boxwood,  sometimes 
strengthened  by  a  metal  ring  round  the  mouth  of  it ;  but  this  is  scarcely  necessary,  as  a 
very  slight  blow  is  suflScient  to  fix  the  work  if  it  has  previously  been  reduced  to  a  form 
nearly  approaching  the  circular  by  the  chisel,  paring  knife,  or  other  hand  tools. 

Fig.  1180  shows  the  face-plate  or  facing  chuck;  it  may  be  made  of  iron  or  other 
suitable  material.    This  chuck  is  turned  flat  and  perfectly  true,  and  is  fitted  at  its 


iiso. 


1178. 


1179. 


J 

V^A/\/W\.\ 


fjf^ 


centre  with  a  conical  screw  to  hold  objects  to  be  turned  on  the  face.  It  can  only  be  used 
when  the  hole  made  in  the  work  is  not  objectionable,  or  can  be  plugged  up.  The 
screw  should  only  be  very  slightly  taper,  otherwise  the  work  will  not  hold  when 
reversed. 

Fig.  1181  is  a  chuck  for  flat  work,  where  a  hole  in  the  centre  would  be  detrimentaL 
It  is  a  face-plate  with  3  or  more  small  spikes  projecting  from  its  surface  to  penetrate  the 
material  to  be  wrought,  which  is  held  against  it  by  the  back  centre.  A  plane  face-plate 
is  used  where  the  work  cannot  bo  conveniently  fixed  to  either  of  the  2  foregoing,  as  m 
the  case  of  thin  pieces  of  horn,  tortoise  shell,  and  so  on.  The  work  is  attached  by  means 
of  glue,  or  of  jewellers'  or  turners'  cement. 

Fig.  1182  represents  the  arbor-chuck,  usually  made  of  brass.  It  is  used  for  holding 
small  hollow  works  or  rings. 

For  very  small  work,  Fig.  1178  is  useful  for  holding  the  arbors  in  the  place  of  a  strut  a. 

Fig.  1183  shows  a  spring-chuck  which  is  used  for  holding  very  slight  work  that 


1181. 


1183. 


1182. 


c 


a  i 


a  I 
a  ' 


requires  to  be  hollowed  out.  It  is  turned  conical  externally,  the  apex  of  the  cone  being 
to  the  left.  A  few  holes  a  are  ch-illed  through  the  chuck  near  its  base  and  at  equal 
distances  from  each  other.  From  these  holes  saw  kerfs  or  slits  are  cut  longitudinally  to 
the  front  of  the  chuck,  which  allow  the  chuck  to  expand  slightly  to  take  a  firm  hold  of 
the  work,  and  when  the  work  has  been  forced  into  the  chuck,  the  grip  is  rendered  still 


Turning — Lathes. 


535 


more  firm  by  drawing  a  strong  ring  towards  the  front  of  the  chuck.  These  chucks  are 
sometimes  made  of  wood,  but  those  of  metal  are  much  neater  and  more  convenient ; 
they  may  be  made  of  a  piece  of  brass  tube  firmly  driven  on  a  wooden  block. 

A  similar  chuck  is  used  for  holding  hollow  work,  but  instead  of  being  provided  with 
an  external  ring,  it  is  fitted  with"  a  short  solid  plug,  which  is  forced  forwards  after  the 
chuck  has  been  inserted  into  the  work.  When  long  and  slender  pieces  have  to  be 
turned,  an  extra  poppet  or  a  support  is  required  to  keep  the  work  from  shaking,  or 
chattering,  as  it  is  termed.  It  is  generally  made  of  wood,  and  is  formed  similar  to 
Fig.  11S4.  It  consists  of  a  head,  in  which  is  bored  a  hole  c  of  the  proper  diameter,  and  a 
tail-piece  fitted  to  the  lathe-bed  and  sufficiently  long  to  receive  an  aperture  h,  through 
which  a  wedge  may  be  passed  to  hold  it  down  firmly  upon  the  lathe-bed. 

Another  and  more  convenient  form  of  support  is  shown  at  Fig.  1185 :  a  is  a  cast-iron 
frame,  having  a  foot  fitted  to  the  lathe-bed  and  furnished  with  a  bolt  and  nut  by  which 
it  is  firmly  bolted  down  to  the  lathe-bed ;  ?<  is  a  block  of  wood  fitted  into  the  frame, 
where  it  is  secured  by  the  cross-bar  c.  An  aperture  of  the  required  diameter  is  now 
bored  in  the  block ;  it  is  then  taken  out  of  the  frame  and  sawed  in  half,  so  as  to  form  a 


1186. 


1184. 


1185. 


M^ 


\    <        ^     I 


XJ^ 


[ 


a/ 


top  and  bottom  bearing  ;  d  shows  a  section  of  the  frame ;  any  other  form  of  groove  may 
be  used,  but  the  V  bas  been  selected  on  account  of  the  ease  with  which  the  blocks 
may  be  fitted  to  them.  One  great  advantage  of  the  latter  apparatus  is,  that  the  2 
bearings  may  be  brought  together  when  the  hole  is  worn.  When  a  slide-rest  is  used, 
this  additional  support  should  be  attached  to  it ;  it  will  then  keep  close  to  that  part  of 
the  work  on  which  the  tool  is  acting,  by  which  a  more  satisfactory  piece  of  work  is  turned 
out,  and  the  trouble  of  shifting  the  poppet  avoided.  The  application  of  a  little  grease 
to  these  bearings  wiU  sometimes  be  found  beneficial. 

An  apparatus  called  a  boring  collar,  somewhat  similar  to  that  just  described,  is  used 
for  supporting  the  ends  of  pieces  of  which  the  ends  are  to  be  bored,  and  which  are  too 
long  to  be  held  by  the  cup-chuck  alone.  It  consists  of  a  plate  similar  to  a  face-chuck. 
Fig.  118G,  through  which  a  number  of  conical  holes  are  bored,  whose  centres  are  equi- 
distant from  the  centre  of  the  plate,  so  that  when  the  latter  is  turned  on  its  axis  any 
hole  can  be  brought  exactly  m  a  line  with  the  2  centres.  The  plate  may  be  attached  to 
a  standard  similar  to  either  of  the  foregoing. 

It  may  sometimes  occur  that  the  work  to  be  turned,  as  a  wheel,  the  foot  of  a  stand, 
and  so  on,  may  be  rather  too  large  for  the  lathe;  in  this  case  it  is  convenient  to  have 
frames  truly  planed  and  fitted.     Such  a  frame  is  shown  at  Fig.  1187.    It  is  made  of  cast 


536 


Turning — Lathes. 


iron,  the  top  being  fitted  to  the  bottom  of  the  poppet,  and  the  bottom  being  fitted  to  the 
lathe-bed,  care  being  taken  that  the  mandrel  is  retained  parallel  to  the  lathe-bed.  The 
rest  may  be  blocked  up  in  a  similar  manner,  or  a  temporary  rest  may  be  made  of  a  piece 
of  bar  iron  bent  to  a  suitable  form. 

In  some  cases  it  will  be  convenient  to  have  a  self-acting  slide-rest,  as  for  turning 
large  screws,  spirals,  and  so  on.     The  slide-rest  is  shown  in  Fig.  1188  (elevation)  and 


118T. 


11S8. 


'^n 


=I±1- 


■^^g 


m=. 


Fig.  1189  (plan),  a  is  a  slide  which  fits  the  lathe-bed  very  accurately,  but  will  yet  slide 
freely  upon  it,  and  in  a  direction  exactly  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  object  to  be  turned. 
h  is  another  slide  fitted  to  the  lower  one  and  sliding  upon  it  in  a  direction  at  right  angles 
to  the  lathe-bed.  It  is  worked  by  a  screw  attached  to  the  lower  slide,  which  gears  into 
a  nut  fixed  to  the  bottom  of  the  slide  h.  Upon  the  slide  h  is  fitted  a  small  slide  r.,  upon 
which  the  turning  tool  is  fixed  by  means  of  a  clamp.  This  slide  is  moved  in  a  direction 
parallel  to  the  lathe-bed  by  means  of  a  screw  attached  to  the  slide  b,  gearing  in  a  similar 
manner  to  that  in  the  slide  a.  The  whole  slide  may  ba  moved  along  the  bed  eitlier  by 
hand  or  by  means  of  a  screw  running  along  the  side  of  the  bed  and  gearing  into  a  nut 
made  in  2  halves,  so  that  it  may  be  thrown  into  or  out  of  gear  by  closing  or  opening  the 
nut.  The  use  of  this  screw,  which  is  called  the  leading  screw,  requires  a  different  form 
of  fixed  poppet-head,  and  constitutes  what  is  called  a  screw-cutting  lathe,  on  account  of 
its  suitability  to  that  process. 

The  poppet-head  generally  fitted  to  self-acting  lathes  is  represented  in  Figs.  1190  to 
1192.  a  is  a  side  elevation,  h  a  i^lan,  and  c  a  front  elevation.  This  head  is  fitted  with  speed 


1190. 


1191. 


1189. 


c 


J 


O/ 


EiH  3;=> 


pulleys  /,  which  may  be  made  fast  to  the  mandrel,  so  as  to  drive  it  direct  or  loosened, 
and  geared  by  a  tooth-wheel  with  the  shaft  g,  which  again  gears  into  the  mandrel,  which 
is  supported  in  bearings  at  each  end.  The  wheels  on  the  shaft  g  are  thrown  out  of  gear 
with  those  on  the  mandrel  by  sliding  the  shaft  endwise  in  its  bearings.  It  is  retained 
in  or  out  of  gear  by  a  pin  passing  into  the  bearing,  which  rests  against  a  groove  turned 
on  the  shaft  g.  On  the  end  e  of  the  mandrel  a  toothed  wheel  is  slid  and  retained  there 
by  a  nut.    This  wheel  may  act  directly  upon  another  placed  on  the  end  of  the  leading 


TuKNiNG— Lathes. 


537 


screw,  or  may  be  connected  with  it  by  means  of  one  or  two  intermediate  wheels,  according 
to  the  speed  required  and  the  direction  of  the  intended  screw. 

It  is  evident  from  this  arrangement  that  any  ratio  between  the  speeds  of  tlio  mandrel 
aarl  leading  screw  may  be  obtained  either  for  cylindrical  turning  or  screw  cutting. 

Fig.  1193  is  a  very  complete  double-gear  foot-lathe,  with  planed  bed,  standards,  anti- 

1103. 


friction  treadle,  with  chain,  crank,  and  driving  wheel,  hand-rest,  face-plate,  drill-chuck, 
and  2  centres. 

Fig.  1194  is  a  single-gear  foot-lathe,  with  planed  bed,  standards,  anti-friction  treadle, 
with  chain,  crank,  and  driving  wheel,  hand-rest,  face-plate,  drill-chuck,  and  2  centres. 

Fig.  1195  is  a  compound  slide-rest;  another  arrangement  of  compound  slide-rest  U 
shown  in  Fig.  1196. 

With  reference  to  lathe  manipulation,  which  is  perhaps  the  most  difficult  of  all 
shop  operations  to  learn,  the  following  hints  are  given  by  Eichards  in  his  excellent 
manual  on  '  Workshop  Manipulation.' 

At  the  beginning,  the  form  of  tools  should  be  carefully  studied :  tliis  is  one  of  tho 
great  points  in  lathe  work ;  the  greatest  distinction  between  a  thorough  and  an  in- 
different latheman  is  that  one  knows  the  proper  form  and  temper  of  tools  and  the  other 
does  not.  The  adjustment  and  presenting  of  tools  is  soon  learned  by  experience,  but 
the  proper  form  of  tools  is  a  matter  of  greater  difiBculty.  One  of  the  first  things  to 
study  is  the  shape  of  cutting  edges,  both  as  to  clearance  below  the  edge  of  the  tool,  and 
the  angle  of  the  edge,  with  reference  to  both  turning  and  boring,  because  the  latter  is 
diiferent  from  turning.  The  angle  of  lathe  tools  is  clearly  suggested  by  diagrams,  and 
there  is  no  better  first  lesson  in  drawing  than  to  construct  diagrams  of  cutting  angles 
for  plane  and  cylindrical  surfaces. 

A  set  of  lathe  tools  should  consist  of  all  that  are  required  for  every  variety  of  work 
performed,  so  that  no  time  will  be  lost  by  waiting  to  prepare  tools  after  they  are  wanted. 
An  ordinary  engine  lathe,  operating  on  common  work  not  exceeding  20  in.  of  diameter, 
will  require  25-35  tools,  whicli  will  serve  for  every  purpose  if  they  are  kept  in  order  and 
in  place.    A  workman  may  get  along  with  10  tools  or  even  less,  but  not  to  his  own 


538 


Turning — Lathes. 


satisfaction,  nor  in  a  speedy  -way.  Each  tool  should  be  properly  tempered  and  ground, 
ready  for  use  when  put  away ;  if  a  tool  is  brokeu,  it  should  at  once  be  repaired,  no 
matter  when  it  is  likely  to  be  again  used.     A  workman  who  has  pride  in  his  tools  will 

always  bo   supplied  with  as   many  as   he  re- 
1194^  quires,  because  it  takes  no  computation  to  prove 

that  50  lb.  of  extra  cast  steel  tools,  as  an  in- 
vestment, is  but  a  small  matter  compared  to  the 
gain  in  manipulation  by  having  them  at  hand. 
To  an  experienced  mechanic,  a  single  glance 
at  the  tools  on  a  lathe  is  a  sufficient  clue  to  the 
skill  of  the  operator.  If  the  tools  are  ground 
ready  to  use,  of  the  proper  sh;ipe,  and  placed 
in  order  so  as  to  be  reached  without  delay,  the 
latheman  may  at  once  be  set  down  as  having 

1195. 


1196. 


2  of  the  main  qualifications  of  a  first-class  workman,  which  are  order,  and  a  knowledge 
of  tools ;  while  on  the  contrary,  a  lathe-board  piled  full  of  old  waste,  clamp-bolts,  and 
broken  tools,  shows  a  want  of  that  system  and  order,  without  which  no  amount  of 
hand  skill  can  make  an  efficient  workmau. 

It  is  also  necessary  to  learn  as  soon  as  possible  the  technicalities  pertaining  to  lathe 
work,  and  still  more  important  to  leana  the  conventional  modes  of  performing  various 


Turning— Tools.  539 

operations.  Although  lathe  •work  includes  a  large  range  of  operations  -which  are 
continually  varied,  yet  there  are  certain  plans  of  performing  each  that  has  by  long 
custom  become  conventional ;  to  gain  an  acquaintance  with  these  an  apprentice  should 
■watch  the  practice  of  the  best  •workmen,  and  follow  their  plans  as  near  as  lie  can,  not 
risking  any  innovation  or  change  until  it  has  been  very  carefully  considered.  Any 
attempt  to  introduce  new  methods,  modes  of  chucking  work,  setting  and  grinding  tools, 
or  other  of  the  ordinary  operations  in  turning,  may  not  only  lead  to  awkward  mistakes, 
but  will  at  once  put  a  stop  to  useful  information  that  might  otherwise  be  gained  from 
others.  The  technical  terms  employed  in  describing  lathe  work  are  soon  learned, 
generally  sooner  than  they  are  needed,  and  are  often  misapplied,  which  is  worse  than 
to  be  ignorant  of  them. 

In  cutting  screws  it  is  best  not  to  refer  to  that  mistaken  convenience  called  a  wheel 
list,  usually  stamped  on  some  part  of  engine  lathes  to  aid  in  selecting  wheels.  A  screw 
to  be  cut  is  to  the  lead  screw  on  a  lathe  as  the  wheel  on  the  screw  is  to  the  wheel  on 
the  spindle,  and  every  workman  should  be  familiar  with  so  simple  a  matter  as  com- 
puting wheels  for  screw  cutting,  when  there  is  but  one  train  of  wheels.  "Wheels  for 
screw  cutting  may  be  computed  not  only  quite  as  soon  as  read  from  an  index,  but  the 
advantage  of  being  familiar  -with  wheel  changes  is  very  important  in  other  cases,  and 
frequently  such  combinations  have  to  be  made  when  there  is  not  an  index  at  hand. 

The  following  are  suggested  as  subjects  which  may  be  studied  in  connection  with 
lathes  and  turning :  the  rate  of  cutting  movement  on  iron,  steel,  and  brass  ,•  the  relative 
speed  of  the  belt  cones,  whether  the  changes  are  by  a  true  ascending  scale  from  the 
slowest ;  the  rate  of  feed  at  different  changes  estimated  like  the  threads  of  a  screw  at 
so  many  cuts  per  in. ;  the  proportions  of  cone  or  step  pulleys  to  ensure  a  uniform  belt 
tension ;  the  theory  of  the  following  rest  as  employed  in  turning  flexible  pieces ;  the 
difference  between  having  3  or  4  bearing  points  for  centre  or  following  rests  ;  the  best 
means  of  testing  the  truth  of  a  lathe.  All  these  matters  and  many  more  are  subjects 
not  only  of  interest  but  of  use  in  learning  lathe  manipulation,  and  their  study  will  lead 
to  a  logical  method  of  dealing  with  problems  which  will  continually  arise. 

The  use  of  hand  tools  should  be  learned  by  employing  them  on  every  possible 
occasion.  A  great  many  of  the  modem  improvements  in  engine  lathes  are  only  to  evade 
hand-tool  work,  and  in  many  cases  effect  no  saving  except  in  skill.  A  latheman  who  is 
skilful  with  hand  tools  will,  on  many  kinds  of  light  work,  perform  more  and  do  it  better 
on  a  hand  lathe  than  an  engine  lathe ;  there  is  always  more  or  less  that  can  be  per- 
formed to  advantage  with  hand  tools  even  on  the  most  elaborate  engine  lathes.  It  is 
no  uncommon  thing  for  a  skilled  latheman  to  lock  the  slide-rest,  and  resort  to  hand 
tools  on  many  kinds  of  work  when  he  is  in  a  hurry.     (Eichards.) 

Tools. — Common  lathe  tools  may  be  few  or  many,  according  to  the  requirements 
of  their  owner,  and  tools  for  wood  working  or  for  metal  working  may  predominate, 
according  to  taste.  A  workman  is  always  adding  to  his  stock  of  tools,  until  by-and-by 
he  almost  insensibly  finds  himself  in  possession  of  a  very  varied  assortment,  each 
member  of  which  has  a  special  use  and  a  special  history.  From  among  a  set  of  lathe 
tools  we  will  select  and  describe  those  which  are  either  absolutely  essential  or  of  very 
general  adaptability;  all  the  rest  beside  are  merely  modifications  of  these  few  and 
eimple  types.  Excellence  in  the  production  of  plaia  turned  work,  whether  of  wood  or 
metal,  does  not  necessarily  follow  from  the  possession  of  a  large  number  of  tools,  but 
depends  entirely  upon  skUl  in  their  manipulation.  In  the  hands  of  a  professional  wood- 
turner a  simple  gouge  is  a  marvellous  tool,  producing  hollows,  ogees,  and  mouldings  of 
various  shapes  with  swift  dexterity,  aided  only  by  the  chisel  where  sharp  comers  are 
concerned.  Those  who  handle  the  gouge  with  confidence  and  skill  can  turn  out  their 
work  quicker,  cleaner,  and  better  than  those  who,  dreading  a  disastrous  "  kick "  or 
"catch,"  scrape  away  cautiously  with  round  nose  and  chisel  and  diamond  pomt. 
Therefore,  plenty  of  practice  with  the  gouge  is  essential  to  the  acquirement  of  a  perfect 


540 


TuENiNG — Tools  for  Metals. 


command  of  that  tool,  and  he  who  has  acquired  this  mastery  is,  to  a  very  great  extent, 
independent  of  the  rest. 

For  Metals.— The  turning  of  metal  is  effected  by  a  slow  motion,  comparatively 
speaking,  with  respect  to  the  turning  of  wood ;  yet  wood-turning  tools  require  a  less 
obtuse  angle  to  form  the  cutting  edge  tlian  the  tools  employed  to  turn  iron,  brass,  or 
steel.  The  planes  forming  the  cutting  edge  of  metal-turning  tools  make  a  solid  angle 
which  generally  exceeds  GO''.  Figs.  1197  to  1213  are  a  set  of  turning  tools  for  metal, 
Figs.  1212,  1213  being  especially  for  screw  cutting. 


1197. 


(^ 


1193. 

(vl 


1199. 


1200. 


rx 


fl/^\    Vi^ 


1201. 


1202. 


1203. 


1204. 


1205. 


1206. 


'v^.N^^J 


J 


^/v!      '>Ia/\ 


1  r 


1207.     1203.     1203.    1210.*  1211.   1212.      1213. 

vvvw 


Ul 


]l^ 


h 


Ly^  LAA 


t\ 


\ 


1 


f^^r^ 


A  writer  in  the  English  Mechanic  says  that  metal-turning  tools  are  made  from  "  tool 
steel,"  different  kinds  of  which  are  in  the  market,  and  may  be  purchased  in  square  bars 
of  various  sizes.  Few  tools,  except  scrapers,  can  be  used  indiscriminately  for  cast  iron, 
wrought  iron,  and  brass;  each  metal  needs  its  particular  set  of  tools,  differing,  not  so 
much  in  the  shape  of  their  cutting  edges,  as  in  the  angles  which  they  make  with  the 
surface  of  the  work  to  be  turned.  Thus,  Figs.  1214,  1215,  1216,  are  each  intended  to 
represent  in  profile  the  ordinary  roughing-down  tool ;  but  their  angles  are  very  different 
the  one  from  the  other,  Fig.  1214  being  only  suitable  for  wrought  iron.  Fig.  1215  for  cast 
iron,  and  Fig.  1216  for  brass.  In  all  these,  everything  (temper  of  course  excepted)  depends 
upon  the  angle  at  which  the  tools  are  ground.  The  brass  tool  with  the  flat  face  would 
not  cut  the  iron,  but  would  simply  abrade  it ;  while  the  iron  tools  would  hitch  in  the  brass, 
and  manifest  a  tendency  to  chatter  or  to  "  draw  in."  Neither  would  the  tool  ground  at  an 
acute  angle  for  wrought  iron  cut  cast  metal,  but  would  itself  become  broken  off  at  the 
tip,  while  the  thicker  cast-iron  tool  would  not  take  clean  shavings  off  wrought  iron, 
but  would  possess  more  of  a  scraping  action.  Men  accustomed  to  metal  turning  know 
exactly  how  to  grind  their  tools,  so  that  they  shall  either  cut  or  scrape  wrought  iron, 


Turning — Tools  for  Metals. 


541 


cast  iron,  or  brass ;  but  to  assist  others  in  the  matter,  the  cutting  edges  of  various  tools 
are  drawn  to  a  large  scale. 

Taking  the  iron-turning  tools  first,  Fig.  1217  is  a  common  rougliing  tool  for  cast  iron. 
The  side  view  gives  the  proper  angle  to  ensure  a  clean  cut,  without  breaking  tlio  top 
across  in  the  direction  of  the  dotted  line.    The  angle  is  drawn  on  the  supposition  that 


1214. 


1215. 


^'^. 


'^°  <'s> 


) 

^<i^ 

\ 

*N^ 

■"■■'>' 

1216. 


7i. 


A^ 


the  tool  is  held  horizontal!}-,  as  indeed  it  ought  to  be.  But  a  tool  that  will  not  cut 
nicely  in  a  horizontal  direction  will  often  work  by  inclining  it  at  a  slight  angle ;  hence, 
less  care  is  often  taken  in  the  grinding  of  hand  tools  tlian  in  those  used  with  the  slide-rest. 
Neither  is  the  angle  at  which  a  tool  should  be  ground,  in  order  to  cut  well  horizontally, 
necessarily  quite  constant.  It  should  be  about  65''  with  the  vertical  for  cast  iron,  but 
may  vary  slightly  either  way.  In  fact,  not  one  workman  in  ten  could  say  what  angle  he 
grinds  his  tools  to  :  he  simply  judges  the  proper  angle  by  the  experienced  eye  which 
seldom  betrays  him.  The  angle  which  the  front  of  the  tool  makes  with  the  work  may 
vary  somewhat  more  than  the  upper  face,  depending  on  the  diameter  of  the  work  to  be 
turned,  but  should  not  slope  more  than  4°  or  5°  from  the  vertical  for  cast  iron  (Fig.  1215). 
If  it  becomes  excessive,  the  tool  is  weak,  and  soon  abrades  or  breaks  off.  Attention  to 
these  matters,  apparently  so  trivial,  is  really  of  the  utmost  importance.  The  angles 
given  on  sketches  are  taken  from  tools  in  actual  use,  doing  their  work  well. 


1217. 


1218. 


I 


tZ2i7 


Fig.  121S  shows  a  round  nose  ;  Fig.  1219  a  parting  tool ;  Fig.  1220  a  knife  tool  for 
finishing  edges  and  faces  of  flanges,  and  ends  and  sides  of  work,  which  latter  will  of 
course  be  required  right-  and  left-handed  (Fig.  1221),  just  as  we  require  right-  and  left- 
handed  side  tools  in  wood  turning.  Tlie  end  views  of  these  tools  show  the  upper  and 
clearance  angles,  which  arc  about  the  same  as  in  Fig.  1215,  but  may  vary  somewhat 
more  without  detriment  to  the  work. 


1219. 


1220. 


U] 

cfTvcl 


Fi"-s.  1222  are  boring  tools  for  hollow  cylinders— tools  capable  of  much  modification, 
their  cutting  edges  not  only  taking  the  forms  of  all  the  other  tools,  but  each  form  also 
being  often°  required  right-  and  left-handed.  In  reference  to  the  more  usual  shape- 
that  of  the  round  nose  for  boring,  when  used  simply  as  a  roughing  tool,  the  shape  B 
showing  it  in  plan,  with  the  axis  of  the  cutting  angle  in  the  direction  of  the  dotted  line 
is  preferable  to  A,  because  in  the  former  the  true  cutting  edge  is  carried  forward. 


542 


Turning — Tools  for  Metals. 


Hence,  in  workshops,  the  cutting  tools  generally  take  the  form  B,  and  the  scrapers 
that  of  A.  But  these  boring  tools  are  not  for  hand  use,  the  rigidity  of  the  slide-rest 
being  necessary  to  ensure  accurate  work  with  them.  Otherwise  the  tools  under 
description  are  suitable  alike  for  manipulation  by  hand  or  slide-rest,  the  difference 


1222. 


1221. 


^'\n 


EndMm, 


between  the  2  forms  lying,  not  in  the  cutting  edges,  but  in  the  relative  stoutness.  Slide- 
rest  tools  are  made  of  stouter  metal  than  the  others ;  in  the  case  of  a  small  lathe, 
from  I  in.  or  |  in,  square  steel,  while  hand  tools  for  the  same  can  be  made  from 
|-in.  steel. 

Fig.  1223  is  a  square  nose  for  taking  finishing  cuts,  and  Fig.  1224  a  tool  for  scraping. 
Fig.  1225  is  a  spring  tool,  also  used  for  finishing  a  turned  surface.  Figs.  1226  and  1227 
are  for  finishing  hollows  and  rounded  parts  of  work,  and  are  either  kept  in  different 


1223. 


1224. 


1225. 


7 


sweeps  or  ground  to  radii  as  wanted.  These  latter  forms,  being  required  only  to  smooth 
and  polish,  are  flat  on  their  upper  surfaces,  and  act  simply  as  scrapers.  Graving  tools 
are  merely  square  pieces  of  steel  ground  slightly  obliquely  at  the  cutting  end,  and  used 
in  hand  turning  and  for  any  metal. 

Ahnost  any  tool  flat  on  its  upper  surface  will  turn  brass,  and  the  clearance  angle  may 
vary  from  20°  to  30°.  Fig.  1228  will  cut  rapidly,  and  will  keep  its  edge  for  an  immense 
time,  and,  of  course,  can  be  used  bent  round  like  Fig.  1222  for  boring  purposes.  Yet  the 
same  tool  used  on  iron  would  not  cut,  but  would  become  hot  immediately.  Figs.  1226 
and  1227  make  excellent  brass  tools. 


1226. 


1227. 


1223. 


3 


In  turning  cast  iron  and  brass  no  water  is  used,  but  with  wrought  iron  it  becomes 
necessary  to  cool  the  cutter  by  allowing  a  constant  supply  of  water  to  drip  upon  the 
tool.  A  water-can,  with  a  tap  regulated  as  required,  is  supported  on  the  slide-rest,  and 
travels  along  with  it.     In  hand  turning  it  must  be  moved  where  wanted. 

The  tools  here  mentioned  have  been  typical  forms ;  but,  bearing  the  broad  distinctions 
between  the  various  angles  in  mind,  it  is  easy  to  make  or  to  alter  tools  just  as  wanted. 
In  making  tools  for  the  slide-rest,  a  piece  of  steel  is  cut  off  longer  than  is  necessary  for 
immediate  use,  and  the  amount  of  metal  in  it  allows  for  the  wear  of  a  lifetime.  Often 
also,  both  ends  of  the  steel  are  forged  into  cutting  edges  (Fig.  1229),  and  hence  the 
workman  can  usually  find  a  tool  at  any  time,  either  suitable  for  the  work  in  hand,  or 
which  may  be  rendered  suitable  by  a  little  alteration. 


Turning — Tools  for  Metals. 


543 


A  grintlstone  may  be  made  in  this  fashion.  (Fig.  1230.)  A  piece  of  broken  grind- 
stone, 2  in.  thick,  is  rudely  clipped  round  to  7  in.  diameter,  and  a  J-in.  hole  bored 
through  the  centre  with  a  common  stone  bit ;  2  wooden  -washers  a,  J  in.  tliick  by  -1  iu, 
diameter,  also  have  ^-iu.  holes  bored  iu  their  centres.    A  ^-in.  bolt  b  thrust  tlxrough  tho 


1230. 


1229. 


5 


I<1/ 

f 


1231. 


I>^ 


whole  keeps  them  together  firmly  with  the  stone  in  the  centre.  Intended  to  chuck 
between  centres,  a  small  drilled  hole  is  run  both  into  the  bolt  head  and  into  tho  screwed 
end,  and  a  V-shaped  slit  c  is  filed  in  the  head  to  take  the  fork.  Turned  up  in  place, 
it  ia  an  eflScient  little  grindstone,  in  readiness  for  use  the  moment  it  is  slipped  into 
the  lathe.  Its  only  drawback  is  that  it  makes  the  bed  in  a  mess — a  most  serious 
objection  iu  the  case  of  a  bright  iron  bed  ;  in  that  case,  rig  up  an  intermediate  spindle 
driven  from  a  wheel  in  the  crank  axle,  and  from  that  turn  tho  grindstone  somewhere 
beyond  the  end  of  the  bed. 

Grinding  alone  is  required  with  roughing-down  tools;  but,  in  those  used  for 
smoothing  and  polishing,  the  edge  shouhl  be  finished  with  an  oilstone  or  gouge  slip, 
as  with  wood-turning  tools. 

A  milling  tool  is  necessary  for  screw  heads  :  you  can  make  one  with  little  trouble, 
thus  (Fig.  1231) :  In  a  piece  of  wrought  iron,  G  in.  by  5  in.  by  J  in.,  file  a  slot  £  in. 
long  by  J  in.  wide.  At  J  in.  from  tho  same  end  drill  2  i-in.  holes.  Then 
take  a  short  broken  piece  from  the  end  of  a  flat  file,  and,  after  lowering  the 
temper  in  the  fire,  grind  it  roughly  to  |  in.  in  diameter ;  afterwards  drilling 
an  |-in.  hole  through  the  centre  of  this,  chuck  and  finish  the  outside  true 
and  slightly  hollow.  An  i-in.  screw  bolt,  passed  through  the  holes  in  the 
bar  and  iu  the  wheel,  retains  the  latter  in  place.  Then  procure  what  is 
called  a  "  hob,"  or  master  tap,  used  for  cutting  steel  dies,  and  running  that 
round  between  centres,  cut  the  edge  of  the  milling  wheel  by  pressing  the 
latter  against  the  revolving  tap  with  considerable  force.  Hardening  tho 
wheel  completes  the  tool. 

Centre  punches  can  be  made  from  pieces  of  broken  rat-tail  files  or  from 
round  steel  rod.  Common  drills  can  be  forged  as  wanted,  or  purchased. 
Files— flat,  |  round,  3-cornered,  and  round — will  be  bought  as  necessity 
arises.  They  will  all  have  short  handles,  4-5  in.  long.  Spanners  are  needed 
for  the  nuts  of  the  head-stock  cap  and  for  the  back  centre,  as  also  for  tho 
centres  of  the  crank,  so  for  one  and  all,  as  for  jobs  of  work  beside,  a  screw 
wrench  having  a  range  of  about  2  in.  is  most  convenient.  Callipers  inside 
and  outside,  in  2  sizes,  should  be  purchased,  or  a  combination  of  the  2  forms 
in  one  can  be  had  at  the  toolshops. 

The  last  article  needed  is  the  scribing  block  for  marking  heights  and 
centres,  A  simple  form  can  be  made  thus  (Fig.  1232):  Get  a  base  of  metal,  a— say  3  in. 
by  2  in.  by  J  in.  Procure  also  a  bit  of  iron  or  steel  rod  h,  7  in.  by  J  in.  by  J  in.,  and  have 
a  piece  about  1 J  in.  diameter  welded  on  one  end  to  form  a  base  and  moulding,  and  a 
^-in,  screw  beyond,  c ;  turn  and  screw  this  into  the  base,  keeping  it  as  upright  as 
possible.  Temporarily  unscrew  and  file  a  slot,  as  shown,  opening  it  first  by  driUing  a 
string  of  holes  with  a  |-in,  drill,  then  replace.  A  bit  of  i-in.  steel  bar,  drawn  out  at  the 
ends  to  about  S  in.  long,  will  form  the  scribe  d.     A  i-in.  slot  hole  in  the  centre  wiU 


544 


Turning — Tools  for  Metals. 


1232. 


receive  the  set  screw,  which  is  shown  in  sectional  plan  in  Fig.  1233.  a,  upright ; 
h,  scribe  cut  through  the  slot ;  c,  sliding  screw  ;  d,  tightening  nut,  which  can  be  round 
as  shown  or  a  wing  nut. 

The  following  notes  treat  of  some  of  tlie  processes  of  cutting  metals  adopted  by 
W.  F.  Smith,  Salford,  and  described  by  him  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Institution  of 
Mechanical  Engineers.  In  a  former 
paper,  the  author  described  mainly 
what  have  since  become  known  as 
right-  and  left-hand  round  tool- 
holders.  They  are  used  in  different 
machine  tools  principally  for  "  rough- 
ing out,"  or,  in  other  words,  for 
rapidly  reducing  castings,  forgings, 
&c.,  from  their  rough  state  nearly  to 
their  finished  forms  and  dimensions. 
The  tool-holders  are  so  called  from 
their  cutters  being  made  of  round 
steel  cut  from  tlie  bar.  Notwith- 
standing that  tliey  are  very  widely 
applicable,  take  heavy  cuts,  and  do 

the  bulk  of  all  machine  work  in  lathes,  and  in  planing,  shaping,  and  slotting 
machines,  it  was  soon  found  that  they  could  not  compass  the  whole  of  the  work 
required  in  the  shops  ;  and  it  was,  therefore,  necessary  still  to  allow  the  use  of  some  of 
the  common  forged  tools  in  conjunction  with  the  round  tool-holders.  This,  however, 
was  objectionable,  as  no  positive  rule  could  then  be  laid  down  to  define  what  number  of 
forged  tools  should  be  allowed  to  each  workman ;  and  it  became  apparent  that  the  tool- 
holder  system,  in  order  to  reach  the  highest  degree  of  efiiciency,  must  be  made  complete 
and  independent  in  itself.  This  led  to  the  designing  of  another  tool-holder  of  the  most 
general  kind  the  writer  could  possibly  devise,  in  the  hope  thereby  to  complete  the 
system. 

With  this  object  in  view,  all  the  remaining  forged  tools  then  in  use  were  collected 
together,  and  the  swivel  tool-holder  (Figs.  1234,  1235)  was  schemed,  with  cutters  so 
adjustable  that  they  could  not 

only  be    swivelled    round    and  1234. 

then  fixed  to  any  desired  angle, 
but  could  be  made  to  project 
at  pleasure  to  any  required 
distance  in  order  to  reach  and 
cut  into  all  sorts  of  difficult  and 
awkward  corners ;  in  fact,  to 
machine  any  work  wliich  the 
round  tool-holder  could  not 
finish.  Two  of  the  principal 
objects  aimed  at  were  to  devise 
a  system  of  cutters  which  should 
not  require  any  forging  or  smith- 
ing, and  yet  should  be  capable  of  being  adapted  by  the  simplest  possible  means,  and  by 
grinding  the  ends  only,  to  all  forms  which  the  round  cutters  would  not  admit.  The 
special  section  of  steel  decided  upon  was  a  sort  of  deep  V  section,  the  lower  part  of  which 
is  slightly  rounded,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1235.  The  angles  of  the  sides  give  the  same  amount 
of  clearance  (1  in  8)  as  that  given  in  the  round  tool-holders,  and  this  same  angle  of 
clearance  is  given  to  the  ground  parts.  The  section  of  the  swivel  cutter  is  very  deep,  in 
order  to  obtain  ample  strength  in  the  direction  of  the  pressure  it  has  to  support  when 


1235. 


Turning — Tools  for  Metals. 


545 


cutting.  The  angle  in  Fig.  1234  is  oomninn  to  every  swivel  tool-lioMcr.  In  the  cutter 
for  tlie  round  tool-lioldcr  two  angles  had  been  fixed  upon  as  standards,  one  to  cut  all 
kinds  of  wrought  metals,  the  other  all  cast  metals.  To  avoid  complication,  however,  in 
the  swivel  tool-holders  one  cutting  angle  was  fixed  upon  for  all  metals,  and  applied  to 
all  cutters.  The  angle  selected  is  one  slightly  dift'ering  from  that  of  tlio  round  cutters, 
hut  is  that  which  worked  the  best  in  practice.  Tiie  cutters  of  the  round  tool-holder 
system  are  found  most  advantageous  in  producing  and  finishing  stiuidard-sizo  round 
corners  in  journals  of  shafts,  &c.,  and  in  other  cases,  where  the  engineer  of  the  present 
day  is  anxious  to  preserve  all  the  strength  he  can  in  the  parts  he  ia  constructing ;  but 
there  are  still  cases  where  square,  angular,  or  undercut  surfaces  must  be  produced,  as 
illustrated  by  Figs.  123G  to  1241.  These  are  front  views  showing  the  tool-holders  at  work 
planing  or  shaping.  They  are  supposed  to  be  travelling  forward,  or  the  work  to  be 
moving  in  the  opposite  direction  ;  and  the  arrows  in  each  figure  indicate  the  direction  in 
which  the  tool-holder  is  being  fed  at  each  stroke  of  the  machine,  to  take  the  next  cut. 

Fig.  1237  shows  the  mode  of  planing  the  under  horizontal  surface  of  a  lathe-bed. 
The  cutter  shown  in  use  is  ground  to  an  angle  of  86°,  or  4°  less  than  a  right  angle,  and 
thus  has  a  clearance  of  2°  at  each  side  when  cutting  either  horizontally  or  vertically 


1236. 


1237. 


12.3«. 


This  cutter  ia  very  general  in  its  applicability,  and  ia  devised  so  as  to  finish  with  one 
setting,  both  the  vertical  surface  A,  and  the  horizontal  surface  H,  without  the  necessity 
for  disturbing  the  cutter  in  any  way.  The  ordinary  system  is  to  use,  at  least,  2  tools 
for  roughing  out,  and  2  for  finishing,  on  2  surfaces  right  angles  with  each  other. 

Fig.  123G  shows  the  method  of  planing  in  a  very  limited  space  the  under  horizontal 
surface  S ;  the  corresponding  surface  is  planed  afterwards,  without  disturbing  the  tool- 
holder,  by  simply  swivelling  the  cutter  half-way  round  in  the  holder  and  securing  it 
there  by  the  nut  N. 

Fig.  1240  shows  a  swivel  tool -holder  clearing  without  difficulty  a  boss  which  projects, 
and  would  bo  very  much  in  the  way  of  an  ordinary  tool.     The  cutter  in  this  case  planes 


1239. 


1240. 


1241. 


not  only  the  horizontal  surface  but  the  vertical  surface  also,  with  one  setting  and 
without  being  disturbed  in  the  tool-box. 

Fig.  1238  shows  the  method  of  cutting  a  vertical  slot  in  a  horizontal  surface  of  metal. 
The  cutter  in  this  case  is  called  a  parting  tool. 

2  N 


546 


Turning — Tools  for  Metals. 


Fig.  1242  is  a  side  elevation  of  this  same  cutter,  showing  the  cutting  angle. 

Figs.  1239  and  1241  are  tool-holders  with  cutters  of  rather  special  forms.  The  former 
is  shown  planing  out  or  undercutting  a  T-shaped  slot,  and  the  latter  is  planing  out  a 
small  rectangular  clearance  corner. 

Figs.  1243  and  1244  show  a  swivel  tool-holder  with  a  round  shank,  such  as  is  used  on 
the  slide-rest  of  a  screw-cutting  lathe,  for  cutting  square  threads.  It  is  carried  on  a 
wrought-iron  or  steel  block,  provided  with  a  groove,  semicircular  in  section,  in  which 


1242. 


1243. 


1244. 


the  round  shank  of  the  tool-holders  lies,  and  is 
clamped  down  in  the  usual  way.  The  cutters  for 
cutting  out  the  spaces  between  the  square  threads 
are  of  a  very  simple  form,  and  by  aid  of  this  tool- 
holder  any  tool  of  the  correct  width  of  the  space  will 
cut  either  right-hand  or  left-hand  screws,  no  matter 
whether  they  are  single  threads,  double  threads,  or 
any  other.  To  cover  the  same  ground  with  forged 
tools,  no  less  than  6  expensive  cutters  would  be  required,  each  forged  from  square 
steel,  and  carefully  filed  up  and  hardened.  "With  the  tool-holder  only  one  cutter  is 
required,  and  it  costs,  probably,  not  more  than  10  per  cent,  of  one  of  the  6  forged  tools> 
while  it  maintains  its  size  much  better,  and,  consequently,  lasts  much  longer.  It  also 
takes  about  twice  the  weight  of  cuttings  per  hour  as  compared  with  an  ordinary  forged 
tool.  This  system  is  useful  where  many  screws  of  odd  forms  and  pitches  are  required ; 
but  where  there  are  sufficient  numbers  to  be  cut,  special  chasing  lathes  are  far  pre- 
ferable to  ordinary  screw-cutting  lathes,  as  they  will  do  about  6  times  as  much  chasing 
of  V  threads,  or  cutting  of  square  threads,  as  can  be  accomplished  in  the  ordinary  lathe 
in  the  same  time.  Instead  of  carrj'ing  one  chaser,  the  chasing  lathes  carry,  in  a 
chasing  apparatus,  3  or  4  chasers  :  and  these  have  their  threads,  whether  square,  Vj 
rounded,  or  any  other  form,  cut  in  their  places  by  aid  of  a  master  tap.  They  are  then 
tapered  at  the  mouths,  backed  off,  and  hardened  ready  for  work.  The  number  of 
shavings  cut  simultaneously  from  a  screw  by  this  process  varies  from  12  to  24,  according 
to  the  size,  strength,  and  pitch  of  the  thread.  Screws  up  to  6  in.  diameter  can  be  very 
rapidly  cut  by  this  system,  on  which  very  much  more  might  be  said  if  space  permitted. 
A  few  screws  cut  by  this  process  are  exhibited. 

When  the  2  systems — the  round  and  the  swivel  tool-holder — are  worked  in  con- 
junction with  each  other,  their  universality  of  application  is  so  thorough  that  almost 
every  difficulty  is  met;  and  it  was  only  in  the  case  of  paring  and  sJiapiug  articles 
in  the  slotting  machine  that  2  modifications  had  to  be  made  in  the  holders,  the  same 
cutters  being  still  api^licable. 

The  capstan  bed  chasing  lathes  made  by  the  writer's  firm  have  now  become  much 
used ;  and  as  a  large  amount  of  their  work  is  done  upon  black  bars  of  iron,  steel,  or 
other  metals,  each  of  which  has  to  be  finished  at  its  extremities  and  cut  or  parted  ofi", 
it  was  found  advisable  to  make  one  special  tool-holder.  Fig.  1257,  to  carry  tools  of  the 
correct  sections  to  produce  the  desired  shapes  for  the  ends ;  the  tedious  and  unreliable 


Turning— Tools  for  Metals.  547 

process  of  tm-ning  the  ends  with  hand-turning  tools  is  thus  avoided.  Each  cutter  is  of 
absolutely  the  same  section  throughout  its  entire  lengtli,  and  the  resharpcniug  is  dono 
by  grinding  the  end  of  the  cutter  only,  so  that  it  can  only  produce  the  same  standar 
form  as  long  as  it  lasts — that  is  to  say  till  it  is  ground  too  short  to  be  used  any  longer. 
The  parting  off  might  have  been  accomplished  by  the  swivel  tool-holder ;  but  a  special 
form,  Fig.  125G,  is  found  to  be  more  convenient  iu  parting  off  close  up  to  the  chuck  or 
lathe  spindle. 

To  produce  a  maximum  amount  of  cutting  in  a  minimum  space  of  time,  there  are 
2  main  points  which  must  be  carefully  attended  to.  These  seem  to  be  applicable  to  all 
cutters  for  cutting  metals,  whether  they  happen  to  be  those  fixed  rigidly  in  tool-boxes, 
as  in  turning  lathes,  planers,  sliarpers,  slottcrs,  &c. ;  or  those  which  cut  while  they 
revolve,  as  milling  cutters,  twist-drills,  boring-bits,  &c.  These  2  important  points  are  :— 
(1)  The  angle  of  the  cutting  surface  (or  cutting  angle),  Fig.  1253, — i.  e.  that  surface 
which  removes  the  shavings  of  metal,  and  upon  which  the  pressure  of  the  cut  comes,  as 
shown  by  the  arrow.  (2)  The  angle  of  the  clearance  surface  (or  clearance  angle) — i.  e. 
that  surface  which  passes  over  the  surface  of  the  metal  which  has  been  cut,  and  does 
not  come  in  contact  with  the  metal  at  all. 

To  produce  the  best  results,  and  to  ensure  the  utmost  simplicity,  it  is  important  that 
these  2  angles  be  correctly  constructed  in  the  first  instance.  The  best  measure  for 
both  angles  has  been  arrived  at  from  actual  practice  and  a  series  of  experiments. 
"When  once  obtained  and  started  with,  they  should  not  alter  by  use,  but  always  remain 
constant,  if  the  greatest  amount  of  cutting  efficiency  is  to  be  achieved.  When  aided  by 
a  mechanical  system  of  regrinding,  and  the  use  of  standard  angle  gauges.  Figs.  1254, 1255, 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  maintaining  the  exact  angles.  The  only  changes  that  take  place 
are  that  the  cutters  in  tool-holders  become  gradually  shorter  and  shorter  by  grinding, 
and  that  milling  cutters  during  a  long  period  of  time  become  very  gradually  smaller  in 
diameter,  by  the  process  of  resharpcniug  them  on  a  fine  emery  wheel.  In  the  case  of 
the  tool-holders,  as  already  explained,  the  cutting  angle  is  maintained  by  the  system  of 
regrinding,  and  the  tool-holder  itself  always  maintains  the  clearance  angle.  The  system 
is  thus  simplified,  as  will  be  clearly  understood  when  it  is  remembered  that  each  one 
of  the  tool-cutters  (no  matter  of  what  description)  is  ground  on  its  end  only.  The 
section  is  thus  never  altered,  no  smithing  or  alteration  in  form  is  necessitated,  and 
consequently  no  repairing  has  to  be  done  iu  the  smiths'  shops.  The  objects  aimed  at 
have  been : 

1.  To  produce  the  highest  class  of  workmanship,  by  providing  the  best  known  form 
of  cutters,  carefully  made,  and  capable  of  having  the  cutting  edges  accumtely  reground, 
so  that  the  surfaces  of  the  machined  work  may  be  produced  direct  from  the  cutters  so 
highly  finished  that  no  hand-work  could  possibly  improve  them.  All  the  turning  of 
wrought  iron,  for  instance,  is  so  perfectly  finished  that  there  is  no  necessity  to  polish  it 
by  means  of  emery  or  emery  cloth. 

2.  To  make  all  the  cutters  so  free  from  complication,  and  simple  to  keep  in  order, 
that  no  difficulty  or  error  may  take  place  in  regrinding  them. 

3.  Since  finely-polished  surfaces  cannot  be  obtained  witliout  the  most  perfect 
cutting  edges,  to  make  all  cutters  not  only  of  the  best  steel,  but  with  their  cutting 
■edges  most  carefully  and  accurately  ground  up,  in  almost  all  cases  by  mechanical  means. 
The  durability  of  the  cutters,  from  their  construction  and  high  class  of  material,  is  very 
great,  and  they  are  thus  capable  of  removing  a  great  weight  of  metal  iu  a  given  time. 

The  grinding  or  resharpening  of  all  cutting  edges  is  reduced  to  the  greatest  sim- 
plicity ;  and  only  three  descriptions  of  machines  are  requisite  for  this  purpose.  They 
are  all  arranged  to  grind  mechanically ;  that  is  to  say,  the  cutters  while  being  ground 
are  carried  and  pressed  on  the  grindstone  or  emery  wheel  by  mechanism.  The  requisite 
forms  and  angles  are  also  obtained  by  mechanism,  it  being  found  in  practice  that 
sufficient  accuracy  cannot  be  secured  by  hand  grinding. 

2  N  2 


548  Turning — Tools  for  Metals. 

The  machines  nre  as  follows : — 

1.  A  grindstone  with  slide-rest,  for  gi  hiding  all  the  cutters  used  in  tool -holders. 

2.  A  twist-drill  grinder ;  this  also  is  by  preference  a  grindstone,  with  mechanism  for 
holding  and  guiding  the  twist-drills.  A  machine  with  an  emery  wheel  in  place  of  the 
stone  is  also  used  for  the  grinding  of  twist-drills,  with  much  the  same  mechanism  for 
carrying  the  drills.  In  practice,  liowever,  the  stone  grinds  about  double  the  number  of 
drills  per  day,  and  with  less  risk  of  drawing  the  temper.  Both  stone  and  Bmery-wheel 
are  run  at  a  high  speed,  and  used  with  water. 

3.  A  small  but  very  complete  machine  (Fig.  1262)  for  regrinding  milling  cutters.  In 
this  case  gritstone  does  not  answer,  and  the  grinding  wheels  are  obliged  to  be  emery  or 
corundum.  Tliey  are  very  small  in  diameter,  and  many  of  them  are  exceedingly  thin, 
and  so  delicate  in  form  that  if  made  of  gritstone  they  would  rapidly  lose  their  shapes. 
They  are  run  at  a  high  speed,  and  are  turned  into  form  while  revolving  by  means  of  a 
diamond.  A  milling  cutter  will  work  for  a  day,  and  in  many  cases  for  2  days,  without 
showing  signs  of  distress. 

Before  the  cutting  edges  are  visibly  blunted,  but  as  soon  as  the  sense  of  touch  shows 
their  keenness  to  be  diminished,  the  cutter  should  be  put  into  this  machine ;  and  the 
probability  is  that  not  more  than  -j^^  in.  need  be  ground  off  each  tooth,  before  it  is 
restored  again  to  a  cutting  edge  almost  as  fine  as  that  of  a  wood  chisel.  Each  cutting 
edge,  or  in  other  words  each  tooth  of  the  milling  cutter,  is  only  passed  rapidly  once  or 
twice  under  the  revolving  wheel,  which  is  itself  of  very  fine  emery.  It  can  therefore  be 
readily  understood  how  delicate  an  operation  this  is,  and  why  emery  alone  will  answer 
for  it. 

In  order  to  maintain  the  correct  forms  of  angles  of  all  cutters  for  tool-holders,  sheet 
steel  angle  gauges.  Fig.  1254:,  are  provided,  and  the  process  of  grinding  is  thus  reduced 
to  a  complete  and  exceedingly  simple  system.  In  well-regulated  shops  a  young  man  is 
selected  to  work  each  machine  for  cutter  grinding;  and  in  practice  each  man  so  en- 
gaged can  keep  a  works  employing  1.50  men  (exclusive  of  moulders  or  boiler  makers) 
well  supplied  with  all  the  necessary  cutting  tools  from  day  to  day.  A  very  great 
saving  is  thus  effected,  as  no  machine  need  ever  stand  idle  for  want  of  cutters. 

Take  for  instance  an  engineering  works  employing  250  men.  The  requisite  number 
of  improved  grinding  machines,  with  special  mechanical  appliances,  is  as  follows  :^ 
2  patent  grindstones  for  resharpening  cutters  mechanically  ;  1  patent  twist-drill  grinder 
for  resharpening  twist-drills  mechanically  ;  1  improved  cutter-grinder  with  small  emery 
wheel,  for  the  resharpening  of  cutters  used  in  milling  machines. 

To  follow  the  system  out  satisfactorily,  the  man  working  the  grindstone  goes  roimd 
to  each  machine  every  morning,  collects  together  those  cutters  which  have  been  blunted 
by  use  the  previous  day,  carries  them  to  his  grindstone,  resharpens  them,  and  dis- 
tributes them  again  to  each  machine ;  which  is  thus  kept  well  stocked  with  an  ample 
number  of  cutters,  always  ready  for  immediate  use. 

The  cutters  for  tool-holders  do  not  require  any  repairing  in  the  smithy ;  consequently 
that  operation,  which  is  costly  in  so  many  ways,  is  avoided,  and  jobbing  or  tool  smiths 
with  their  strikers  are  almost  entirely  dispensed  with. 

For  rehardening  the  cutters,  a  rule  is  made  that  when  the  grinder  meets  with  cutters 
which  are  not  as  hard  at  their  cutting  points  as  they  ought  to  be,  he  puts  them  on  one 
side,  and  periodically,  say  once  each  fortnight,  he  sends  the  lot  into  the  smithy  for  the 
end  of  each  to  be  retempered.  This  is  a  very  inexpensive  operation.  They  are  placed 
in  a  small  oven  by  dozens  and  very  slowly  heated  up  to  a  dull  red ;  the  end  of  each 
cutter  is  then  plunged  into  a  perforated  iron  box,  the  bottom  of  which  is  covered  with 
the  required  depth  of  water,  to  harden  the  cutter  to  the  proper  distance  from  its  point. 
The  cutters  are  left  standing  in  a  nearly  vertical  position  in  the  box  of  water,  until 
they  have  gradually  cooled  down  sufficiently  to  be  removed.  They  are  then  sent  to  the 
grindstone,   reground,   and  given  out  with  the  other  cutters  to  be  again  used  in  the 


Turning— Tools  for  Metals.  549 

different  machines.  With  steel  of  the  highest  qualities  for  the  cutters  it  is  most  im- 
portant to  keep  it  out  of  the  sinitli's  fire  entirely,  if  possible.  Tiiat  object  is  here 
attained,  the  cutters  never  going  to  tho  iiro  except  for  rehardeniug.  Durin"  the  life  of 
a  cutter  it  only  sees  tho  fire  probably  G  times. 

As  tlie  weight  of  each  cutter  is  small,  not  probably  more  tlian  -'^  to  -^  that  of  a 
forged  tool  used  for  the  same  purpose,  the  outhxy  for  best  toul  steel  ia'not  heavy;  and 
the  engineer  is  not  tempted  to  purcliase  any  but  that  of  tlie  liighest  quality.  Witli 
such  steel,  especially  when  used  in  the  best  manner,  each  machine  is  capable  of  cnttirif 
at  a  high  rate  of  speed,  and  the  cuts  may  be  coarser  than  those  ordinarily  taken.  When 
the  swivel  tool-holders  were  first  useii  on  planing  machines,  cutting  slots  1  in.  broad 
into  solid  castings,  it  was  found  that  2  teeth  of  tho  feeder  could  be  usid  at  each  .stroke. 
Previously  a  forged  tool  of  the  same  breadth,  ground  to  form  by  the  planer  to  the  best 
of  its  ability,  had  been  used  in  the  same  machines ;  but  he  found,  on  trial  from  time  to 
time,  that  it  was  impossible  to  use  more  than  one  tooth  of  the  feed  ;  or,  in  other  words 
the  tool-holder  cut  a  given  depth  into  the  metal  in  half  the  time  of  the  forged  tool. 

Again,  when  the  swivel  tool-holders  were  first  used  in  cutting  square-threaded 
screws,  the  utmost  the  lathe  could  do  with  forged  tools  was  to  take  4  degrees  of  feed  at 
each  cut,  as  indicated  by  the  micrometer  feed-wheel.  The  tool-holdor  on  the  other  hand 
took  7  degrees  of  feed  in  the  same  lathe,  doing  the  same  work,  and  producing  quite  as 
good  or  a  better  finish  with  the  same  expenditure  of  steam  power. 

The  cutters  for  the  swivel  tool-holders  can  not  only  be  made  at  the  outset,  but  ;dso 
constantly  maintained,  at  the  best  and  most  efScient  angles  which  practice  can  teach  ; 
it  therefore  follows  that  a  very  much  better  class  of  macdiine  work  can  be  produced. 
The  finished  surfaces  obtained  from  the  tool-holders  show  a  striking  superiority  over 
those  from  forged  tools,  especially  when  in  the  latter  the  angles  are  ground  by  hand  by 
each  man  or  boy  working  a  machine.  The  tendency  then  is  to  grind  tho  cutters  to  all 
sorts  of  incorrect  forms,  which  more  or  less  tear  the  surfaces  of  the  machined  work,  and 
leave  bad  finishes,  such  as  require  a  considerable  amount  of  hand  labour  bestowed  upon 
them  afterwards,  in  filing,  scraping,  and  polishing. 

Again,  tho  tool-holders  have  led  up  to  a  considerable  extension  of  what  is  called 
broad-finishing,  in  planing,  turning,  shaping,  slotting,  &c. 

Broad-cutting  feeds,  varying  from  J  in.  to  IJ  in.  in  width,  are  very  commonly  taken 
by  the  swivel  tool-holders  and  more  accurate  surfaces  produced  than  with  finer  feeds. 
The  advantages  in  point  of  time  saved  are  very  great ;  the  time  occupied  in  finishing  by 
broad-cutting  being  J^  to  J^  of  that  consumed  by  finishing  with  ordinary  feeds  and  in 
the  usual  manner.  The  width  of  broad-cutting  can  be  increased  to  any  desired  limit, 
and  there  have  been  special  cases  where  it  has  been  advantageous  to  take  thin  shavings 
3  in.  to  G  in.  in  width. 

The  principal  limits  to  broad-cutting  are  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  power  of  grinding  the  cutting  tool  to  a  sufliciently  straight  or  true  cutting 
edge  ;  the  best  plan,  of  course,  being  to  do  this  by  mechanical  means. 

2.  The  securing  a  sufficient  stability  in  the  machine  tool  to  hold  the  broad-cutter  so 
rigidly  up  to  its  work  that  neither  tho  cutter  itself  nor  the  work  may  spring  away,  and 
that  no  jarring  or  injurious  vibration  may  be  produced,  and  impart  its  evil  effect  to  the 
finished  surface. 

3.  The  securing  of  suSiciently  accurate  work  to  answer  the  purjMse  for  which  it  may 
be  required  :  for  instance,  the  piece  of  work  planed  or  turned  by  this  process  may  be  a 
portion  of  a  large  railway  bridge,  where  absolute  accuracy  is  not  required,  or  it  may  be 
some  portion  of  a  machine  tool,  where  the  utmost  accuracy  is  needed ;  or,  again,  some 
portion  of  an  engine,  where  the  builder  is  anxious  to  obtain  all  the  accuracy  which  can 
lK)ssibly  be  produced  direct  from  tho  machine  tool. 

During  the  last  30  years  many  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  a  better  system 
of  drilling  and  boring.    ]\Iany  engineers  have  used  square  bar  steel,  which  the  black- 


550 


TuENiNG— Tools  for  Metals. 


smith  has  twisted,  and  then  flattened  at  one  end  to  form  a  drill.  The  object  of  the- 
twisted  stem  was  to  screw  the  cuttings  out  of  the  hole,  and  to  some  extent  this  succeeded,, 
but  not  perfectly.    The  twisted  square  section  revolving  iu  the  round  hole  had  a 


1245. 


1246. 


1252. 


1247. 


1248. 


1249. 


1250. 


1251. 


.s\W.\\<-C\-\- 


1253. 


m» ». 


•fCiMrranci  1cnS 


1254. 


1255. 


p^arUn^  r 


1256. 


125T. 


assQ     Bs^ 


tendency  to  crush  or  grind  up  the  cuttings ;  and  if  they  were  once  reduced  to  powder  it 
was  difficult  (especially  in  drilling  vertically)  for  tlie  drill  to  lift  the  powdered  metal 
out  of  the  hole.     In  most  cases  the  lips  of  the  drills  were  of  such  form  that  the  cutting 


Turning — Tools  for  Metals.  551 

angle,  or  face  of  each  lip,  which  ought  to  havo  been  about  CO",  Fig.  1253,  was  90°,  or 
even  still  more  obtuse  ;  this  being  an  angle  which  would  scrape  only,  but  could  hardly 
be  expected  to  cut  sweetly  or  rapidly. 

Again,  there  were  attempts  to  make  the  cutting  angles  of  the  2  lips  of  much  the 
same  number  of  degrees  as  that  given  by  the  twist  itself  in  a  good  twist-drill.  Tlii.s 
was  done  by  forging  or  filing  a  semicircular  or  curved  groove  on  the  lower  face  F  of 
each  lip,  Figs.  1250,  1251.  For  a  short  time  lips  thus  formed  cut  fairly  well,  but  a 
very  smaJl  amount  of  regrinding  soon  put  them  out  of  shape,  and  made  them  of  such 
obtuse  cutting  angles  that  good  results  could  no  longer  bo  expected  from  them  ;  and  to 
be  constantly  sending  such  drills  to  the  jobbing  or  tool  smith,  and  then  to  the  fitter  to 
file  into  form  again  before  they  were  rehardened,  was  found  to  be  too  tedious  and  too 
expensive.  Again,  to  arrive  at  the  best  results  in  drilling,  each  of  the  cutting  lips 
should  make  the  same  angle  with  a  central  line  taken  through  the  body  of  tho  drill ;  in 
other  words,  the  angles  A  and  B,  Fig.  1245,  should  each  havo  exactly  tho  same  number 
of  degrees,  say  G0°.  The  clearance  angles  also  should  be  identical,  and  tho  leading 
point  P  should  form  the  exact  centre  point  of  the  drill.  From  i^ractice  it  is  found  that 
if  these  proportions  are  not  correct,  the  drill  cannot  pierce  the  metal  it  is  drilling  at 
more  than  about  half  the  proper  speed,  and  the  hole  produced  will  also  be  larger  than 
the  drill  itself,  as  will  be  exemplified  a  little  later  on.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  excessive 
accuracy  which  must  be  imparted  to  a  twist-drill,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  even  a 
good  feed  is  only  j^  in.  to  each  revolution ;  and  as  two  lips  are  employed  to  remove 
this  thickness  of  metal,  each  lip  has  only  half  that  quantity  to  cut,  or  -^J;^  in.  This 
2^  in.  is  as  much  as  can  be  taken  in  practice  by  each  lip  in  drills  of  ordinary  sizes. 

It  will  therefore  be  readily  understood  that  if  one  lip  of  a  drill  stands  before  the 
other  to  the  extent  of  -^  in.  only,  the  prominent  lip,  or  portion  of  a  lip,  will  have  to 
remove  the  whole  thickness  of  the  metal  from  the  hole  at  each  turn.  Tho  lip  of  the 
drill  will  not  stand  such  treatment ;  and  it  is  therefore  obvious  that  if  this  were 
attempted  the  prominent  lip  would  either  break  or  become  too  rapidly  blunted.  To  get 
over  these  difficulties,  the  driller  would  no  doubt  reduce  his  feed  by  one-half,  or  to 
■s^L-  in.  per  turn,  which  would  mean  about  half  the  number  of  holes  drilled  in  a  given 
time. 

This  nice  accuracy,  although  absolutely  required,  cannot  be  produced  by  hand 
grinding  ;  neither  can  a  common  drill,  having  a  rough  black  stem  more  or  less  eccentric, 
be  ground  accurately,  even  by  aid  of  a  grinding  machine  with  mechanism  for  holding 
it.  To  grind  any  drill  accurately,  it  must  be  concentric  and  perfectly  true  throughout 
with  the  shank,  as  that  part  has  to  be  held  by  the  drill-grinding  machine.  If  tho 
drilling  is  to  be  done  in  the  most  rapid  manner,  in  other  words,  at  the  smallest  cost,  and 
if  the  best  class  of  work  is  also  desired,  it  seems  certain  that  a  twist-drill,  with  all  the 
accuracy  which  can  possibly  be  imparted  to  it  in  its  manufacture,  and  the  greatest  care 
employed  in  the  resharpening,  is  the  only  instrument  which  can  be  employed. 

About  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago  both  Sir  Joseph  "VVhitworth  and  Greenwood,  of 
Leeds,  made  some  twist-drills ;  but  it  is  to  be  presumed  that  a  large  amount  of  success 
was  not  achieved  with  them,  and  for  some  reasons  the  system  was  not  persevered  with. 
After  that  period  the  Manhattan  Firearms  Company  in  America  produced  some  beauti- 
fully finished  twist-drills.  Though  the  workmanship  in  these  was  of  a  superior  descrip- 
tion, the  drills  would  not  endure  hardship.  It  was  found  that  tlie  2  lips  were  too  keen 
in  their  cutting  angles,  and  that  they  were  too  apt  to  drag  themselves  into  the  metal 
they  were  cutting,  finally  to  dig  in  and  to  jam  fast,  and  to  twist  tliemsclves  into  frag- 
ments. Morse  then  took  the  matter  up,  and  by  diminishing  by  about  50  per  cent,  the 
keenness  of  the  cutting  lips  of  the  twist-drills,  made  a  great  success  of  them.  He  used 
the  grinding  line  A  B,  Fig.  1252,  and  an  increasing  twist.  In  such  a  drill,  of  the  standard 
length,  and\efore  it  is  worn  shorter  by  grinding,  the  twist  is  so  rapid  towards  the  lips 
that  the  angle  they  present,  or  what  has  been  already  referred  to  as  the  angle  of  the 


552  TuENiNG — Tools  for  Metals. 

cutting  surface,  is  very  nearly  the  same  as  that  -which  "W.  F.  Smith  had  previously 
established  for  cutters  cutting  metals,  as  in  Fig.  1254:. 

If,  however,  the  angle  of  twist  is  made  to  increase  towards  the  lips,  it  will  of  course 
decrease  towards  the  shank,  as  in  Fig.  1251.  The  shorter  the  drill  is  worn,  the  more 
obtuse  the  cutting  angle  becomes,  and  the  less  freedom  will  it  have ;  supposing,  of 
course,  that  the  angle,  when  the  drill  was  new,  was  the  most  efficient.  Suppose  this 
decrease  of  twist  were  carried  still  further  by  lengthening  the  drill,  a  cutting  angle  of 
90°  would  eventually  be  arrived  at.  The  old  common  style  of  drill  usually  has  a  cutting 
edge  which  is  so  obtuse  as  not  to  cut  the  metal  sweetly,  but  on  the  contrary  to  have 
more  of  a  tearing  action,  and  thus  put  so  much  torsional  strain  on  the  drill  that  fracture 
is  certain  to  take  place,  even  if  what  the  writer  would  now  consider  a  moderate  feed  was 
put  on  by  the  drilling  machine. 

It  is  therefore  obviously  advantageous  to  adopt  from  the  first  the  best  cutting  angle 
for  all  twist-drills,  and  to  preserve  this  same  angle  through  the  whole  length  of  the 
twisted  part,  so  that,  however  short  the  drill  may  be  worn,  it  always  presents  the  same 
angle,  and  that  the  mast  efficient  which  can  be  obtained.  This  cutting  angle  is  easy 
to  fix,  and  becomes  an  unalterable  standard  which  will  give  the  best  attainable  results. 
This  has  been  adopted  at  the  Gresley  Works,  Manchester,  and  of  course  ajiplies  to 
both  lips. 

A  common  drill  may  "  run,"  as  it  is  usually  termed,  and  produce  a  hole  which  is 
anything  but  straight.  This  means  that  the  point  of  the  drill  will  run  away  from  the 
denser  parts  of  the  metal  it  is  cutting,  and  penetrate  into  the  opposite  side  which  is  soft 
and  sjDongy.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  castings ;  where,  for  instance,  a  boss  may  be 
quite  sound  on  the  one  side,  while  on  the  other  a  mass  of  metal  may  be  full  of  blow-holes, 
or  so  drawn  away  by  contraction  in  cooling  as  to  be  very  soft  and  porous.  In  such  cases, 
it  is  perfectly  impossible  to  prevent  a  common  drill  from  running  into  the  soft  side. 
This  sort  of  imperfect  hole  is  most  trying  to  the  fitter  or  erector,  and  if  it  has  to  be 
tapped,  to  receive  a  screwed  belt  or  stud,  is  most  destructive  to  steel  taps.  The  taps  are 
very  liable  to  be  broken,  and  an  immense  loss  of  time  may  also  take  place  in  attempting 
to  tap  the  hole  square  with  the  planed  face.  A  twist-drill,  on  the  other  hand,  from  its 
construction  is  boimd  to  penetrate  truly,  and  produce  holes  which  are  as  perfect  as  it  is 
l^ossible  to  make  them. 

The  next  important  step  in  twist-drills  has  been  to  fix  a  standard  shape  and  angle  of 
clearance  for  both  lips,  which  should  also  give  the  best  attainable  result.  This  angle 
might  be  tampered  with  if  the  regrinding  were  done  by  hand,  and  too  much  or  too  little 
clearance  might  easily  be  imparted  to  the  drill  from  want  of  sufficient  knowledge  on  the 
part  of  the  workman.  If  too  little  clearance.  Fig.  1248,  or  in  some  cases  none  at  all,  is 
given  to  the  drill,  the  cutting  lips  then  cannot  reach  the  metal,  consequently  they  cannot 
cut.  The  self-acting  feed  of  the  drilling  machine  keeps  crowding  on  the  feed  until  either 
the  machine  or  the  drill  gives  way.     Usually  it  will  be  the  latter. 

Again,  if  too  much  clearance  is  given.  Fig.  1249,  the  keen  edges  of  the  lips  dig  into 
the  metal  and  imbed  themselves  there,  and  of  course  break  off. 

The  grinding  line  A  B,  Fig.  1252,  was  introduced  in  the  States  to  assist  the  operator 
in  keeping  both  lips  of  the  drill  identically  the  same.  To  arrive  at  this,  however,  is 
more  than  can  be  accomplished  by  hand  grinding,  as  not  less  than  3  points  have  to 
be  carefully  watched,  viz. :  (1)  That  both  lips  are  exactly  the  same  length ;  (2)  that 
both  make  the  same  clearance  angles ;  (3)  that  both  make  the  same  angle  with  the 
centre  line  on  the  body  of  the  drill.  If  these  are  not  attended  to,  the  drill  lips  may  for 
instance  be  both  ground  so  as  to  converge  exactly  to  the  grinding  lines  at  tiie  point  of 
centre  of  the  drill,  and  may  still  be  of  such  different  lengths  and  angles  as  to  produce 
very  bad  results  in  drilling. 

Much  ingenuity  has  been  expended  on  machnes  for  the  grinding  of  the  2  lij^s  with 
mechanical  accuracy.     The  one  which  has  been  the  most  successful  in  the  United  States 


TunNiNG— Tools  for  Metals.  553 

has  3  motions,  ingeniously  combined  with  cacli  otlicr.  So  many  motions,  however,  entnil 
complication ;  and  this,  added  to  a  system  of  lioldiiig  the  drill  whicli  was  not  siifli'ciently 
reliable,  failed  to  produce  the  extreme  accuracy  it  is  requisite  to  impart  to  tlie  2  anodes. 

The  grinding  line,  too,  is  found  to  bo  more  or  less  a  source  of  weakness.  It  is  therefore 
advisable  to  disi^cnsc  with  it  if  possible;  and  where  a  good  twist-drill  grinding  machine 
is  used,  the  grinding  line  is  seldom  or  ever  looked  at,  and  in  that  case  is  useless.  If  it 
is  still  desirable  to  liave  grinding  lines  (as  in  some  cases  where  hand  grindin"  lias  to  be 
relied  upon),  tlicy  sliould  be  made  as  faint  as  possible,  and  not  cut  deeply  into  tlie  thin 
central  part  of  the  drill  so  as  to  weaken  it. 

Fig.  1247  is  drawn  exaggerated,  in  order  to  show  the  ill  cfTect  of  grinding  one  lip  of 
a  drill  longer  than  the  other. 

A  simple  and  eflScient  twist-drill  grinding  machine  was  so  much  needed,  that  within 
the  last  3  years  the  writer  lias  designed  one.  The  twist-drill  in  this  macliine  has  only  one 
motion  imparted  to  it  to  produce  the  2  lips  of  each  drill  as  perfect  fac-similes  of  eacli 
other  and  with  the  desired  amount  of  clearance.  Many  of  these  macliincs  are  now  at 
work.  That  the  diills  ground  by  them  are  accurate  is  proved  by  the  holes  drilled  being 
so  nearly  the  size  of  the  twist-drill  itself  that  in  many  cases  the  drill  will  not  afterwards 
drop  vertically  througli  the  drilled  hole  by  its  own  gravity ;  in  other  words,  the  hole  is 
no  larger  than  the  drill  which  has  drilled  it. 

It  is  not  generally  known  that  this  is  the  most  severe  test  that  can  be  made  of  the 
accuracy  of  regriudiug,  and  of  the  uniformity  of  all  parts  of  the  twist-drill. 

The  whole  of  the  drilling  in  many  establishments  is  now  done  entirely  by  twist-drills. 
Since  their  introduction  it  is  found  that  the  self-acting  feed  can  be  increased  about  90  per 
cent. ;  and  in  several  engineering  works  the  feeds  in  some  machines  have  been  increased 
by  fully  200  per  cent.,  and  consequently  3  holes  are  now  being  di-illed  in  the  same  time 
that  one  was  originally  drilled  with  the  old  style  of  tirill  and  with  old  machines. 

It  may  be  interesting  to  give  a  few  results  out  of  numerous  tests  and  experiments 
made  with  twist-drills.  Many  thousands  of  holes  ^  in.  in  diameter  and  2f  in.  deep  have 
been  drilled,  by  improved  i-in.  twist-drills,  at  so  high  a  rate  of  feed  that  the  spindle  of 
the  drilling  machine  could  be  seen  visibly  descending  and  driving  the  drill  before  it. 
The  time  occupied  from  the  starting  of  each  hole,  in  a  hammered  scrap-iron  bar,  till  the 
drill  pierced  through  it,  varied  from  1  min.  20  sec.  to  Ij  min. 

The  holes  drilled  were  i^erfectly  straight.  Tlie  speed  at  which  tlie  drill  was  cutting 
was  nearly  20  ft.  per  minute  in  its  periphery,  and  the  feed  was  100  revolutions  per  in. 
of  depth  drilled. 

The  drill  was  lubricated  with  soap  and  water,  and  went  clean  through  the  2|-  in. 
without  being  withdrawn ;  and  after  it  had  drilled  each  hole,  it  felt  quite  cool  to  the 
hand,  its  temperature  being  about  75°  F.  It  is  found  that  120  to  130  such  holes  can 
be  drilled  before  it  is  advisable  to  resharpen  the  twist-di'dl.  This  ought  to  be  done 
immediately  the  drill  exhibits  the  slightest  sign  of  distress.  If  carefully  examined,  after 
this  number  of  holes  has  been  drilled,  the  prominent  cutting  parts  of  the  lips,  which 
have  removed  the  metal,  will  be  found  very  slightly  blunted  or  rounded,  to  the  extent  of 
about  -j-iy  in.;  and  on  this  length  being  carefully  ground  by  the  machine  off  the  end  of 
the  twist-drill,  the  lips  are  brought  up  to  perfectly  sharp  cutting  edges  again. 

The  same  sized  holes,  h  in.  in  diameter  and  2f  in,  deep,  have  been  drilled  througli  the 
same  hammered  scrap  iron  at  the  extraordinary  speed  of  2j  in.  deep  in  1  minute  and 
5  seconds,  the  number  of  revolutions  per  in.  being  75.  An  average  nimiber  of  70  holes 
can  be  drilled  in  this  case  before  the  drill  requires  resharpeuing.  The  writer  considers 
this  test  to  be  rather  too  severe,  and  prefers  the  former  speed.  The  drills  in  botli  cases 
were  driven  by  a  true-running,  drilling  machine  spindle,  having  a  round  taper  hole,  which 
also  was  perfectly  true ;  and  the  taper  shank  and  body,  or  twisted  part  of  the  drills,  also 
ran  perfectly  concentric  when  placed  in  the  spindle,  or  in  a  reducer,  or  socket  having  a 
taper  end  to  fit  the  spindle.     When  the  drills  run  without  any  eccentricity,  there  is  no 


554  TuENiNG — Tools  for  Metals. 

pressure,  and  next  to  no  friction  on  the  sides  of  the  flutes ;  the  ■whole  of  the  pressure 
find  work  being  taken  on  the  ends  of  the  drills.  Consequently  they  are  not  found  to 
wear  smaller  in  diameter  at  the  lii^  end,  and  they  retain  their  sizes,  with  careful  usage, 
in  a  -wonderful  manner.  The  drills  used^were  carefully  sharpened  in  one  of  the  twist- 
drill  grinders  mentioned  above. 

In  London  upwards  of  3000  holes  were  drilled  |  in.  in  diameter  and  f  in.  deep, 
through  steel  bars,  by  one  drill  without  regrinding  it.  The  cutting  speed  was  in  this 
instance  too  great  for  cutting  steel,  being  from  18  ft.  to  20  ft.  per  minute ;  and  the  result 
is  extraordinary. 

Many  thousands  of  holes  were  drilled  i  in.  in  diameter,  through  cast  iron  ^l  in.  deep, 
with  straight-shank  twist-drills  gripped  by  an  eccentric  chuck  in  the  end  of  the  spindle 
of  a  quick-speed  drilling  machine.  The  time  occupied  for  each  hole  was  from  9  to 
10  seconds  only.  Again,  |-in.  holes  have  been  drilled  through  wrought  copper,  1|  in. 
thick,  at  the  speed  of  one  hole  in  10  seconds. 

With  special  twist-drills,  made  for  piercing  hard  Bessemer  steel,  rail  holes,  i|  in.  deep 
and  -p  in.  in  diameter,  have  been  drilled  at  the  rate  of  one  hole  in  1  minute  and 
20  seconds,  in  an  ordinary  drilling  machine.  Had  the  machine  been  stiifer  and  more 
powerful,  better  results  could  have  been  obtained.  A  similar  twist-drill,  -If  in.  in 
diameter,  drilled  a  hard  steel  rail  i|  in.  deep  in  1  minute,  and  another  in  1  minute 
10  seconds.  Another  drill,  |  in.  in  diameter,  drilled  |  in.  deep  in  38  seconds,  the  cutting 
speed  being  22  ft.  per  minute.  The  speed  of  cutting  rather  distressed  the  drill ;  a  speed 
of  16  ft.  per  minute  would  have  been  better.  The  steel  rail  was  specially  selected  as 
being  one  of  the  hardest  of  the  lot. 

The  writer  considers  milling  the  most  important  system  used  in  the  cutting  of  metals. 
It  is  found  practicable,  and  in  most  cases  it  is  exceedingly  advantageous,  to  finish  (or  as 
it  is  usually  termed  to-  "  machine  ")  almost  every  class  of  work,  such  as  is  now  usually 
finished  by  planing,  shaping,  or  slotting  machines,  in  one  or  other  of  the  numerous  kinds 
of  milling  machines  already  in  use.  It  may  not  be  generally  known  that  in  this  class  of 
machine,  milling  cutters  are  being  used  of  diameters  ranging  from  20  ft.  used  for  heavy 
engine  work,  down  to  h  in.  or  f  in.,  used  principally  for  the  intricate  work  required  in 
sewing  machines,  small  arms,  &c. 

By  the  former,  the  work  done  is  what  is  known  as  face-milling ;  the  mill  itself  is 
somewhat  similar  to  a  large  lathe  face-plate,  and  the  several  cutting  portions  are  steel 
tools  inserted  into  and  firmly  secured  to  it  by  a  series  of  set  screws  or  keys.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  milling  cutters  of  the  small  sizes  from  ^  in.  up  to  about  8  in.  in  diameter, 
are  made  from  solid  blocks  of  cast  steel,  or  blanks,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1261. 

The  term  milling  is  more  generally  understood  in  the  United  States  than  in  this 
country.  It  means  the  cutting  of  metals  by  the  aid  of  serrated  revolving  cutters,  each 
having  a  number  of  cutting  teeth.  Milling  cutters  have  been  used  in  this  country  for 
many  years,  but  until  recently  with  only  a  limited  amount  of  success,  owing  to  the 
expense  and  difficulty  of  producing  their  cutting  edges  and  keeping  tliem  in  order. 
This  was  next  to  impossible  before  the  introduction  of  a  machine,  with  a  small  emery 
wheel,  and  compound  slides,  &c.,  for  carrying  the  milling  cutter  whilst  being  re- 
sharpened.  Hence  in  the  old  system  of  milling,  which  did  not  permit  of  the  resharpening 
of  the  hard  teeth,  the  results  were,  that  after  much  expense  and  time  had  been  bestowed 
on  a  cutter  (including  a  quantity  of  hand  labour  spent  upon  it  while  in  its  imhardencd 
state),  the  whole  was  as  it  were  upset  by  the  process  of  tempering ;  the  accuracy  which 
had  previously  been  imparted  to  it  being  usually  quite  destroyed  by  the  action  of  the 
fire  and  sudden  cooling.  In  some  cases  the  cutter  would  be  found  slightly  warped  or 
twisted  ;  in  others  it  would  be  oval  or  eccentric ;  and  most  frequently,  when  set  to  work 
on  a  truly-running  mandrel  in  the  milling  machine,  not  more  than  i  of  the  nimiber  of 
its  teeth  were  found  to  be  cutting  at  all,  the  others  not  coming  in  contact  with  tlic 
work.    This  really  meant  that  not  more  than  3  of  the  jDroper  feed  per  revolution  could 


Turning— Tools  for  Metals.  555 

be  applied,  and  not  more  than  |  of  the  proper  work  produced.  Nor  was  this  the  only 
drawback;  the  quality  of  the  workinansliip  j)ro(luc(il  by  .sucli  a  millinf?  cutter  was  not 
of  the  best,  aud  deteriorated  hourly  from  blunting  and  wear.  Such  a  cutter  would 
probably  not  work  for  more  than  2  whole  days  before  it  would  require  to  lie  aguiu 
softened  by  being  heated  red  hot  aud  allowed  to  cool  gradually.  Tlio  expensive  and 
unreliable  process  of  resharpening  by  hand-filing  hiul  to  be  gone  through  again  onco 
more  ;  tlien  the  retempering,  which  caused  the  cutter  to  again  become  warped,  swelled, 
or  eccentric;  aud  each  time  it  was  subjected  to  the  heat  of  the  lire,  it  run  the  risk  of 
being  destroyed  by  cracking  when  phuiged  into  the  cold  bath. 

It  is  necessary  now  to  describe  the  modern  system  of  making  and  maintaining  tho 
improved  milling  cutters.  A  cast-steel  forging,  or  blank  as  it  is  usually  styled,  i.-* 
bored,  aud  then  turned  to  its  proper  shape  in  a  lathe.  Tho  teeth  are  then  machined 
out  of  the  solid  to  their  required  forms,  in  a  universal  milling  or  other  macliinc.  This 
work  is  so  accurately  produced,  direct  from  the  machine,  tluit  no  expensive  hand  labour 
need  be  expended  upon  the  milled  cutter,  which  is  taken  direct  from  the  milling  machine 
to  the  hardening  furnace,  and  tempered.  The  hole  in  the  centre  of  tlie  cutter  is  then 
carefully  ground  out  to  standard  size,  so  that  it  may  fit  naturally  aud  without  shake 
both  on  the  mandi-els  of  the  grinding  machine  and  on  that  of  its  own  milling  machine. 

The  cutter  or  mill  B,  Fig.  12G2,  is  now  placed  on  the  mandrel  M  of  the  small  cutter- 
grinding  machine ;  the  mandrel  itself  is  adjusted  by  means  of  a  worm  W  and  worm- 
wheel  C  to  its  required  angular,  vertical,  or  horizontal  position,  and  each  tooth  is  ground 
or  resharpened  by  passing  it  once  rapidly  forward  and  backward  under  the  small 
revolving  emery  wheel  H.  Tho  mandrel  fits  easily  into  the  cutter  which  is  being- 
ground,  so  that  the  latter  may  be  readily  turned  round  by  the  thumb  and  finger  of  tho 
operator. 

The  exact  mode  of  setting  such  cutters  is  as  follows : — Tho  clearance  angle  J  L  K 
on  each  tooth  is  obtained  aud  maintained  by  the  emery  wlieel  H,  one  of  which  is 
exhibited.  The  clearance  is  obtained  by  adjusting  tlie  centre  E  of  the  emery  wheel  II 
a  short  distance  horizontally  to  the  left  of  the  vertical  line  through  the  centre  O  of  the 
milling  cutter.  Tlie  shorter  this  distance  E  C  the  less  the  amount  of  the  clearance 
imparted  to  each  tooth  of  the  milling  cutter  A.  The  lower  L  K  is  a  tangent  to  the 
circumference  of  the  milling  cutter,  drawn  from  the  point  of  contact  L;  and  the  upper 
line  L  J  is  a  tangent  to  the  emery  wlieel  from  the  same  point.  The  angle  formed  by 
these  2  lines  is  the  angle  of  clearance. 

Each  tooth  is  held  in  its  correct  position  by  means  of  a  stop  S,  while  the  milling 
cutter  is  rapidly  passed  once  forward  and  backward  under  the  emery  wheel.  As  will 
be  seen  by  the  arrows,  the  tendency  of  the  emery  wheel  is  to  keep  the  cutting  edge 
which  is  being  ground  close  up  against  the  stop  S.  There  is  no  more  difficulty  in 
grinding  spiral  cutting  edges  tlian  straight  ones ;  and  the  face  and  conical  cutters  can 
also  be  ground  corsectly,  aud  with  the  same  amount  of  ease. 

Milling  cutters  are  made  of  tho  required  form  to  suit  the  various  shapes  they  are 
intended  to  produce ;  and  all  tho  ordinary  forms  can  be  used  in  any  milling  machine 
either  of  the  horizontal  or  vertical  class. 

The  face-milling  cutters.  Fig.  12.58,  are  of  disc  form,  and  arc  among  the  most  useful. 
They  are  constructed  to  cut  on  one  face  and  on  the  periphery,  and  produce  very  perfect 
finish,  especially  on  cast  iron.  This  form  is  also  very  useful  for  stepped  work,  which, 
even  when  not  of  the  simplest  form,  can  be  readily  and  reliably  finished  to  standard 
breadths  and  depths;  so  that  the  pieces  may  be  interchangeable,  and  fit  together 
without  the  slightest  shock,  just  as  they  leave  the  machine,  and  without  any  hand  labour 
bestowed  on  them. 

Another  ordinary  but  very  useful  form  is  the  cylindrical  cutter.  Fig.  1259,  with  tcetli 
cut  spirally  over  its  circumference.  Tliis  is  largely  employed  for  cutting  flat,  vertical, 
or  horizontal  surfaces,  for  finishing  concave  and  convex  curves,  aud  for  complicated  forms- 


556 


Turning — Tools  for  Metals. 


made  up  of  straight  lines  and  curves.  With  this  spiral  arrangement  of  the  teeth,  and 
with  reliable  means  of  regiinding  or  resharpening  them,  very  high-class  machine  work 
can  be  produced.  Some  experiments  have  been  made  by  cutting  a  spiral  groove  or 
thread  into  the  outer  surface  of  one  of  this  class  of  mill,  and  thus  reducing  the  aggregate 
length  of  its  cutting  surface.  The  results  appear  to  be  practically  as  follows  :  If  half 
the  length  of  cutting  edges  are  dispensed  with,  only  about  h  the  maximum  feed  per 


1258. 


1259. 


1261. 


vz^zmm^^^' 


1260. 


a 


iA  y 


revolution  of  the  cutter  can  be  applied  by  the  machine ;  if  f  of  the  length  of  the  cutting 
lips  are  left  intact,  |  only  of  the  aggi-egate  feed  can  be  used,  and  so  on  in  the  same 
2)roportions. 


1262. 


Other  mills,  again,  are  made  in  tlie  form  of  small  circular  saws,  varying  from  \  in. 
to  \\  in.  or  more  in  thickness.  Tlie  teeth  in  some  of  tliese  are  simply  cut  around  the 
circumference ;  others  have  these  teeth  extending  some  distance  down  each  side,  their 
edges  radiating  from  the  centre  of  the  mill,  as  in  Fig.  1260.  Towards  the  centre  they  are 
reduced  in  thickness  so  as  to  clear  themselves.  These  cutters  are  useful  for  a  very  great 
variety  of  work;  for  instance,  the  cutting  of  key- ways,  parting  off  or  cutting  through 
pieces  of  metal,  and  making  ijarallel  slots  of  various  widths,  for  the  broader  of  which 
2  or  more  cutters  may  be  used  side  by  side. 

Conical  and  annular  milling  cutters.  Fig.  1261,  are  much  employed  for  a  great  variety 
of  work,  such  as  the  cutting  of  reamers,  the  making  of  milling  cutters  themselves, 
bevelling,  cutting  the  serrated  part  of  hand-  and  thumb-screws,  nuts,  &c.     In  Fig.  1261, 


Turning— Tools  for  Metals. 


557 


A,  B,  C,  D  are  edge  views  of  some  of  these  cutters ;  K  represents  a  face  view,  and  E  a 
section  of  one  of  them. 

Any  complex  forms,  such  as  the  spaces  between  the  teeth  of  spur,  mitre,  and  otlier 
wheels,  can  be  machined  by  using  what  arc  known  as  tlio  patent  cutters,  which  can  be 
resharpened  as  often  as  required  by  simply  grinding  the  face  of  each  tootli.  They  are 
so  constructed  that  however  often  they  arc  reground  they  never  lose  their  original 
curved  forms,  and  always  produce  the  same  depths  of  cut.  One  of  these  cutters,  for 
instance,  will  cut  the  same  standard  shapes  of  teeth  in  a  spur-wheel,  after  it  has  been 
used  for  years,  as  it  did  the  first  day  it  was  started. 

There  is  risk  of  fracture  in  making  large  milling  cutters  out  of  one  solid  cast-steel 
blank,  the  principal  difficulty  being  in  the  tempering.  In  practice  it  is  found  that  if 
they  are  required  of  larger  diameter  than  about  8  in.  they  are  better  made  of  wrought 
iron  or  mild  steel  discs,  with  hardened  cast-steel  teeth,  so  securely  fitted  into  them  that 
they  do  not  require  to  be  removed.  The  cutting  edges  can  then  be  resharpened  in  their 
own  places,  as  in  the  case  of  the  ordinary  milling  cutter;  thus  ensuring  that  each  shall 
have  the  same  angle  of  cutting  and  clearance,  run  perfectly  concentric,  and  therefore  do 
a  maximum  amount  of  cutting  in  a  given  time.  It  must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  smaller  the  diameter  of  the  milling  cutter  the  better  finish  it  will  produce ;  and 
cutters  of  large  diameters  should  only  be  used  to  reach  into  depths  where  one  of  smaller 
diameter  could  not.  Again,  the  smaller  the  cutter,  the  less  does  it  cost  to  make  and 
maintain. 


1264. 


12C.-. 


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>» 

\J 

The  writer  has  not  had  an  opportunity  of  actually  testing  the  relative  amounts  of 
engine  power  required  for  driving  milling  machines ;  but  as  far  as  he  can  judge  from 
ordinary  practice  in  doing  ordinary  work,  he  has  not  perceived  that  any  more  power  is 
required  to  remove  a  given  weight  of  shavings  than  that  required  for  a  lathe,  planing 
machine,  or  shaping  machine,  with  efficient  cutting  tools  in  all  cases. 

The  cutting  speed  which  can  be  employed  in  milling  is  much  greater  than  that  which 
can  be  used  in  any  of  the  ordinary  operations  of  turning  in  the  lathe,  or  of  planing, 
shaping,  or  slotting.  A  milling  cutter,  with  a  plentiful  supply  of  oil,  or  soap  and  water, 
can  be  run  at  from  SO  ft.  to  100  ft.  per  minute  when  cutting  wrought  iron. 

The  same  metal  can  only  be  turned  in  a  lathe,  with  a  tool-holder  having  a  good 
cutter,  at  the  rate  of  30  ft.  per  minute,  or  at  about  ^  the  speed  in  milling.  Again,  a 
milling  cutter  will  cut  cast  steel  at  the  rate  of  25  ft.  to  30  ft.  per  minute. 

The  increased  cutting  speed  is  due  to  the  fact  that  a  milling  cutter,  having  some 
30  cutting  points,  has  rarely  more  than  3  of  these  cutting  at  the  same  time.  Each 
cutting  point  therefore  is  only  in  contact  with  the  metal  during  ^'-  of  each  revolution. 
Thus,  if  we  suppose  it  is  cutting  for  one  second,  it  is  out  of  contact,  and  therefore  cooling, 
for  the  succeeding  10  seconds,  before  it  has  made  a  complete  revolution  and  commences 
to  cut  again.  On  the  other  hand,  a  turning  tool,  wliile  cutting,  is  constantly  in  contact 
with  the  metal ;  and  there  is  no  time  for  it  to  cool  dowirand  lose  the  heat  imparted  to 
it  by  the  cutting.    Hence,  if  the  cutting  speed  exceeds  30  ft.  per  minute,  so  much  heat 


558  TuENiNG — Tools  for  Metals. 

■will  be  produced  that  the  temper  will  be  -withdrawn  from  the  tool.  The  some  difficulty 
to  a  great  extent  applies  to  the  cutting  tools  in  planing,  shaping,  and  slotting  machines. 
The  speed  of  cutting  is  governed  also  by  the  thickness  of  the  shaving,  and  by  the 
hardness  and  tenacity  of  the  metal  which  is  being  cut ;  for  instance,  in  cutting  mild 
steel,  with  a  traverse  of  }  in.  per  revolution  or  stroke,  with  a  shaving  about  =  in.  thick, 
the  speed  of  cutting  must  be  reduced  to  about  8  ft.  per  minute.  A  good  average  cutting 
speed  for  wrought  or  cast  iron  is  20  ft.  per  minute,  whether  for  the  lathe,  planing, 
shaping,  or  slotting  machine.     (W.  F.  Smith.)     See  also  p.  55. 

For  Wood. — The  chief  tools  usually  required  for  wood  turnery  are  plain  gouges 
and  chisels.  An  inch  gouge,  that  is,  one  1  in.  wide,  is  the  largest  that  can  well  be  used 
with  a  light  treadle  lathe,  and  to  use  that  eifectively  means  hard  leg  work ;  h  in,,  f  in., 
or  J  in.  will  be  more  generally  useful.  The  gouges  should  be  well  rounded  in  grinding, 
Fig.  1266,  so  that  the  point,  and  not  the  corners,  shall  be  used  for  cutting,  and  they,  in 
common  with  most  of  the  other  tools,  should  be  furnished  with  long  handles — of  which 
more  presently. 

In  turning  straight  stuff,  either  between  centres  or  on  the  face-plate,  the  gouge  may 
be  held  fiat  on  its  back  without  any  danger  of  its  catching  in  the  wood ;  but,  in  turning 
mouldings  and  in  boring  hohs  with  the  cup-chuck,  the  tool  must  be  held  sideways,  and 
the  corner  of  the  gouge  which  is  lowest,  or  rather,  speaking  more  correctly,  some  portion 
of  that  half  of  the  gouge  which  is  lowest,  is  the  one  that  will  be  used  for  cutting,  the 
higher  corner  being  carefully  kept  away  from  the  revolving  wood  to  prevent  a  catch. 
Even,  however,  in  rapidly  roughing  down  plain  wood  surfaces,  it  is  advantageous  to 
handle  the  gouge  in  this  fashion,  using  both  sides  alternately,  since  it  cuts  the  wood 
quicker,  cleaner,  and  with  loss  friction  than  when  used  on  the  fiat.  Many  amateurs 
become  disheartened  in  their  first  attempts  at  turning,  because  of  the  difficulty  [of 
guiding  and  controlling  the  gouge.  This  is  a  lesson  only  to  be  learned  by  practice. 
The  great  thing  is  to  "  feel "  the  work.  Thus,  if  turning  down  a  moulding  or,  say,  the 
ball  on  the  end  of  a  curtain  pole,  from  circumference  towards  centre,  there  is  the 
centrifugal  force  very  sensibly  tending  to  thrust  the  gouge  outwards,  and  this,  of  course, 
is  the  force  which  must  be  resisted.  The  point  of  the  gouge,  or  a  i^ortion  just  below  the 
point,  will  be  used,  as  otfering  least  friction,  and  it  must  be  grasped  very  firmly.  In 
turning  a  flat  surface,  no  such  force  exists,  and  the  gouge  may  be  held  indifferently  in 
any  position  and  comparatively  slack.  Always  the  end  of  the  gouge  handle  is  held  in 
the  right  hand,  while  the  3  last  fingers  of  the  left  grasp  the  lower  portion  of  the  gouge 
itself.  The  requisite  guidance  is  imparted  to  the  tool  by  the  thumb  of  the  left  hand, 
while  the  opposite  forefinger  passes  underneath  the  rest,  in  opposition  to  the  thumb, 
thus  gripping  the  tool  as  in  a  vice  (Fig.  1284).  Lastly,  keep  the  rest  close  to  the  work. 
If  you  have  a  wide  space,  you  get  too  much  leverage  on  the  overhanging  portion  of  the 
tool,  and  may  catch  and  break  your  tool.  The  big  gouges  are  stout  enough  to  stand 
rough  work  safely ;  but  the  J-in.  gouge  is  a  more  delicate  tool,  and  should  not  be  used 
at  all  for  roughing  down  stuff  in  the  lathe,  except  it  be  of  small  diameter.  These 
remarks  may  appear  slight,  but  they  really  embody  about  all  that  can  be  said  on  the 
subject.  Let  the  young  aspirant  bear  in  mind  each  direction,  down  to  the  very  minutest, 
and  he  will  find,  when  by  much  practice  he  has  gained  expertness  in  the  use  of  the 
gouge,  that  all  essential  hints  have  been  comprised  in  these  few  words. 

Shopkeepers  are  always  ready  to  "warrant"  the  tools  of  a  respectable  manufacturer 
— that  is,  if  found  useless  on  trial,  they  engage  to  exchange  them,  sending  the  bad 
articles  back  to  the  manufacturer.  But  sometimes,  in  the  case  of  broken  tools,  they 
will  dispute  the  justice  of  the  claim  made  by  the  purchaser.  The  tool  may  have  been 
broken  by  the  purchaser's  carelessness,  and  the  only  way  in  which  the  latter  can  prove 
his  claim  to  have  the  article  exchanged  is  by  showing  the  presence  of  a  flaw  in  the 
broken  part.  If,  when  the  tool  breaks,  a  dark  spot  (Fig.  12G7)  is  seen  to  occupy  a 
portion  of  the  line  of  fracture,  that  is  a  "flaw,"  or  crack,  and  is  quite  sufficient  to 


Turning — Tools  for  Wood. 


559 


account  for  the  breakage,  and  to  condemn  the  tool.  The  dark  spot  is  simply  the  film 
of  rust  which  has  formed  over  the  old  line  of  fracture.  It  should  be  taken  back  wiiilo 
the  new  fracture  is  fresh  and  clean,  and  easily  distinguishable  from  the  old. 

A  gouge  for  soft  wood  is  generally  ground  at  a  long  angle,  similar  to  that  shown  in 


1266. 


1275.   1269.   1278.   1276.   1277. 


1234. 


} 


1282. 


Fig.  1268 ;  for  hard  wood  it  may  be  a  trifle  less.  But  practically  the  same  gouges  are 
used  indiscriminately  for  both  woods,  and  the  angle  is  always  being  rendered  more 
obtuse  by  the  process  of  sharpening.  When  newly  ground  the  angle  in  the  figure  will 
be  a  good  one. 


560 


TuENiNG — Tools  for  Wood. 


It  should  not  be  less — else 


1267. 


1268. 


Sccturrv    Back  of  Gcage^ 


1272. 


For  side  cliisels  -we  may  select  a  large  one,  1  in.  or  \\  in,,  and  a  i-in.  and  j-in.  A 
beginning  may  be  made  with  one  gonge  and  one  chisel,  say  a  i-in.  in  each  case,  the 
others  being  added  as  required. 

Grind  the  chisels  to  an  angle  of  about  20^  (Fig.  1269). 
they  are  liable  to  kick,  and  they  should  be  kept  thin 
and  sharp  (Fig.  1270),  for  cutting  down  end  grain  with 
facility.  If  thick  (Fig.  1271),  they  "  wobble "  when 
cutting  down  across  grain,  with  the  result  of  leaving  the 
work  uneven  (Fig.  1272). 

In  grinding,  some  impart  a  slight  amount  of  rounding 
to  the  cutting  edge  (Fig.  1273).  "Wlien  turning,  cut  near 
the  obtuse-angled  end  (Fig.  1274),  for  if  you  get  near 
to  the  opposite  end,  and  slacken  your  grasp  for  a  moment, 
tlie  acute-angled  corner  will  siirelj'  catch,  and  produce 
woful  consequences.  It  is  well  to  practise  tliis  side 
turning  in  preference  to  scraping,  because  the  oblique 
cut  is  more  like  the  action  of  a  plane,  and  leaves  the 
surface  of  the  wood  cleaner  than  does  the  tearing  action 
of  the  scraping  chisel.  Yet  2  or  3  firmer  chisels,  say 
\\  in.,  f  in.,  and  \  in.,  for  truing  up  wooden  face- 
chucks,  and  pieces  of  work  of  large  diameter,  and  for 
recessing  grooves,  may  be  added  with  advantage. 

Fig.  1275  shows  a  round-nosed  tool,  necessary  in 
many  instances  where  mouldings  liave  to  be  finished, 
and  indispensable  also  to  the  pattern-maker ;  f  in.,  \  in., 
and  J  in.  will  be  useful  sizes.  Of  course  these  can  only 
be  used  as  scraping  tools. 

Side  tools  (Figs,  1276  and  1277)  and  diamond  points,  or  parting  tools  (Fig.  1278), 
are  for  turning,  or  rather  finishing,  the  internal  portions  of  rings  (Fig.  1279)  or  edges 
(Fig.  12S0),  either  inner  or  outer,  which  could  not  be  got  at  by  tools  having  less  bevel. 
These,  as  well  as  the  round-nosed  tools,  can  be  purchased;  but  they  can  be  readily 
made,  and  will  be  quite  as  serviceable  as  the  purchased  ones,  from  worn-out  fine-cut  flat 
files  of  different  sizes.  Grind  off  the  greater  portion  of  the  cuts  from  their  faces,  and 
grind  also  the  points  to  the  required  bevel  or  curve,  as  the  case  may  be,  and  these  will 
make  excellent  turning  tools.  You  will  be  able  to  afford  a  greater  variety  by  this  means 
than  if  every  tool  had  to  be  purchased.  Always  manage  to  utilize  the  old  files  in  some 
way  or  another.  Scrapers,  screw-drivers,  andmetal-tuming  tools,  can  be  made  from  old 
files. 

When  purchased,  tools  are  without  handles,  and  though  tlie  ironmonger  will  supply 
you  witli  the  latter  at  about  Id.  each,  they  may  just  as  well  be  made  as  bought.  Get 
some  hard  wood,  almost  any  common  wood,  oak,  ash,  beech,  birch,  apple  tree,  &c.,  and 
saw  into  strips,  some  11  in.  or  12  In.  long  by  li  in.  sq.  for  the  gouges  and  chisels,  and 
others  8  iu.  or  9  in.  long  by  \\  in.  sq.  for  the  scraping  tools.  Chop  off  the  edges,  start 
centres  in  ends  with  a  gimlet,  and  run  a  cut  in  at  one  end  with  a  tenon  saw  for  the  fork 
chuck.  Get  some  brass  tubing,  ^-in.,  -|-in.,  f-in.  for  different-sized  tools,  and  cut  off  in 
lengths  for  ferruling.  The  neatest  way  to  cut  it  off  is  tliis : — Say  it  is  i-in,  tubing.  Get 
a  piece  of  hard  wood,  not  too  long,  say  5  in.  or  6  in.,  and  turn  down  to  \  in.,  so  that  the 
tubing  can  be  driven  tighly  over  it  by  tapping  with  the  hammer.  When  thus  driven 
on,  re-chuck  the.  wood  in  the  lathe,  and  cut  off  the  ferrules  with  the  point  of  a  side 
chisel,  or  of  a  diamond  point  (Fig.  1281).  Tap  out  the  wooden  mandrel,  file  the  burr 
from  the  inside  of  the  ferrules,  after  which  they  are  ready  to  go  on  their  handles  Turn 
down  one  end  of  the  wood  intended  for  the  handle— that  end  nearest  the  poppet 
— with  callipers  set  to  the  inside  diameter  of  the  ferrule  (Fig.  1282),  and  drive  the  wood 


Masonry— Stonework. 


561 


into  the  ferralc  tight,  opening  the  jaws  of  the  vice  wide  enougli  for  tlie  eJgcs  of  tho 
ferrule  to  rest  upon  while  doing  so.  Then  replace  in  lathe  and  turn  to  slmpo,  whi<-li 
may  be  either  that  of  Fig.  1283  or  that  of  Fig.  12GG,  the  latter  ])eing  prefcruble,  as" afford- 
ing a  larger  grip  for  the  hand.  Bore  the  hole  for  the  tool  either  with  a  gimlet  or  brace 
and  bit,  as  straight  as  may  be,  sighting  down  gimlet  and  handle  fmrn  time  to  time  whilt; 
boring.     Open  the  hole  out  at  the  top  with  a  taper  shell  bit,  until  tiie  tool  will  drop  in 


1280. 


1273. 


to  within  |  in.  or  1  in.  of  its  proper  position,  when  the  handle  must  be  driven  on  over 
the  shank  with  a  hammer  or  mallet,  holding  the  tool  in  a  vice  or  against  a  block  of  hard 
wood  while  doing  so.  A  couple  of  coats  of  shellac  varnish  given  to  the  handles  will 
improve  their  appearance  and  keep  them  clean. 

Turning  tools  lose  their  edges  very  rapidly,  and  a  quick  fretting  stone  should  be 
used  for  restoring  them.  A  Charnley  Forest  stone  is  hardly  coarse  enough  for  turning 
gouges.  It  may  be  used  for  the  chisels,  whicli  require  a  finer  edge ;  but  for  gouges  a 
Grecian  or  a  Washita  stone  is  quicker  in  its  action,  or,  even  a  piece  of  common  slate  will 
serve  the  purpose.  Another  reason  why  a  special  stone  should  be  kept  for  the  gouges 
is  that  they  rapidly  groove  it  out,  and  so  render  it  useless  for  chisels  and  otiier  tools 
having  straight  cutting  edges.  A  slip  of  Charnley  Forest  will  do  for  fretting  the  hollow 
portion  of  the  gouge.  Even  that  is  not  necessary  when  the  tool  is  roughing  down,  since 
the  revolving  wood  itself  will  knock  off  immediately  the  "  burr  "  or  "  wire  edge,"  which 
has  been  produced  by  sharpening  the  bevelled  face. 

Those  requiring  a  more  comprehensive  treatise  on  turning  cannot  do  better  than 
refer  to  Campin. 

MASONRY. — The  term  masonry  is  here  used  in  a  wide  sense,  embracing  the  work 
of  the  stonemason  and  bricklayer  as  well  as  concrete  building. 

Stonework.— In  selecting  stone  for  constructive  purposes,  it  is  necessary  to  ascer- 
tain its  qualities  with  regard  to  the  following  characteristics. 

2  o 


562  Masonry — Stonework. 

Durahillty. — The  power  of  resisting  atraosplieric  and  other  external  influences,  is  the 
first  essential  in  a  stone  for  almost  any  pnrpose.  The  durability  of  a  stone  will  depend 
upon  its  chemical  composition,  its  physical  structure,  and  the  position  in  which  it  ia 
placed ;  and  the  same  stone  will  greatly  vary  in  its  durability  according  to  the  nature 
and  extent  of  the  atmospheric  influences  to  which  it  is  subjected.  To  make  sure  that  a 
stone  will  "  weather," — that  is,  will  wear  well  under  exposure  to  the  weather — many 
points  have  to  be  inquired  into. 

The  chemical  composition  of  the  stone  should  be  such  that  it  will  resist  the  action 
of  the  atmosphere,  and  of  the  deleterious  substances  which,  esiiccially  in  large  cities,  the 
atmosphere  often  contains.  These  destroying  substances  are  taken  up  by  the  moisture  in 
the  air,  or  by  the  rain,  and  arc  thus  conveyed  into  the  pores  of  the  stone.  The  sulphur 
acids,  carbonic  acid,  hydrochloric  acid,  and  traces  of  nitric  acid,  in  the  smoky  air  of 
towns,  and  the  carbonic  acid  wliich  exists  even  in  the  pure  atmosphere  of  the  country, 
ultimately  decompose  any  stone  of  which  either  lime  carbonate  or  magnesia  carbonate 
forms  a  considerable  part.  The  oxygen  even  in  ordinary  air  will  act  upon  a  stone 
containing  much  iron,  and  the  fumes  from  bleaching  works  and  factories  of  diiferent  kinds 
veiy  soon  destroy  stones  whose  constituents  are  liable  to  be  decomposed  by  the  particular 
acids  which  the  fumes  respectively  contain.  In  addition  to  the  direct  chemical  action  of 
the  sulphuric  and  sulphurous  acids  upon  the  constituents  of  stones,  sulphates  are  some- 
times formed  by  them  which  crystallize  in  the  pores  of  the  stone,  expanding  and  throwing 
off  fragments  from  the  surface.  The  durability  of  a  stone  depends,  therefore,  to  a 
great  extent  upon  the  relation  between  its  chemical  constituents  and  those  of  the  atmo- 
sphere surrounding.  A  stone  which  will  weather  well  in  the  pure  air  of  the  country  may 
be  rapidly  destroyed  in  the  smoke  of  a  large  town. 

A  stone  will  weather  very  differently  according  to  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  atmo- 
spheric influences  to  which  it  is  subjected.  Obviously  most  stones  will  stand  a  pure 
atmospliere  better  than  one  which  is  charged  with  smoke,  or  with  acids  calculated  to 
attack  the  constituents  of  the  stone  ;  and  the  stone  will  bo  less  attacked  in  dry  weather 
than  during  rain :  the  destructive  acids  cannot  penetrate  so  deeply,  and  the  frost  has  no 
influence  whatever  when  the  stone  is  dry.  Therefore  tlie  number  of  days  on  which  there 
is  rain  in  any  district  has  a  great  influence  on  the  durability  of  stone  used  there.  Wind 
has  a  considerable  effect  upon  the  durability  of  stone.  A  gentle  breeze  dries  out  tlie 
moisture,  and  thus  favours  the  lasting  qualities.  A  high  wind,  however,  is  itself  a  source 
of  destruction  ;  it  blows  sharp  particles  against  the  face  of  the  stone,  and  thus  grinds  it 
away.  Moreover,  it  forces  the  rain  into  the  pores,  and  may  thus  cause  a  considerable 
depth  to  be  subject  to  the  effects  of  acids  and  frost.  Variation  of  temperature,  apart  from 
the  action  of  frost,  is  also  a  source  of  decay,  the  expansion  and  contraction  due  to  it 
causing  the  opening  of  undetected  natural  joints  ;  but  its  effect  must  be  comparatively 
slight  as  a  destructive  agent. 

The  position  of  a  stone  in  a  building  may  very  much  influence  its  durability.  The 
stone  in  that  side  which  faces  the  prevailing  rain  is  most  liable  to  decay.  Faces  that 
are  sheltered  altogether  from  the  sun  and  breeze,  so  that  the  moisture  does  not  quickly 
dry  out,  are  very  liable  to  decay.  This  may  be  noticed  especially  in  buildings  of  an 
inferior  stone  situated  in  a  bad  atmosphere.  In  these  it  will  be  seen  that  the  sofBts  of 
arches  and  lintels,  the  shady  sides  of  window  jambs,  and  parts  of  carvings  which  the  sun 
never  gets  at,  are  always  tlie  first  portions  to  suffer.  Stone  exposed  to  very  diflerent 
degrees  of  heat  on  its  difierent  faces  is  liable  to  crack  from  imequal  expansion  and  con- 
traction. 

The  physical  structure  of  a  stone  is  of  great  importance,  for  upon  it  largely  depends 
its  power  of  resisting  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  Chalk  and  marble  are  of  the  same 
chemical  composition — both  nearly  pure  lime  carbonate— yet  the  latter,  especially  when 
polished,  will  resist  an  ordinary  atmosphere  for  a  long  time,  while  the  former  is  rapidly 
disintegrated  and  destroyed.    Hence  stones  which  are  crystalline  in  structure  are  found. 


Masonry— Stonework.  5G3 

to  weather  better  tlian  those  that  arc  non-crystalline.  No  stono  intended  for  the  exterior 
of  a  building  bhould  have  a  porous  surface,  otherwise  the  rain  conducts  the  acids  from 
the  atiuosphero  into  the  pores  of  the  stone,  whicli  soon  becomes  decomposed.  Also  in 
■winter  the  wet  penetrates  the  pores,  freezes,  expands,  and  disintegrates  the  surface, 
leaving  a  fresh  surface  to  be  similarly  acted  npon,  until  the  whole  fctone  is  gradually 
destroyed.  If  the  other  qualities  of  two  stones  arc  the  same,  then  fliut  which  has  the 
closer  and  finer  grain  is  likely  to  be  the  more  durable.  It  is  important  that  a  stone  bo 
homogeneous  in  its  structure.  If  the  grains  and  the  cement  uniting  them  are  both  of 
lasting  material,  the  stone  will  be  very  durable.  If  the  grains  bo  easily  decomposed  and 
the  cementing  material  remains,  the  stone  will  become  spongy  and  porous,  and  then 
liable  to  destruction  by  frost.  If  the  cementing  material  is  destroj'cd,  the  gi-ains  will  fall 
to  pieces.  Stono  t-hould  contain  no  soft  patches  or  inequalities;  unequal  weathering 
leaves  projections  which  catch  the  rain,  &c.,  and  hasten  decay. 

Alexis  A.  Julien,  of  the  School  of  Mines,  Columbia  College,  sums  up  the  results  of  a 
series  of  papers  read  before  the  New  York  Academy  of  Sciences  on  the  decay  of  building- 
stones  as  follows:— If  a  rough  estimate  be  desired,  founded  merely  on  the  observations 
made  of  the  comparative  durability  of  the  common  varieties  of  building-stone  used  in 
New  York  city  and  vicinity,  there  may  be  found  some  truth  in  the  following  approxima- 
tive figures  for  the  "  life  "  of  each  stone,  signifying  by  that  term,  without  regard  to  dis- 
coloration or  other  objectionable  qualities,  merely  the  period  after  which  the  incipient 
decay  of  the  variety  becomes  sufficiently  offensive  to  the  eye  to  demand  repair  or 
renewal. 

Life  in  years. 

Coarse  brownstone  5-15 

Laminated  fine  brownstone 20-50 

Compact  fine  brownstone       100-200 

Limestone,  coarse  fossiliferous 20-40 

„  fine  oolitic  (French) 30-40 

Marble  (dolomite),  coarse      40 

„  „  fine 60-80 

Marble,  fine 50-200 

Granite 75-200 

Gneiss       50  years  to  many  centuries. 

Worling. — The  readiness  with  which  stone  can  be  converted  by  the  mason  into  tho 
various  shapes  in  which  it  is  required  for  different  kinds  of  work  is  of  importance  from 
m  economical  point  of  view.  The  characteristics  of  a  stone  in  this  respect  will  depend 
n  some  cases  upon  its  hardness,  but  will  also  bo  influenced  by  the  soundness  of  its 
;exture ;  by  its  freedom  from  flaws,  shakes,  vents,  &c. ;  also  by  its  natural  cleavage 
md  other  peculiarities.  A  soft  stone  of  even  grain  and  without  distinct  beds  would 
laturally  be  selected  for  carved  work,  while  a  hard  stone  in  thin  layers,  easily  separated, 
vould  be  well  adapted  for  building  good  and  economical  rubble  masonry. 

Hardness. — The  hardness  of  stone  is  often  of  importance,  especially  if  it  is  to  be 
iubjected  to  a  considerable  amount  of  wear  and  friction,  as  in  pavements.  It  is, 
noreover,  important  when  the  stone  is  to  be  used  for  qiioins,  dressings,  and  other 
positions  where  it  is  required  to  preserve  a  sharp  angle  or  "  arris."  Hardness  combined 
vith  toughness  is  also  essential  in  good  road  metalling,  which  should  not,  however, 
30  liable  to  splinter  or  to  grind  readily  into  dust.  It  does  not  follow  because  a  stono 
s  hard  that  it  will  weather  well ;  many  hard  stones  are  more  liable  to  atmospheric 
nfluenee  than  those  of  a  softer  texture,  whose  chemical  composition  is  of  a  more 
lurable  nature.  Stone  used  for  work  exposed  to  tho  action  of  water  should  be  hard  ; 
unning  or  dripping  water  soon  wears  away  the  siurface.  Blocks  of  stono  in  mariao 
-  2  0  2 


564  Masonry — Stonework. 

works  are  subject  to  serious  injury,  not  only  from  the  impact  of  the  waves  themselves, 
but  from  the  sand  and  stones  thrown  against  them  by  the  force  of  the  sea. 

Strength. — The  strength  of  stone  should  be  ascertained  if  it  is  to  bo  subjected  to 
any  excessive  or  unusual  stress.  Stones  in  ordinary  building  works  are  generally  under 
compression,  occasionally  subject  to  cross  strain,  but  never  to  direct  tension.  It  is 
generally  laid  down  that  the  coraprcs.-ion  to  which  a  stone  should  be  subjected  in  a 
structure  should  not  exceed  ^l  of  the  crushing  weight  as  found  by  experiment. 
Practically,  however,  the  compression  that  comes  upon  a  stone  in  any  ordinary  building 
is  never  sufScient  to  cause  any  danger  of  crushing.  The  greatest  stress  that  comes  upon 
any  part  of  the  masonry  in  St.  Paul's  Cathedral  is  hardly  14  tons  per  sq.  ft.  la 
St.  Peter's,  Eome,  it  is  about  15.^  tons  per  sq.  ft.  These  stresses  would  be  safely  borne 
even  by  the  softer  descriptions  of  stone.  The  weakest  sandstones  will  bear  a  compression 
of  120  tons  per  ft.,  while  the  resistance  of  ordinary  building  stones  ranges  from  140 
to  500  tons  per  sq.  ft.,  and  in  the  case  of  granites  and  traps  rises  as  high  as  700  or  800 
tons  per  sq.  ft.  It  is  possible,  however,  in  some  forms  of  arches,  in  retaining  walls,  and 
in  other  structures,  that  a  considerable  pressure  may  be  concentrated  upon  certain 
points,  which  are  liable  to  be  crushed. 

Weight. — The  weight  of  a  stone  for  building  has  occasionally  to  be  considered.  In 
marine  engineering  works  it  is  often  advisable  to  use  heavy  stones  to  resist  the  force  of 
the  sea.  A  light  stone  would  bo  best  adapted  for  arches,  while  heavy  stones  would  add 
to  the  stability  of  retaining  walls. 

Appearance. — The  appearance  of  stone  is  often  a  matter  of  importance,  especially  in 
the  face  work  of  conspicuous  buildings.  In  order  that  the  appearance  may  be  preserved, 
a  good  weathering  stone  should  of  course  be  selected,  free  from  flaws,  clayholes,  &c. 
All  varieties  containing  much  iron  should  be  rejected,  or  they  will  be  liable  to  disl- 
figurement  from  unsightly  rust  stains  caused  by  the  oxidation  of  the  iron  under  the 
influence  of  the  atmosphere.  Stones  of  blotched  or  mottled  colour  should  be  regarded 
with  suspicion.  There  is  probably  a  want  of  uniformity  in  their  chemical  composition, 
which  may  lead  to  imequal  weathering. 

Positiun  in  Quarry. — In  order  to  obtain  the  best  stone  that  a  quarry  can  furui.--h,  it  is 
often  important  that  it  should  bo  taken  from  a  particular  stratum.  It  frequently  occurs 
that  in  the  same  quarry  some  beds  are  good,  some  inferior,  and  others  almost  utterly  worth- 
less for  building  purposes,  though  they  may  all  be  very  similar  in  appearance.  To  take 
Portland  stone  as  an  example.  In  the  Portland  quarries  are  4  distinct  layers  of  building 
stone.  Working  downwards,  the  first  bed  of  useful  stone  that  is  reached  is  the  True  or 
Whitbed  Eoach — a  conglomerate  of  fossils  which  withstands  the  weather  capitally. 
Attached  to  the  Roach,  and  immediately  below  it,  is  a  thick  layer  of  Whitbed — a  fine 
even-grained  stone,  one  of  the  best  and  most  durable  building  stones  in  the  country ; 
then,  passing  a  layer  of  rubbish,  the  Bastard-Roach,  Kerf,  or  Curf  is  reached,  and 
attached  to  it  is  a  substantial  layer  of  Basebed.  The  Bastard-Roach  or  Basebed-Roach 
and  the  Basebed  are  stones  very  similar  in  appearance  to  the  True  Roach  and  Whitbed  ; 
but  they  do  not  weather  well,  and  are  therefore  not  fitted  for  outdoor  work.  Though 
these  strata  are  so  different  in  characteristics,  the  good  stone  can  hardly  be  distinguished 
from  the  other  even  by  the  most  practised  eye.  Similar  peculiarities  exist  in  other 
quarries.  It  is  therefore  most  important  to  specify  that  stone  from  any  particular  quarry 
should  be  from  the  best  beds,  and  then  to  have  it  selected  for  the  work  in  the  quarry  by 
some  experienced  and  trustworthy  man. 

Seasoning. — Nearly  all  stone  is  the  better  for  being  seasoned  by  exposure  to  the  air 
before  use.  This  seasoning  gets  rid  of  the  moisture,  sometimes  called  "  quarry  sap,'' 
which  is  to  be  found  in  all  stone  when  freshly  quarried.  But  in  hot  climates  it  is  some- 
times an  advantage  to  retain  the  quarry  sap,  for  (1)  it  makes  the  stone  easier  to  cut, 
and  (2)  it  prevents  the  moisture  from  being  sucked  out  of  the  mortar.  Unless  this 
moisture  (in  culd  climates)  is  allowed  to  dry  out  before  the  stone  is  used,  it  is  acted  upon 


Masonry — Stonework.  565 

by  frost,  and  thus  the  stone,  ospenially  if  it  bo  one  of  tho  softer  varieties,  is  crackcJ,  or, 
sometimes,  disintegrated.  Tlie  drying  process  sliould  take  phice  graduidly.  If  iicat  is 
applied  too  quickly,  a  crust  is  formed  on  the  surface,  while  the  interior  remains  damp, 
and  subject  to  the  attacks  of  frost.  Some  stones,  wliich  are  comparatively  soft  when 
quarried,  acquire  a  hard  surface  upon  exposure  to  the  air. 

Natural  Beds. — All  stones  in  walls,  but  especially  tliose  that  are  of  a  laminated 
structure,  shoidd  be  placed  "on  tlieir  natural  bed," — that  is,  either  in  the  same  position 
in  which  they  were  originally  dci)osited  in  the  quarry,  or  turned  upside  down,  so  that 
the  layers  are  parallel  to  their  original  position,  but  inverted.  If  they  are  placed  with 
the  layers  parallel  to  the  face  of  the  wall,  the  effect  of  the  wet  and  frost  will  be  to 
scale  off  the  face  layer  by  layer,  and  tlic  stone  will  bo  rapidly  destroyed.  In  arches, 
such  stones  should  be  placed  witli  the  natural  bed  as  nearly  as  possible  at  riglit  angles 
to  the  thrust  upon  the  stone, — that  is,  with  the  "  grain  "  or  laniiuso  parallel  to  the  centre 
lines  of  the  arch  stones,  and  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the  arch.  In  cornices  with 
undercut  mouldings  the  natural  bed  is  placed  vertically  and  at  right  angles  to  the  face, 
for  if  placed  horizontally,  layers  of  the  overhanging  portion  would  be  liable  to  drop  off. 
There  are,  in  elaborate  work,  other  exceptions  to  the  general  rule.  It  must  be  re- 
membered tliat  the  beds  are  sometimes  tilted  by  upheaval  subsequent  to  tlieir  deposition, 
and  that  it  is  the  original  positicm  in  which  the  stone  was  deposited  that  must  be 
ascertained.  The  natural  bed  is  easily  seen  in  some  descriptions  of  stone  by  the  posi- 
tion of  imbediled  shells,  which  were  of  course  originally  deposited  horizontally.  In 
others  it  can  only  be  traced  by  thin  streaks  of  vegetable  matter,  or  by  traces  of  laminae, 
which  generally  show  out  more  distinctly  if  the  stone  is  wetted.  In  other  cases,  again, 
the  stone  shows  no  signs  of  stratification,  and  the  natural  bed  cannot  be  detected  by  the 
eye.  A  good  mason  can,  however,  generally  tell  the  natural  bed  of  the  stone  by  the 
"  feel "  of  the  grain  in  working  the  surface.  A  stone  placed  upon  its  piopcr  natural  bed 
is  able  to  bear  a  much  greater  compression  than  if  the  laminaj  are  at  right  angles  to  the 
bed  joints.  Fairbairn  found  by  experiment  that  stones  placed  with  their  strata  vertical 
bore  only  f  the  crushing  stress  which  was  undergone  by  similar  stones  on  their  natural 
bed. 

Destructive  Agents.— The  2  principal  classes  of  agents  which  destroy  stone  have 
already  been  described :  they  are— chemical  agents,  consisting  of  acids,  &c.,  in  the 
atmosphere ;  and  mechanical  agents,  such  as  wind,  dust,  rain,  frost,  running  water, 
force  of  the  sea  &c.  There  are  other  enemies  to  the  durability  of  stones,  which  may  be 
glanced  at,  viz. — lichens,  and  worms  or  molluscs. 

Lichens. — In  the  country,  lichens  and  other  vegetable  substances  collect  and  grow 
upon  the  faces  of  stones.  These  are  in  many  cases  a  protection  from  the  weather,  and 
tend  to  increase  the  durability  of  the  stone.  In  the  case  of  limestones,  however,  the 
lichens  sometimes  do  more  harm  than  good,  for  they  give  out  carbonic  acid,  which  is 
dissolved  in  rain-water,  and  then  attacks  the  lime  carbonate  in  the  stone. 

Molluscs. — The  Pholas  dactylus  is  a  boring  mollusc  found  in  sea-water,  which  attacks 
limestone,  hard  and  soft  argillaceous  shales,  clay,  and  sandstones ;  but  granite  has  been 
found  to  resist  it  successfully.  The  animals  make  a  number  of  vertical  holes  close 
together,  so  that  they  weaken  and  eventually  destroy  the  stone.  By  some  it  is  supposed 
that  they  secrete  a  corrosive  juice,  which  dissolves  the  stone ;  others  consider  that  the 
boring  is  mechanically  done  by  the  tough  front  of  the  shell  covering  the  Pholas.  Tiieso 
animals  are  generally  small,  but  sometimes  attain  a  length  of  5  in.— the  softer  the  rock 
the  bigger  they  become. 

Tlie  Saxicava  is  another  small  mollusc,  found  in  the  crevices  of  rocks  and  corals,  or 
burrowing  in  limestone,  the  holes  being  sometimes  6  in.  deep.  It  has  been  known  tu 
bore  the  cement  stone  (clay-ironstone)  at  Harwich,  the  Kentish  Rag  at  Folkestone,  and 
the  Portland  stone  used  at  Plymouth  Breakwater. 

Emmination.—Si^c&kmg  generally,  in  comparing  stones  of  the  same  class,  the  least 


566  MASO^'EY — Stonework, 

poroiis,  most  dense,  and  strongest,  will  be  the  most  durable  in  atmospheres  which  have 
no  sjiecial  tendency  to  attack  the  constituents  of  the  stone.  A  recent  fracture,  when 
examined  through  a  powerful  magnifying  glass,  should  be  bright,  clean,  and  sharp,  with 
the  grains  well  cemented  together.  A  dull,  earthy  appearance  betokens  a  stone  likely  to 
decay.  A  stone  may  be  subjected  to  various  tests,  some  of  which  afford  a  certain 
amount  of  information  as  to  its  characteristics.  An  important  guide  to  the  relative 
qualities  of  different  stones  is  obtained  by  immersing  them  for  24  hours,  and  noting  the 
weight  of  water  they  absorb.  The  best  stones,  as  a  rule,  absorb  the  smallest  amount  of 
water :  good  traps  and  granites,  -j^^-l  per  cent. ;  good  sandstones,  8-10  per  cent. ;  good 
limestones,  1^-15  per  cent. 

Brard's  Test. — Small  pieces  of  the  stone  are  immersed  in  a  concentrated  boiling 
solution  of  soda  sulphate  (Glauber's  salts),  and  then  hung  up  for  a  few  days  in  the  air. 
The  salt  crystallizes  in  the  pores  of  the  stone,  sometimes  forcing  off  bits  from  the  corners 
and  arrises,  and  occasionally  detaching  larger  fragments.  The  stone  is  weighed  before  and 
after  submitting  it  to  the  test.  The  difference  of  weight  gives  the  amount  detached  by 
disintegration.  The  greater  this  is,  the  worse  is  the  quality  of  the  stone.  This  action 
is  not  similar  to  that  of  frost,  inasmuch  as  water  expands  in  the  pores  as  it  freezes,  but 
the  salt  does  not  expand  as  it  crystallizes. 

Acid  Test. — Simply  soaking  a  stone  for  some  days  in  dilute  solutions  containing  1  per 
cent,  sulphuric  and  hydrochloric  acids,  will  afford  a  rough  idea  as  to  whether  it 
will  stand  a  town  atmosphere.  A  droj)  or  two  of  acid  on  the  surface  of  the  stone  will 
create  effervescence  if  a  large  proportion  of  lime  or  magnesia  carbonate  is  present. 

Smith's  test  is  useful  for  any  stone  in  determining  whether  it  contains  much  earthy 
or  mineral  matter  easy  of  solution.  Break  off  a  few  chippings  about  the  size  of  a  shilling 
with  a  chisel  and  a  smart  blow  from  a  hammer ;  put  them  into  a  glass  about  ^  full  of 
clear  water  ;  let  them  remain  undisturbed  at  least  §  hour.  The  water  and  specimens 
together  should  then  be  agitated  by  giving  the  glass  a  circular  motion  with  the  hand. 
If  the  stone  be  highly  crystalline,  and  the  particles  well  cemented  together,  the  water 
will  remain  clear  and  transparent ;  but  if  the  specimens  contain  uncrystallized  earthy 
powder,  the  water  will  present  a  turbid  or  milky  appearance  in  proportion  to  the  quantity 
of  loose  matter  contained  in  the  stone.  The  stone  should  be  damp,  almost  wet,  when  the 
fragments  are  chipped  off. 

The  durability  of  a  stone  to  be  obtained  from  an  old-established  quarry  may  generally 
be  ascertained  by  examining  buildings  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  quarry  in  which  the 
stone  has  been  used.  If  the  stone  has  good  weathering  qualities,  the  faces  of  the  blocks, 
even  in  very  old  buildings,  will  exhibit  no  signs  of  decay  ;  but,  on  tlie  contrary,  the  marks 
of  the  tools  with  which  they  were  worked  should  be  distinctly  visible.  Exposed  cliffs 
or  portions  of  old  quarries,  or  detached  stones  from  the  quarry,  which  may  be  lying  close 
at  hand,  should  also  be  examined,  to  see  how  the  stono  has  weathered.  In  both  cases 
care  should  be  taken  to  ascertain  from  what  stratum  or  bed  in  the  quarry  the  stones  have 
been  obtained. 

Quarryhig. — In  quarrying  stone  for  building  purposes,  there  should  be  as  little  blast- 
ing as  possible,  as  it  shakes  the  stone,  besides  causing  considerable  waste.  Care  should 
be  taken  to  cut  the  blocks  so  that  they  can  be  placed  in  the  work  with  their  natural  beds 
at  right  angles  to  the  pressure  that  will  come  upon  them.  If  this  is  not  attended  to,  the 
blocks  will  be  built  in  in  a  wrong  position,  or  great  waste  will  be  incurred  by  converting 
them. 

Classification. — The  different  kinds  of  stone  used  for  building  and  engineering  works 
are  sometimes  divided  into  3  classes : — (1)  siliceous,  (2)  argillaceous,  (3)  calcareous ; 
according  as  flint  (silica),  clay  (formerly  called  "  argile  "),  or  lime  carbonate,  forms  the 
Itase  or  principal  constituent.  In  describing  the  pliysical  characteristics  of  stones,  for 
jiractical  purposes  it  is  better  to  classify  them  as  follows  : — (1)  granites  and  other  igneous 
rocks,  (2)  slates  and  schists,  (3)  sandstones,  (4)  limestones. 


^Masonry— Stonework.  567 

Granite.— Gxumte  generally  contains  more  fc-ls]iar  tlian  qimrtz,  and  moro  qnarfz  than 
mica.    The  colour  oftlie  stone  (lepcndd  upon  tliat  of  tlieijredoniiMutiii-,'  ingredient,  fcLspcar. 
An  average  granite  may  be  expected  to  contain  I  to  I  of  crystals  of  qiuirtz  or  crystallino 
quartz;  about  the  same,  more  or  less,  of  felspar,  also  partly  crystalline  and  chiefly  in 
definite  crystals  ;  and  -^^  of  mica.     But  the  mica  may  form  ;--  or  -^^,„  and  the  quartz  ^  or 
more,  while  the  proportion  of  the  felspar,  as  well  as  the  particular  composilion  of  the 
felspar,  both  vary  extreme])'.     The  durability  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  tlio  quartz 
and  the  nature  of  the  felspar.     If  tlie  granite  contains  a  large  proportion  of  quartz,  it  will 
be  hard  to  work ;  but,  unless  the  felspar  is  of  a  bad  description,  it  will  weather  well. 
The  felspars  that  occur  most  commonly  in  granite  are  potash  felspar  (orthoclaso)  and  a 
lime  and  soda  felspar  (oligoclase).     Sometimes  both  tliese  varieties  are  found  in  tlie  same 
stone.     Of  the  two,  potash  felspar  is  the  more  liable  to  decay:    IMica  is  easily  decomposed, 
and  it  is  therefore  a  source  of  weakness.     If  tlie  mica  or  filspar  contain  an  excess  of  lime, 
iron,  or  soda,  the  granite  is  liable  to  decay.     The  quantity  of  iron,  either  as  oxide  or 
in  combination  with  sulphur,  affects  the  durability  of  granite,  as  well  as  of  all  otlier  stone. 
The  iron  can  generally  be  seen  with  a  good  glass  ;  a  very  short  exposure  to  the  air, 
especially  if  assisted  in  dry  weather  by  artificial  watering  (better  if  1  per  cent,  of  nitric 
acid  be  added  to  the  water),  ought  to  expose  this.     The  bright  yellow  pyrites  crystallized 
in  a  cubical  form  appear  to  do  little  harm.     The  white  radiated  pyrites  (maroasite),  on 
the  contrary,  decompose  quickly.      "Where  the  iron  stains  are  large,  uneven,  and  dark 
coloured,  the  stone  may  be  rejected  for  outside  work.     When  the  discoloration  is  of  a 
uniform  light  yellow,  it  is  probable  that  little  injury  will  be  done  to  tlie  stone  in  a 
moderate  time,  and  unless  appearance  is  a  matter  of  great  importance,  such  granite  would 
not  be  rejected.     In  red  granites,  the  discoloration  from  iron  does  not  show  so  easily, 
but  still  sulficiently  if  bad  enough  to  cause  rejection.     The  quality  of  granite  for  building 
purposes  depends  upon  its  durability,  and  upon  the  bize  of  the  grains.     The  smaller 
these  are,  the  better  can  the  granite  be  worked,  and  the  more  evenly  will  it  wear.      In 
using  granite  for  ornamental  purposes,  the  coarser-gi-ained  stones  should  be  placed  at  a 
distance  from  the  eye,  the  finer-grained  stones  where  they  can  be  easily  inspected. 
Without  attention  to  this  point,  very  little  better  etfect  is  produced  than  by  a  stone  of 
uniform  colour.     Granite  is  quarried  either  by  wedging  or  by  blasting.     The  former 
process  is  generally  reserved  for  large  blocks,  and  the  latter  for  smaller  pieces  and  road 
metal.     It  is  better  to  have  the  blocks  cut  to  the  desired  forms  in  the  quarries ;  first 
because  it  is  easier  to  square  and  dress  the  stone  while  it  contains  the  moisture  of  the 
ground  or  "quarry-sap";  also  because  the  local  men,  being  accustomed  to  the  stone,  are 
able  to  dress  it  better  and  more  economically,  and  part  of  the  work  can  be   clone  by 
machinery.    Moreover,  the  bulk  of  the  stones  being  reduced  by  dressing,  the  cost  of 
•carriage  is  saved,  without  much  danger  of  injuring  the  arrises  in  transit,  as  the  stone  is 
very  hard.     It  is  used  chiefly  for  heavy  engineering  works,  such  as  bridges,  piers,  docks, 
lighthouses,  and  breakwaters,  where  weiglit  and  durability  are  required.     It  is  also  used 
especially  for  parts  of  structures  exposed  to  blows  or  continued  wear,  such  as  copings  of 
docks,  paving,  &c.     The   harder  varieties  make  capital  road  metal.     In  a  granite  neigh- 
hom-hood  the  stone  is  used  for  ordinary  buildings  ;  but  it  is  generally  too  expensive  in 
first  cost,  transport,  and  working,  and  is  tlierefore  reserved  for  ornamental  features,  such 
as  polished  columns,  pilasters,  heavy  plinths,  &c.     The  granular  structure  and  extreme 
hardness  of  granite  render  it  ill  adapted  for  fine  carving,  and   its  surface  is  entirely 
destroyed  by  the  eflfects  of  fire. 

Serpentine. — Serpentine  derives  its  name  from  the  mottled  appearance  of  its  surfoco, 
which  is  supposed  to  resemble  the  skin  of  a  serpent.  Pure  serpentine  is  a  hydrated 
silicate  of  magnesia,  but  it  is  generally  found  intermixed  with  lime  carbonate,  steatite  or 
soapstone  (a  magnesia  silicate),  or  with  diallage,  a  foliated  green  variety  of  hornblende 
and  dolomite.  The  prevailing  colour  is  generally  a  rich  green  or  red,  permeated  by  veins 
of  the  white  steatite.    Some  varieties  have  a  base  of  olive  green,  with  bands  or  blotches 


568  Masoney — Stonework. 

of  rich  brownish  rcil,  or  bright  red,  mixed  with  lighter  tints,  or  olive  green,  with  steatite 
veins  of  greenish  blue;  some  are  red,  studded  with  crystals  of  green  diallage;  some  clouded,, 
and  some  striped.  Serpentine  is  massive  or  compact  in  texture,  not  brittle,  easily  worked, 
and  capable  of  receiving  a  fine  polish.  It  is  so  soft  that  it  may  be  cut  with  a  knife.  It  is 
generally  obtained  in  blocks  2  to  3  ft.  long,  and  it  has  been  found  that  the  size  and. 
solidity  of  the  blocks  increase  with  their  depth  from  tlie  surface.  This  stone  is  greatly 
used  in  superior  buiUlings  for  decorative  purposes.  It  is,  however,  adapted  only  for  indoor 
work,  as  it  does  not  weather  well,  especially  in  smoky  atmospheres.  The  red  varieties 
weather  better  than  those  of  a  greenish  hue,  and  those  especially  which  contain  white 
streaks  are  not  fit  for  external  work. 

Sandstones. — Sandstones  consist  of  quartz  grains  cemented  together  by  silica,  lime 
carbonate,  magnesia  carbonate,  alumina,  iron  oxide,  or  mixtures  of  these  substances.  In 
addition  to  the  quartz  grains  arc  often  other  substances,  such  as  flakes  of  mica,  fragments 
of  limestone,  argillaceous  and  carbonaceous  matter,  interspersed  throughout  the  mass. 
As  the  grains  of  quartz  are  imi:)erishable,  the  weathering  qualities  of  the  stone  depend 
upon  the  nature  of  the  cementing  substance,  and  on  its  powers  of  resistance  under  the 
atmosphere  to  which  it  is  exposed.  Sometimes,  however,  the  grains  are  of  lime  carbonate 
imbedded  in  a  siliceous  cement ;  in  this  case  the  grains  arc  the  first  to  give  way  imder 
the  influence  of  the  weather.  Sandstones  are  found  in  great  variety  of  colour — white, 
yellow,  grey,  greenish  grey,  light  brown,  brown,  red,  dark  blue,  and  even  black.  The 
colour  is  generally  caused  by  the  presence  of  iron.  Thus  iron  carbonate  gives  a  bluish 
or  greyish  tint ;  anhydrous  sesquiuxide,  a  red  colour  ;  hydrated  sesquioxides,  various  tints 
of  brown  or  yellow,  sometimes  blue  and  green.  In  some  cases  the  blue  colour  is  produced 
by  very  finely  disseminated  iron  pyrites,  and  in  some  by  iron  phospliate.  Sandstones  used 
for  building  are  generally  classed  practically,  according  to  their  physical  characteristics. 
"  Liver  Eock  "  is  the  term  applied,  perhaps  more  in  Scotland  that  in  England,  to  the 
best  and  most  homogeneous  stone  which  comes  out  in  large  blocks,  imdivided  by  inter- 
secting vertical  and  horizontal  joints.  "  Flagstones  "  are  those  which  have  a  good  natural 
cleavage,  and  split  therefore  easily  into  the  thicknesses  appropriate  for  paving  of  dif- 
ferent kinds.  The  easy  cleavage  is  generally  caused  by  plates  of  mica  in  the  beds. 
"  Tilestones  "  are  flags  from  thin-bedded  sandstones.  They  are  split  into  layers — some- 
times by  standing  them  on  their  edges  during  frost, — and  are  much  used  in  the  North  of 
England  and  in  Scotland  as  a  substitute  for  slates  in  covering  roofs.  "  Freestone  "  is  a 
term  applied  to  any  stone  that  will  work  freely  or  easily  with  the  mallet  and  chisel — such, 
for  example,  as  the  softer  sandstones,  and  some  of  the  limestones,  including  Bath,  Caen, 
Portland,  &c.  '•  Grits"  are  coarse-grained,  strong,  hard  sandstones,  deriving  their  name 
from  the  "  millstone  grit  "  formation  in  which  they  are  found.  These  stones  are  very 
valuable  for  heavy  engineering  works,  as  they  can  be  obtained  in  large  blocks. 

The  recent  fracture  of  a  good  sandstone,  when  examined  through  a  powerful  magnify- 
ing glass,  should  be  bright  clean,  and  sharp,  the  grains  well  cemented  together,  and 
tolerably  uniform  in  size.  A  dull  and  earthy  appearance  is  the  sign  of  a  stone  likely 
to  decay.  Sandstones  may  be  subjected  to  Smith's  or  to  Brard's  test.  Recent  experi- 
ments have  led  to  the  conclusion  that  any  sandstone  weighing  less  than  130  lb.  per  cub.  ft. 
absorbing  more  than  5  per  cent,  of  its  weight  of  water  in  24  hours,  and  eilervescing 
anything  but  feebly  witli  acid,  is  likely  to  be  a  second-class  stone,  as  regards  durability, 
where  there  is  frost  or  much  acid  in  the  air ;  and  it  may  be  also  said  that  a  first-class 
sandstone  should  hardly  do  more  than  cloud  the  water  with  Smith's  test.  It  is  generally 
considered  that  the  coarse-grained  sandstones,  such  as  the  millstone  grits,  are  the 
strongest  and  most  durable ;  but  some  of  the  finer-grained  varieties  are  quite  strong 
enough  for  any  purpose,  and  seem  to  weather  better  than  the  others.  Perhaps,  for 
external  purposes,  the  finer-grained  sandstones,  laid  on  their  natural  bed,  are  better 
than  those  of  coarser  grain.  In  selecting  sandstone  for  undercut  work  or  for  carving, 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  layers  are  thick ;  and  it  is  of  course  important  that  stones 


Masoney — Stonework.  5G9 

should  rest  inmost  cases  on  their  natural  beds.  The  hardest  aiul  best  sandstones  are 
used  for  important  ashlar  work  ;  those  of  the  finest  and  closest  grain  for  carving  ;  roufhcr 
qualities  for  rubhlo ;  tlio  wcU-bcdded  varieties  for  ilags.  Some  of  the  harder  sand- 
stones are  used  for  sots,  and  also  for  road  metal,  but  they  are  inferior  to  tlie  tougher 
materials,  and  roads  metalled  with  them  are  muddy  in  wet,  and  very  dusty  in  dry 
weather. 

Limestones. — The  term  limestone  is  applied  to  any  stone  the  greater  proportion  of 
which  consists  of  lime  carbonate ;  but  tlie  members  of  the  class  dilfur  greatly  in  chemical 
composition,  texture,  hardness,  and  other  pliysical  characteristics.  Chalk,  Portland 
stone,  marble,  and  several  other  varieties  of  limestone,  consist  of  nearly  pure  lime  car- 
bonate, though  they  arc  very  dissimilar  in  texture,  liardness,  and  weathering  qualities. 
Other  limestones,  such  as  the  dolomites,  contain  a  very  largo  proijortidii  of  magnesia 
carbonate.  Some  contain  clay,  a  large  proportion  of  which  converts  them  into  marls, 
and  makes  them  useless  for  building  purposes.  Many  limestones  contain  a  considerable 
proportion  of  silica,  some  iron,  others  bitumen.  The  lime  carbonate  in  stones  of  this  class 
is,  of  course,  liable  to  attack  from  the  carbonic  acid  dissolved  in  the  moisture  of  ordinary 
air,  and  is  in  time  destroyed  by  the  more  violent  acids  and  vapours  generally  found  in 
the  atmosphere  of  large  towns.  A  great  deal  depends,  therefore,  upon  the  tuxture  of 
the  stone.  The  best  weathering  limestones  are  dense,  uniform,  and  homogeneous  in 
structure  and  composition,  with  fine,  even,  small  grains,  and  crystalline  texture.  Some 
limestones  consist  of  a  mass  of  fossils,  either  entire,  or  broken  up  and  united  by  cement- 
ing matter.  Others  are  made  up  of  round  grains  of  lime  carbonate,  generally  held 
together  by  cement  of  the  same  material.  Many  give  a  preference  to  limestones  as  a 
class,  on  account  of  their  more  general  uniformity  of  tint,  their  comfiaratively  homo- 
geneous structure,  and  the  facility  and  economy  of  their  conversion  to  bnildiug  purposes; 
and  of  this  class  they  prefer  those  which  are  most  crystalline.  Many  of  the  most  easily 
worked  limestones  are  very  soft  when  first  quarried,  but  harden  upon  exposure  to  the 
atmosphere.  This  is  said  to  arise  from  a  slight  decomposition  taking  place,  which  will 
remove  most  of  the  softer  particles  and  leave  the  hardest  and  most  durable  to  act  as  a 
protection  to  the  remainder.  By  others  it  is  attributed  to  the  escape  of  the  "quarry 
damp."  The  difierence  in  the  physical  characteristics  of  limestones  leads  to  their 
classification  into  marbles,  and  compact,  granular,  shelly,  and  magnesian  limestones. 

Practically,  the  name  "  marble  "  is  given  to  any  liniestone  whicli  is  hard  and  com- 
pact enough  to  take  a  fine  polish.  Some  marbles — such,  for  example,  as  those  from 
Devonshire — will  retain  their  polish  indoors,  but  lose  it  when  exposed  to  the  weather. 
Marble  is  found  in  all  great  limestone  formations.  It  consists  generally  of  pure  lime 
carbonate.  The  texture,  degree  of  crystallization,  hardness,  and  durability,  of  tlio 
several  varieties  differ  considerably.  Marble  can  generally  be  raised  in  large  blocks. 
The  handsomer  kinds  are  too  expensive,  except  for  chimney-pieces,  table  slabs,  inlaid 
work,  &c.  The  less  handsome  varieties  are  used  for  building  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  quarries.  The  appearance  of  the  ornamental  marbles  differs  greatly.  Some  are 
wholly  of  one  colour,  others  derive  their  beauty  from  a  n)ixture  of  accidental  substances 
— metallic  oxides,  &c.,  which  give  them  a  veined  or  clouded  appearance.  Others  receive 
a  varied  and  beautiful  "  figure  "  from  shells,  corals,  stems  of  encrinites,  &c.,  imbedded 
in  them.  Marble  is  used  in  connection  with  building  chiefly  for  columns,  pilasters, 
mantelpieces,  and  for  decoration.  Its  weight  makes  it  suitable  for  seawalls,  break- 
waters, &c.,  when  it  is  cheaply  obtainable,  but  some  varieties  are  liable  to  the  attacks  of 
boring  molluscs.  In  the  absence  of  better  material,  marble  may  be  used  for  road  metal 
and  paving  setts,  but  it  is  brittle  and  not  adapted  to  withstand  a  heavy  traflic.  Koads 
made  with  it  are  greasy  in  wet  weather  and  dusty  when  dry. 

Compact  Limestones.— Compact  limestone  consists  of  lime  carbonate  either  pure  or 
in  combination  with  sand  or  clay.  It  is  generally  devoid  of  crystalline  structure,  of  a 
dull  earthy  appearance,  and  of  a  dark  blue,  grey,  black,  or  moti-led  colour.     lu  some 


570  Masonky — Stonework. 

cases,  however,  it  is  crystalline  and  full  of  organic  remains.  It  is  then  properly  known 
as  a  crystalline  limestone.  Some  of  the  Carboniferous  limestones  arc  of  the  compact 
class;  also  the  Lias  limestone,  which  contains  a  considerable  amount  of  clay,  and  is 
used  for  making  hydraulic  lime ;  also  Kentish  Kag  from  the  Cretaceous  system.  Com- 
pact limestones  are  good  for  building  purposes,  where  their  dull  colour  and  the  difSeulty 
of  working  them  are  not  objections.  They  are  useful  for  paving  setts  and  road  metal 
under  a  light  traffic.  They  weigh  153  to  172  lb.  per  cub.  ft,  and  absorb  very  little 
water,  taking  up  generally  less  than  1  per  cent,  by  weight  in  24  hours. 

Granular  Limestones. — These  consist  of  grains  of  lime  carbonate  cemented  together 
by  the  same  substance,  or  by  some  mixture  of  lime  carbonate  with  silica  or  alumina. 
They  are  generally  found  in  the  Oolitic  formation.  The  grains  vary  greatly  in  size :  in 
some  eases  they  are  very  small  and  uniform,  very  few  being  of  a  larger  size;  when  the 
whole  of  the  grains  are  somewhat  larger,  they  constitute  what  are  called  "  Eoestoues," 
the  structure  resembling  that  of  the  roe  of  a  fish ;  when  the  grains  are  as  big  as  peas,  the 
stones  are  known  as  "  Pisolites,"  or  pea  stones.  These  stones  nearly  all  contain  fossil 
shells  ;  in  some  cases,  the  shelly  matter  occurs  in  larger  quantity  than  the  grains  :  they 
are  then  called  shelly  granular  limestones.  The  colour  of  these  stones  is  very  variable, 
being  sometimes  white,  light  yellow,  light  brown,  or  cream-coloured.  They  are  generally 
soft  and  somewhat  absorbent ;  therefore  liable  to  the  attacks  of  acid  atmospheres,  and  of 
frost,  but  otherwise  are  fairly  durable.  The  stone  is  generally  obtainable  in  large 
blocks,  and  it  is  often  difficult  when  tlie  stone  has  been  sawn  to  detect  its  natural  bed. 
This  may  be  sometimes  done  by  directing  a  jet  of  water  on  the  side  of  the  block,  and  it 
is  well  to  do  this,  as  it  is  of  great  importance  with  some  of  tlie  less  durable  sorts  that 
they  should  be  set  upon  their  natiual  bed.  The  weight  of  this  class  of  stone  varies  from 
116  to  151  lb.,  the  lighter  and  more  absorbent  stones  being  the  less  durable.  Their 
absorption  of  water  in  24  hours  is  hardly  ever  less  than  i  per  cent,  of  their  weight, 
while  it  is  sometimes  as  much  as  12  per  cent.  This  class  affords  some  of  the  principal 
building  stones  of  this  country.  The  very  fine  grained  stones  may  be  represented  by 
Chilmark ;  those  with  larger  grains  by  Portland,  Ancaster,  and  Painswick ;  and  those 
with  large  spherical  grains  by  Kettou  and  Castleton  ;  while  Bath  stone  has  large  egg- 
shaped  grains.  Some  of  these  stones  (e.  g.  certain  varieties  of  Portland)  are  well 
adajDted  for  outdoor  work ;  others  (such  as  Bath,  Caen,  Painswick),  for  internal  work, 
•carving,  &c. ;  while  some  of  the  harder  kinds  (Seacombe,  Painswick,  and  some  of  the 
beds  of  Cliilmark  and  Portland)  are  adapted  for  internal  staircases  where  there  is  not 
likely  to  be  much  wear. 

Shelly  Limestones. — There  are  2  classes  of  this  stone.  The  first  consists  almost 
entirely  of  small  shells  cemented  together,  but  shows  no  crystals  on  fracture  :  Purbeck  is 
an  example.  Stones  of  the  second  class  consist  chiefly  of  shells,  but  break  with  a  highly 
crystalline  fracture  :  Hopton  Wood  and  Nidderdale  stones  are  examples.  Stone  of  this 
class  is  chiefly  used  for  paving.  The  weight  is  about  157-169  lb.  per  cub.  ft.,  and  the 
absorj^tion  is  very  small,  generally  much  less  than  2  per  cent,  of  the  weight. 

Magnesian  Limestones. — Blagnesian  limestones  are  composed  of  lime  and  magnesia 
carbonate  in  variable  proportions,  together  with  a  small  quantity  of  silica,  iron,  and 
alumina.  Many  limestones  contain  magnesia  carbonate,  but  those  with  less  than  15 
per  cent,  do  not  come  into  the  class  now  under  consideration.  The  better  varieties  are 
those  in  which  tliere  is  at  least  10  per  cent,  of  magnesia  carbonate,  with  4  or  5  per  cent, 
of  silica.  When  the  magnesia  is  present  in  the  proportion  of  1  molecule  of  magnesia 
carbonate  to  1  of  lime  carbonate  (i.  e.  54- 18  and  45  •82),  the  stone  is  called  a  dolomite. 
Prof.  Daniel  states  that  the  nearer  a  magnesian  limestone  approaches  dolomite  in 
composition,  the  more  durable  it  is  likely  to  be.  It  is  not  merely  the  nature  of  the  con- 
stituents or  their  mechanical  mixture  that  gives  dolomite  its  good  qualities ;  there  is 
some  peculiarity  in  the  crystallization  which  is  all-important.  Some  peculiar  combina- 
tion takes  place  between  the  molecules  of  each  substance ;  they  possess  some  inherent 


J 


Masonky — Stonework.  571 

power,  by  which  the  invisible  or  minutest  particles  intermix  and  unite  with  each  other 
so  intimately  as  to  be  inseparable  by  mechanical  means.  Ou  examining  with  a  highly 
magnifying  power  a  specimen  of  genuine  mnguesian  limestone,  sucli  as  that  of  Bolsovcr 
IMoor,  it  will  be  found  not  composed  of  2  sorts  of  crystals,  some  formed  of  lime  carbonate, 
others  of  magnesia  carbonate,  but  the  entire  mass  of  stone  is  made  up  of  rliomboids,  each 
of  which  contains  both  the  earths  homogeneously  crystallized  together.  When  this  is  the 
case,  tlie  stone  is  extremely  durable.  Some  magnesiau  limestones  contain  sand  in 
which  case  their  weathering  qualities  are  greatly  injured;  while  some  are  peculiarly 
subject  to  the  attacks  of  sulphuric  acid,  Avhich  forms  a  soluble  sulphate  of  magnesia 
easily  washed  awaj-. 

Preserving. — JIany  processes  for  preserving  stone  from  decay  are  successful  in  the 
laboratory  of  the  chemist;  but  none  is  likely  to  be  of  use  in  practical  execution 
which  is  not  economically  applicable  on  a  large  scale.  Any  preservative  solution,  to 
be  of  practical  value,  must  be  capable  of  application  to  the  surface  to  be  protected  by 
means  of  a  brush. 

One  of  the  most  common  methods  of  preserving  the  surface  of  stone  is  to  paint  it. 
This  is  efleetual  for  a  time,  but  the  paint  is  destroyed  by  atmospheric  influence  in  the 
course  of  a  few  years.  In  London  the  time  hardly  amounts  to  3  years,  even  under 
favourable  cu-cumstances.  Morever,  it  cannot  well  be  used  in  important  buildings,  where 
appearance  has  to  be  considered.  Oil  has  also  been  used  as  a  coating ;  it  fills  the  pores 
of  the  stone  and  keeps  out  the  air  for  a  time,  but  it  discolours  the  stone  to  which  it  is 
applied.  Paraffin  is  more  lasting  than  oil,  but  is  open  to  the  same  objection  as  regards 
discoloration  of  the  stone.  Soft-soap  dissolved  in  water  (f  lb.  soap  per  gal.),  followed  by 
a  solution  of  alum  Q  lb.  alum  per  gal.),  has  been  frequently  employed.  Paraffin  dissolved 
in  naphtha,  li  lb.  paraffin  to  1  gal.  coal-tar  naphtha,  and  applied  warm,  is  perhaps  superior 
to  the  2  joreceding  for  this  purpose.  There  is,  however,  no  evidence  to  show  that  any 
methods  such  as  these  are  likely  to  be  successful  in  allbrding  permanent  protection  to 
stone.  Beeswax  dissolved  in  coal-tar  naphtha  has  also  been  proposed,  or,  when  the  natural 
colour  of  the  stone  is  to  be  preserved,  white  wax  dissolved  in  double  distilled  camphine. 
Another  plan  is  to  melt  2  parts  wax  in  8  of  pure  essence  of  turpentine.  The  surface 
should  be  cleaned  with  water  dashed  with  hydrochloric  acid,  but  should  be  perfectly  dry, 
the  solution  applied  hot  and  thin. 

There  is  a  large  class  of  preparations  whose  preservative  influences  depend  upon  the 
presence  of  soluble  silica,  which  combines  with  substances  contained  in,  or  added  to  the 
stone  under  treatment.  By  this  means  insoluble  silicates  are  formed,  which  not  only 
preserve  the  stone  from  the  attacks  of  the  atmosphere,  but  also  add  considerably  to  its 
hardness.  Unfortunately  the  use  of  these  substances  sometimes  causes  efflorescence  ou 
the  face  of  the  wall  to  which  they  are  applied.  The  soluble  alkaline  salts  left  in  the 
j)ores  of  the  stone  are  drawn  to  the  surface ;  these  crystallize  in  the  form  of  white  jiowdcr, 
and  disfigure,  or  in  some  cases  injure,  the  wall.  The  soluble  silica  is  sometimes  found 
in  the  natural  state.  A  large  proportion  may  be  obtained  from  the  Farnham  rock,  or 
from  the  lower  chalk  beds  of  Surrey  and  Hampshire  by  merely  boiling  with  an  alkali  in 
an  open  vessel.  Ordinary  silica  in  the  forra  of  flints  may  be  dissolved  by  digesting  with 
caustic  soda,  or  potash,  under  pressure.  If  a  piece  of  porous  limestone  or  chalk  be  dipped 
into  this  solution,  part  of  the  silica  in  solution  separates  from  the  alkali  in  which  it  was 
dissolved,  and  combines  with  the  lime,  forming  a  hard  insoluble  lime  silicate  ;  part  of  it 
remains  in  the  pores  and  becomes  hard. 

Kuhlmann's  process  consists  in  coating  the  surface  of  stone  to  be  preserved  with  a 
solution  of  potash  or  soJa  silicate.  The  hardening  of  the  surface  is  due  to  the  decora- 
position  of  the  silicate.  If  the  material  operated  upon  be  a  limestone,  potash  carbonate, 
lime  silicio-carbonate,  and  silica  will  be  deposited  ;  besides  which  the  carbonic  acid  in  the 
air  will  combine  with  some  of  the  potash,  causing  an  efflorescence  on  the  surface,  which 
will  eventually  disappear.     "When  applied  to  lime  sulphate,  crystallization  takes  place. 


572  Masonry — Stonework. 

■whicb  disinte^ates  the  surface.  In  order  to  correct  the  discoloration  of  stone  some- 
times produced  by  the  application  of  preservative  solutions,  Kulilmaun  proposed  that  the 
surfaces  should  be  coloured.  Surfaces  that  are  too  light  may  be  darkened  by  treatment 
with  a  durable  manganese  and  potash  silicate.  Those  that  are  too  dark  may  be  made 
lighter  by  adding  baryta  sulphate  to  tlie  siliceous  solutions.  By  introducing  the  iron, 
copper,  and  manganese  sulphates,  he  obtained  reJdish-brown,  green,  and  brown  colours. 

Eansome's  indurating  solutions  consist  of  soda  or  potash  silicate,  and  calcium  or 
barium  chloride.  The  surfiice  of  the  stone  is  made  thoroughly  clean  and  dry,  all  decayed 
parts  being  cut  out  and  replaced  by  good.  The  silicate  is  then  diluted  with  1  to  3  parts 
of  soft  water  until  it  is  thin  enough  to  be  absorbed  by  the  stone  freely.  The  less  water 
used  the  better,  so  long  as  the  stone  is  thoroughly  penetrated  by  the  solution.  This  is 
applied  with  an  ordinary  whitewash  brush.  After  say  a  dozen  brusliings  over,  the 
silicate  will  be  found  to  enter  very  slowly.  When  it  ceases  to  go  in,  but  remains  on  the 
surface  glistening,  although  dry  to  the  touch,  it  is  a  sign  that  the  brick  or  stone  is 
sufHciently  cliarged  ;  the  brushing  on  should  just  stop  short  of  this  appearance.  No 
excess  must  on  any  account  be  allowed  to  remain  upon  the  face.  After  the  silicate  has 
become  perfectly  dry,  the  solution  of  calcium  chloride  is  applied  freely  (but  brushed  on 
lightly  without  making  it  froth)  so  as  to  be  absorbed  with  the  silicate  into  the  structure 
of  the  stone.  The  effect  of  using  these  two  solutions  in  succession  is  that  a  double 
decomposition  takes  place,  and  insoluble  lime  silicate  is  formed,  wliich  fills  the  pores  of 
the  stone  and  binds  its  particles  together,  thus  increasing  both  its  strength  and  weathering 
qualities.  In  some  cases  it  may  be  desirable  to  rej^eat  the  operation,  and  as  the  lime 
silicate  is  white  or  colourless,  in  the  second  dressing  the  prepared  calcium  chloride  may 
be  tinted  so  as  to  produce  a  colour  harmonizing  with  tlie  natural  coLmr  of  the  stone. 
Before  applying  this  second  process,  the  stone  should  be  well  washed  with  rain-water  and 
allowed  to  dry  again.  Special  care  must  be  taken  not  to  allow  either  of  the  solutions  to 
be  splaslied  upon  the  windows  or  upon  painted  work,  as  they  cannot  afterwards  bo 
removed  therefrom.  U23on  no  account  use  any  brush  or  jet  for  the  calcium  that  has  pre- 
viously been  used  for  the  silicate,  or  vice  versa.  Under  ordinary  circumstances  about  4 
gal.  of  each  solution  will  be  required  for  every  100  yd.  of  surface,  but  tliis  will  depend 
upon  the  i^orosity  of  the  material  coated.  This  material  has  been  used  with  success  not 
only  for  the  preservation  of  stone  from  decay,  but  also  to  keep  out  damp.  It  is  applicable 
both  to  stone  and  brick  surfaces,  as  well  as  to  those  rendered  with  cement  or  lime 
plaster. 

Szerelmey's  stone  liquid  is  stated  by  Prof.  Ansted  to  oe  a  combination  of  Kuhl- 
mann's  process  with  a  temporary  wash  of  some  bituminous  substance.  The  wall  being 
made  perfectly  dry  and  clean,  the  liquid  is  applied  in  2  or  3  coats  with  a  painters'  brush 
imtil  a  slight  glaze  appears  upon  the  surface.  This  composition  was  used  with  some 
success  in  arresting  for  a  time  the  decay  of  the  stone  in  the  Houses  of  Parliament.  The 
.-^tone  liquid  is  transparent  and  colourless,  but  Szerelmev's  stone  paint  is  opaque  and  of 
different  colours,  and  is  applied  like  ordinary  jmint. 

The  petrifying  liquid  of  the  Silicate  Paint  Company  is  stated  in  their  circular 
to  be  a  solution  of  silica,  thinned  with  warm  water,  and  applied  to  clean  wall  surfaces, 
which  must  be  warmed  if  tliey  are  nt)t  already  dry ;  1  cwt.  will  cover  120  to  150  sq.  yd. 

Among  other  processes  which  have  been  tried  are — Solution  of  baryta  followed  by 
solution  of  ferro-silicic  acid  so  as  to  fill  the  pores  of  the  stone  witli  an  insoluble  ferro- 
silicate  of  baryta ;  solution  of  baryta  followed  by  solution  of  superphosphate  of  lime  pro- 
ducing an  insoluble  lime  phosphate  and  baryta  phosphate.  Soluble  alumina  oxalate 
applied  to  limestones  produces  insoluble  lime  and  alumina  oxalate.  These  3  processes  last 
alluded  to  all  possess  the  advantage  of  producing  by  the  clianges  they  undergo  within 
tlje  structure  of  the  stone  an  insoluble  substance,  without  at  the  same  time  giving  rise 
to  the  formation  of  any  soluble  salt  likely  to  cause  efflorescence,  which  necessarily 
attends  the  use  of  alkaline  silicates. 


I 


Masonry — Stonework.  573 

I/uring  the  erection  of  large  buiLliiigs,  the  surface  of  the  masonry  built  in  the  earlier 
stages  of  the  work  is  smeared  over  with  a  sort  of  thin  mortar,  .so  as  to  jircscrvc  it  from 
atmospheric  influence,  and  to  make  it  easier  to  clean  down. 

Stonemasons'  Tools. — The  tools  employed  by  the  stonemason  are  neither  numerous  nor 
intricate. 

The  saw  employed  by  the  stonemason  has  the  peculiarity  of  having  no  teetli,  which 
those  used  in  other  trades  have.  It  is  made  of  a  long  thin  plate  of  steel,  having  tlie  lower 
edge  slightly  jagged,  and  is  fixed  in  a  frame.  The  saw  cuts  the  istonc;  by  its  own  weight, 
being  moved  backwards  and  forwards  horizfmtally.  Some  stono  is  of  such  a  eiianicter  as 
not  to  cleave  with  sufficient  degree  of  certainty  into  pieces  of  the  desired  size  and  shape, 
as  to  make  that  process  of  cutting  it  advisable.  The  saw  is  then  ulilized.  Two  men 
usually  sit  one  on  either  side  of  block  that  is  being  divided,  and  wijrk  tlie  f-aw  as  above 
mentioned.  The  operation  is  facilitated  by  allowing  water  to  wash  the  sand  in  the  saw 
cut.  It  is  done  by  placing  a  heap  of  sharp  sand  on  an  inclined  plane  over  the  stone,  and 
permitting  water  to  trickle  through  it.  In  this  age  of  invention  and  machinery,  for 
sawing  marble,  and  almost  all  other  materials  used  by  the  mason,  steam-power  is  employed, 
which,  of  course,  is  fast  superseding  manual  labour,  more  especially  is  this  the  case  in 
the  making  of  chimney-pieces.  There  are,  however,  some  stones  which  can  be  sawn 
with  facility  with  a  toothed  saw  worked  in  a  similar  manner  to  the  stonemasons'  saw. 
Gay  has  invented  an  endless  band  saw,  which  consists  of  a  steel  wire  rope  passing 
over  2  pulleys.  It  not  only  receives  a  rapid  rotary  motion,  but  also  one  of  twisting 
upon  itself  in  such  a  way  that  the  strands  of  steel  wire  cut  their  way  into  the  stone,  and 
clear  their  passage.  The  work  done  is  said  to  be  25-30  times  that  which  can  be  done 
by  hand  in  the  same  time. 

The  mallet  is  somewhat  similar  to  a  dome  in  contour,  excepting  the  portion  at  the 
other  extremity  to  that  at  which  the  hand  is.  This  portion  is  rather  cylindrical.  (See 
Fig.  1285.)     The  handle  is  of  sufficient  lengtli  to  enable 

the  artisan  to  firmly  grasp  it,  and  no  more.     The  mullet  ^-*^-       

is,  of  course,  used  for  striking  the  chisels  and  knocking 
stones  into  position.  The  stonemason  uses  a  wooden 
mallet,  because  it  delivers  just  the  kind  of  dull  blow  that 
is  required.  His  mallet  head  is  made  circular,  because  his 
tools  are  steel,  and  have  no  wooden  handles,  and  he  is  able 
to  use  the  whole  circumference,  and  thus  prevent  the  tools 
from  wearing  holes  in  the  wooden  mallet  face.  The  handle 
of  his  mallet  is  short,  because  it  will  strike  a  sufficiently 
powerful  blow  without  being  used  at  a  great  leverage. 

The  chisels  used  by  masons  are  of  various  sizes,  made  to  meet  the  divers  require- 
ments. Prof.  Rankine  states  that  the  principal  tools  employed  in  the  dressing  of  stone 
are  the  sci-abbling  hammer,  whose  head  is  pointed  at  one  end  like  a  pick  and  axe-formed 
at  the  other,  and  various  chisels,  of  which  one  is  pointed  at  the  end  and  the  others  flat, 
and  of  breadths  ranging  from  1  to  3  in.  or  thereabouts.  The  chisel  first  referred  to  is  the 
"  point ";  that  instrument  need  not  necessarily  be  pointed  at  the  end,  but  may  have  a 
breadth  of  J  in.  or  thereabouts.  This  is  the  smallest  description  of  chisel.  Other  forms 
are  the  "  inch  tool,"  the  "  boaster,"  and  the  "  broad  tool."  The  first  is  1  in.  broad,  the 
second,  2  in.,  and  the  last,  3^  in.  The  operation  of  working  with  the  point  is  called 
"  pointing,"  and  with  the  boaster,  "  boasting."  Points  are  usually  employed  in  taking 
stones  out  of  winding,  and  they  are  followed  by  the  inch  tool.  The  point,  when  used, 
leaves  thr  stone  in  narrow  furrows,  having  rough  ridges  between  them.  The  inch  tool  is 
brought  to  bear  upon  the  stone,  and  these  ridges  are  cut  away,  and  by  the  use  of  the 
boaster  the  whole  is  brought  to  a  comparatively  smooth  surface.  In  those  parts  of  the 
country  where  the  stone  saved  by  the  operation  of  sawing  is  not  enough  to  compensate 
for  the  labour,  the  operation  is  altogether  performed  with  mallet  and  cliisel. 


574 


Masoney — Stonework. 


The  other  implements  incidental  to  the  stonemason's  craft  are  similar  to  those 
employed  by  bricklayers,  and  will  be  found  described  under  that  section. 

Laying  stoneivork. — In  constructing  walls  of  stone,  several  methods  are  available  for 
selection,  according  to  the  size  and  character  of  the  stone  to  be  dealt  with.  These  will 
be  described  in  progressive  order,  commencing  with  the  plan  adapted  to  the  lowest 
class  of  material. 

1286. 


\ 


Rough  rubble. — In  this  system,  Fig.  1286,  unsquared  and  undressed  pieces  of  stone 
of  all  sizes  are  used  indiscriminately,  fitted  into  each  other's  broken  surfaces  as  closely 


1288. 


as  possible,  with  large  stones  at  intervals  the  full  width  of  the  wall,  and  all  held  firmly 
to-ether  by  a  plentiful  use  of  first-class  mortar,  so  as  to  make  a  compact  mass  when  set. 
Very  much  stronger  work  can  be  done  by  substituting  Portland  cement  for  the  mortar, 
thus  forming  a  kind  of  coarse  concrete. 


Masonry — Stonework. 


575 


Coursed  rubble.— The  same  class  of  stone  is  used,  but  instead  of  mixin;:;  up  the 
various  sizes  indiscriminately,  imocbs  of  like  size  arc  confined  to  one  course,  and  those  of 
a  smaller  size  to  the  next  above,  and  so  on,  commencing  with  the  largest  and  finisliin"- 
with  tlie  smallest,  but  adding  a  final  course  of  larger  size  on  Ihe  top.  Kacli  course  is 
laid  regularly  and  uniformly  in  good  mortar,  and  snlidity  is  given  by  occasionally  laying 
a  large  stone  crosswise  so  as  to  form  a  "binder"  or  "through." 

Combined  rubbles.— Wlien  the  wall  is  sufficiently  thick  to  admit  of  it,  an  economic 
yet  substantial  plan  is  to  combine  a  facing  of  large  coursed  rubble  with  a  backin"  of 
rough  rubble,  as  in  Fig.  1287:  a  is  the  rough  rubble;  h,  "stretchers,"  or  stones  kid 
parallel  with  the  wall ;  c,  "  headers,"  or  stones  laid  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the 
wall,  and  contributing  to  the  solidity  of  the  structure. 


1290. 


1291. 


/ 


) 

O/ 

I 

1292. 


Ashlar  work. — Ashlar  forms  the  main  feature  in  true  masonry.  Tiic  stones  are 
always  set  in  true  courses,  and  the  depth  may  be  from  12  in.  to  any  available  thickness. 
The  beds  and  joints  should  always  be  chisel  dressed ;  that  is,  drafted  and  boasted  off. 
The  stones  for  the  facing  of  tlie  wall  are  generally  2  ft.  4  in.  to  2  ft.  G  in.  long,  12-18  in. 
deep,  and  is-lO  in.  thick,  headers  being  thickest.  It  is  a  common  practice  to  cut  the 
stones  in  a  somewhat  tapering  form,  so  that  they  closely  abut  only  for  a  short  distance 
(1— i  in.)  back   from   the   face,   the 

spaces  thus  left  being  filled  in  with  1293. 

mortar  and  chips.  The  joints  are 
either  left  close,  or  dressed  back 
with  a  square  or  triangular  recess. 
Hewn  ashlar  masonry  set  stone  and 
stone,  or  with  thin  beds  of  mortar, 
and  having  the  face-work  backed 
up  with  rubble  or  bricks,  is  always 
weak,  and  will  not  preserve  a  true 
line  on  the  face  either  vertically 
or  horizontally,  owing  to  unequal 
shrinkage. 

Joining  stones. — When  unusual  strength  is  required,  the  stones  are  not  only  united  by 
laying  in  mortar  or  cement,  but  are  further  held  by  joggles,  dowels,  cramps,  and  bolts. 
Simple  forms  of  joggle  are  shown  in  Figs.  1288,  1289,  1290,  where  a  tenon  a  on  one  stone 
is  fitted  into  a  mortice  h  on  the  next.  Fig.  1291  illustrates'the  operation  of  dowclling,  in 
which  the  2  stones  a  h  are  joined  by  the  dowel  c  let  into  grooves  cut  in  the  face  of  the 
stones.  Joining  by  cramps  is  shown  in  Fig.  1292,  a  h  being  the  2  stones  as  before,  and  c  the 
iron  cramp  dropped  into  holes  cut  for  its  reception.  The  operation  of  securing  railings 
in  stone  by  leading  is  represented  in  Fig.  1293.    When  the  upper  surface  of  the  stone 


-576 


Masonky — Stonework. 


carries  the  railings,  the  bar  a  stands  in  a  dovetaileLl  hole  in  the  stone  h,  and  is 
surrounded  at  foot  by  molten  lead  c  poured  iu  up  to  the  top.  But  when  the  rail  is  to  be 
jBxed  to  the  side  of  a  stone,  the  bar  d  is  bent  so  as  to  go  to  the  end  of  the  hole,  and  in 
order  to  fix  it  with  the  lead  e,  a  bay  of  clay/ is  made  to  support  the  lead  while  it  remains 
iu  a  molten  state,  the  clay  being  knocked  away  and  the  lead  dressed  flush  when  it  is  cold. 
Walls. — In  building  stone  walls,  the  same  care  is  needed  with  regard  to  breaking 
joint  as  in  brick  walls.  Footings  should  bs  done  with  the  largest  stones  available,  and 
the  size  may  decrease  with  the  rising  courses  ;  but  all  stones  in  one  course  should  be  of 
the  same  thickness.  The  arrangement  of  the  stones  in  the  courses  will  depend  upon 
their  shapes  and  sizes.    Fig.  1294  illustrates  an  arrangement  where  the  long  stones  a  are 


1  94. 


1295 


1296. 


1297. 


equal  to  the  full  width  of  the  wall,  alternating  with  the  short  ones  h.  In  Fig.  1295  the 
long  stones  a  require  the  addition  of  the  short  ones  b  to  make  the  full  width.  In  Fig.  1296 
the  long  stones  a  are  alternately  used  as  headers  and  stretchers,  the  small  ones  h  filling 
up  the  intervals.  In  Fig.  1297  there  are  no  small  stones,  the  spaces  between  the  large 
ones  a  being  filled  with  broken  pieces  or  grouted  rubble  b.  In  "  setting  off  "  stone  walls, 
"there  should  not  be  a  difference  of  more  than  3  or  4  in.  between  succeeding  courses. 


1298. 


1299. 


Enclosing  walls  of  stone,  if  of  no  great  height,  are  often  built  dry,  i.  e.  without  any 
mortar.  There  is  frequently  in  stone  walls  a  slope  or  "  batter  "  on  both  sides  amounting 
to  I'part  of  breadth  of  base  to  6  of  height,  eitlier  carried  gradually  tip  or  with  offsets. 
Hubble  walls  have  generally  both  sides  vertical,  the  average  thickness  being  -j\  of  the 


Masomry — Brickwork.  577 

height.  Superior  walls  arc  commonly  provided  with  a  coping  at  the  top,  to  throw  off 
the  wet.  This  may  have  either  a  single  slope  to  one  side  as  in  Fig.  1298,  or  to  both  sides 
as  in  Fig.  1299,  the  throating  a  in  either  case  causing  the  water  to  drip  away  from  the 
wall.    Precisely  the  same  plan  is  adopted  with  window  sills. 

Brickwork.— A  most  important  element  in  nearly  all  structures  of  a  permanent 
character  is  the  ordinary  building  brick  used  in  the  formation  of  house  walls.  It  consists 
of  a  mixture  of  clay  and  other  earths,  formed  in  moulds,  and  burned  hard ;  numljcrs  of 
these  are  laid  in  courses  and  held  together  by  means  of  a  lime  cement  known  as  mortar. 

Bricks. — The  art  of  making  and  burning  bricks  does  not  come  within  the  range  of 
the  artisan  who  employs  them,  and  need  not  be  described  here.  Bricks  may  bo  divided 
into  3  classes  : — (1)  "  Cutters  "  or  "  rubbers,"  i.  c.  bricks  intended  to  bo  cut  or  rubbed  to 
some  shape  diiferent  from  that  in  which  they  were  originally  moulded.  (2)  Ordinary 
bricks,  intended  to  be  used  without  cutting  except  where  required  to  form  the  bond  ; 
the  best  of  these  are  selected  for  fronts,  and  are  termed  facing  bricks ;  specially  hard 
varieties  are  used  for  coping,  also  for  paving,  quoins,  and  other  positions  where  they  will 
be  subjected  to  unusual  wear.  (3)  Under-burnt  and  misshapen  bricks,  only  fit  for  inside 
work.  Of  each  of  these  classes  there  are  in  most  brickfields  several  varieties,  varying  in 
quality  according  to  circumstances.     Their  general  characteristics  are  as  follow. 

Cutters  or  rubbers  are  purposely  made  sufficiently  soft  to  be  cut  approximately  to 
the  shape  required  with  a  trowel,  and  then  rubbed  to  a  smooth  fac3  and  to  an  accurate 
shape.  To  ensure  this,  they  are  made  of  washed  earth  carefully  freed  from  lumps  of  all 
kinds,  and  uniform  in  composition  throughout  its  mass.  The  best  rubbers  are  burnt  to 
a  point  little  short  of  vitrification.  Inferior  kinds  are  often  stinted  in  firing ;  the  cohesion 
between  the  particles  is  small,  and  they  are  easily  destroyed  by  rain  or  frost.  For  the 
sake  of  durability,  it  is  better  to  avoid  rubbers  in  all  exposed  work,  and  to  use  "  purpose- 
made"  bricks  moulded  to  the  shape  required  and  thoroughly  well  burnt.  This  is  often 
done  in  good  work. 

Ordinary  building  bricks  include  the  bulk  of  those  required  for  building.  The 
qualities  and  characteristics  of  these  vary,  not  only  in  different  localities,  but  also  in  the 
same  brickyard.  Such  bricks  are  made  either  from  washed  earth  or  malm,  from  partly 
washed  earth,  or  from  earth  which  has  merely  been  tempered,  not  washed  at  all.  They 
should  be  hard  and  well  shaped,  those  most  uniform  in  colour  being  selected  for  facing, 
and  the  whole  of  the  remainder  being  fit  to  use  for  good  sound  work. 

Under-burnt  bricks  are  generally  known  as  "  grizzle  "  or  "  place  "  bricks,  in  some 
places  as  "  samel  "  bricks.  They  are  always  soft  inside,  and  sometimes  outside  also,  are 
very  liable  to  decay,  and  unfit  for  good  work.  They  are,  however,  often  used  for  the 
inside  of  walls. 

The  names  given  to  different  classes  of  bricks  vary  in  different  districts,  and  even  in 
different  brickfields  of  the  same  district.  The  subjoined  list  of  names  for  clamp-burnt 
bricks  may  be  taken  as  a  specimen,  with  the  relative  prices  per  1000.  The  bricks  are 
divided  generally  into  3  classes— "  malms,"  "  washed,"  and  "  common  "—according  to 
the  manner  in  which  the  earth  for  them  is  prepared.  For  the  third  or  common  class  the 
earth  is  not  washed  at  all.  All  3  classes  are  moulded  and  burned  in  exactly  the  same 
manner,  and  are  then  further  sorted  into  a  number  of  varieties  according  to  the  manner 
in  which  they  have  been  affected  by  the  fire. 

The  classes  are  subdivided  as  follows :— (il/a^ms)  cutters,  110s.;  best  seconds,  858. ; 
mean  ditto,  75s. ;  pale  ditto,  45s. ;  brown  facing  paviors,  55s. ;  hard  paviors,  SOs.  ; 
shippers,  37s.  Gd.,48s.:  bright  stocks,  50s.;  grizzle,  3Ss. ;  place,  35s.  ( Tlas/icrf)  bright 
fronts,  60s. ;  stocks,  45s. ;  shippers,  48s. ;  hard  stocks,  42s. ;  grizzles,  3G8. ;  place,  34s. 
(^Common)  shippers,  48s. ;  stocks,  44s. ;  grizzles,  36s. ;  rough  stocks,  35s. ;  place,  338. 

Cutters  have  already  been  described.  Seconds  are  similar  to  cutters,  but  with  some 
slight  unevenness  of  colour.  Facing  paviors  are  hard-burned  malm  bricks  of  good  shape 
and  colour  used  for  facing  superior  walls.     Bright  fronts  are  the  corresponding  quality 

2  P 


578  Masoney — Brickwork. 

from  "  washed  "  earth.  Hard  paviors  are  ratlier  more  burned,  and  slightly  blemished  in 
colour ;  used  for  superior  paving,  coping,  &c.  Shippers  are  sound,  hard-burned  bricks, 
not  quite  perfect  in  form ;  chiefly  exported,  ships  taking  them  as  ballast.  Stocks  are 
hard-burned  bricks,  fairly  sound,  but  more  blemished  than  shippers;  used  for  the 
principal  mass  of  ordinary  good  work.  Hard  stocks  are  over-burnt  bricks,  sound,  but 
considerably  blemished  both  in  form  and  colour  ;  used  for  ordinary  pavings,  for  footings, 
and  in  the  body  of  thick  walls.  Grizzle  and  place  bricks  are  under-burnt,  very  weak, 
and  2  out  of  5  "  common  "  or  imwashed  place  bricks  are  allowed  to  be  bats,  the  stones 
left  in  the  unwashed  earth  making  them  very  liable  to  breakage.  These  two  last- 
mentioned  descriptions  are  only  used  for  inferior  or  temporary  work,  and  are  commonly 
covered  with  cement  rendering  to  protect  them  from  the  weather  when  intended  to  be 
permanent.  Chuffs  are  bricks  upon  which  rain  has  fallen  while  they  were  hot,  making 
them  full  of  cracks,  and  perfectly  useless.  Burrs  are  lumps  of  bricks  vitrified  and  run 
together;  used  for  rough  walling,  artificial  rock-work,  &c.  Bats  are  broken  bricks.  Of 
these  varieties,  those  from  "  common  "  or  unwashed  clay  are  hardly  ever  quite  perfect  in 
form,  on  account  of  the  stones  left  in  the  earth,  which  make  them  shrink  unequally,  and 
become  distorted  in  burning.  Bricks  from  "  washed  "  clay  suffer  in  the  same  way  to  a 
less  degree. 

Kiln-burnt  bricks  are  generally  pretty  equally  burnt,  and  are  classed  chiefly 
according  to  the  process  by  which  they  are  made. 

Bricks  used  in  ordinary  buildings  generally  are,  or  should  be,  the  best  that  are  made 
in  the  neighbourhood.  Some  descriptions  of  bricks,  however,  are  universally  known, 
and  are  used  even  outside  the  locality  in  which  they  are  made,  either  for  special  purposes, 
or  in  buildings  of  such  importance  as  to  justify  incurring  the  expense  of  carriage. 

Good  building  brick  should  be  sound,  free  from  cracks  and  flaws,  also  from  stones, 

or  lumps  of  any  kind.     Lumps  of  lime,  however  small,  are  specially  dangerous ;  they 

slake  when  the  brick  is  exposed  to  moisture,  and  split  it  to  pieces.     A  small  proportion 

of  lime  finely  divided  and  disseminated  throughout  the  mass  is  an  advantage,  as  it 

affords  the  flux  necessary  for  the  proper  vitrification  of  the  brick.    In  examining  a  brick, 

lumps  of  any  kind  should  be  regarded  with  suspicion,  and  tested.     In  order  to  ensure 

good  brickwork,  the  bricks  must  be  regular  in  shape  and  uniform  in  size.     Their  arrises 

(edges)  should  be  square,  straight,  and  sharply  defined.     Their  surfaces  should  be  even, 

not  hollow  ;  not  too  smooth,  or  the  mortar  will  not  adhere  to  them.     The  proportion  of 

water  tliat  a  brick  will  absorb  is  a  very  good  indication  of  its  quality.     InsufBciently 

burnt  bricks  absorb  a  large  proportion,  and  are  sure  to  decay  in  a  short  time.     It  is 

generally  stated  in  books  that  a  good  brick  should  not  absorb  more  than  -Jj-  of  its  weight 

of  water.     The  absorption  of  average  bricks  is,  however,  generally  about  i  of  their 

weight,  and  it  is  only  very  highly  vitrified  bricks  that  take  up  so  little  as  -^  or  -jV. 

Good  bricks  should  be  hard,  and  burnt  so  thoroughly  that  there  is  incipient  vitrification 

all  through.     This  may  be  seen  by  examining  a  fractured  surface,  or  the  surface  may  be 

tested  with  a  knife,  which  will  make  hard-ly  any  impression  upon  it  unless  the  brick  is 

under-burnt.     A  brick  thoroughly  burnt  and  sound  will  give  out  a  ringing  note  when 

struck  against  another.     A  dull  noise  indicates  a  soft  or  shaky  brick.     A  well-burnt 

brick  will  be  very  hard,  and  possess  great  power  of  resistance  to  compression.    A  really 

first-class  rubber  will  not  be  easily  scored  by  a  knife  even  in  the  centre,  and  the  finger 

will  make  no  impression  upon  it.     Such  a  brick  will  be  of  uniform  texture,  compact, 

regular  in  colour  and  size,  free  from  flaws  of  any  description.     It  is  easy  to  distinguish 

clamp-burnt,  kiln-burnt,  and  machine-made  bricks.     In  clamp-burnt  bricks,  the  traces 

of  the  breeze  mixed  with  the  clay  can  generally  be  seen.     Kiln-burnt  bricks  very  often 

have  light  and  dark  stripes  upon  their  sides,  caused  by  their  being  arranged  while 

burning  with  intervals  between  them.     Where  the  brick  is  exposed,  it  is  burnt  to  a  light 

colour ;  where  it  rests  upon  or  against  other  bricks,  it  is  dark.     In  some  cases  care  is 

taken  to  prevent  this,  and  the  best  kiln-burnt  bricks  are  of  uniform  colour.    Machine 


a 


Masonry— Brickwork. 


579 


ade  bricks  may  generally  easily  be  distinguishcil,  if  wire-cut,  by  the  marks  of  tlie 
ires ;  if  moulded,  by  the  peculiar  foim  of  the  mould,  letters  on  tlio  surface,  &c.,  or 
metimes  by  having  a  frog  on  botii  sides.  In  many  cases  the  marks  made  by  pronged 
rks,  used  for  packing  the  bricks,  may  be  seen  on  their  sides. 

Before  1839  a  duty  was  paid  upon  bricks ;  tlieir  size  was  then  practically  fixed  by 
ct  of  Parliament,  and  it  has  since  remained  materially  unaltered.  Ordinary  bricks  in 
6  neighbourhood  of  London  are  about  8^  in.  long,  4^  in.  wide,  and  2i  in.  thick,  and 
;igh  about  7  lb.  each.  In  different  parts  of  the  country,  the  size  and  weight  vary 
ightly ;  in  the  north  of  England  and  in  Scotland  tliey  are  larger  and  heavier.  A  very 
fge  brick  is  inconvenient  for  an  ordinary  man  to  grasp,  and  a  heavy  brick  fatigues  the 
ickJayer,  who  has  to  lift  it  when  wet  and  lay  it  with  one  hand.  In  order  to  obtain 
od  brickwork,  it  is  important  that  the  length  of  each  Vjiick  should  just  exceed  twice 

breadth  by  the  thickness  of  a  mortar  joint. 

The  best  method  of  testing  bricks  is  to  see  if  they  ring  when  struck  together ;  to 
certain  the  hardness  by  throwing  them  on  to  the  ground,  or  by  striking  them  against 
ler  bricks.  The  fractured  surface  should  also  be  examined  in  order  to  ascertain  if  it 
hibits  the  characteristics  mentioned.  Brard's  test  is  sometimes  used  for  bricks,  but  ia 
t  of  much  practical  benefit.  The  amount  of  water  absorbed  by  bricks  is  to  a  certain 
tent  an  indication  of  their  qnaliry,  and  their  resistance  to  compression,  either  singly  or 
len  built  into  brickwork,  will  show  whether  they  are  strong  enough  for  the  purpose 
juired. 

Terracotta. — Blocks  of  terracotta  are  now  being  frequently  used  in  place  of  bricks, 
)ecially  for  the  facing  of  buildings.  The  blocks  should  be  so  shaped  as  to  form  a  good 
Qd  with  the  brickwork,  or  whatever  material  is  used  for  the  backing.  They  arc  usually 
ide  12-18  in.  long,  6-15  in.  high,  and  4|-9  in.  thick  on  the  bed.  These  dimensions 
)  suitable  for  bonding  into  brick  backing.  When  the  blocks  are  of  the  thicknesses 
3ve  mentioned,  the  joints  are  made  .square  and  flush  as  in  ordinary  ashlar  work.  In 
ne  cases,  however,  the  blocks  are  made  G  in.  and  U  in.  thick  alternately.  A  "lip 
nt,"  as  shown  in  Fig.  1300,  is  then  employed.    This  plan,  however,  is  not  often  adopted, 


1300. 


1301. 


:  does  it  afford  such  substantial  work  as  the  other.  The  mortar  joints  may  be 
relied  as  in  Fig.  1301.  Such  joints  throw  off  the  water,  prevent  the  terracotta  from 
shing,  and  relieve  the  face  of  the  work  better  than  if  the  joints  were  full  and  flush 
;h  the  surface  of  the  blocks. 

The  advantages  of  terracotta  are  as  follows  : — (1)  If  properly  burnt,  it  i.s  unaffected 
the  atmosphere,  or  by  acid  fumes  of  any  description.  (2)  If  solid,  it  weighs  122  lb. 
r  ft.  cube ;  but  if  hollow,  as  generally  used,  it  weighs  only  60-70  lb.  per  ft.  cube,  or 
if  the  weight  of  the  lightest  building  stones.  (3)  Its  resistance,  when  solid,  to  com- 
sssion  is  nearly  i  greater  than  that  of  Portland  stone.  (4)  Page  found  by  experiment 
it  it  lost  Jj  in.  in  thickness,  while  York  stone  lost  |  in.  with  the  same  amount  of 
;tion.  It  is,  therefore,  well  adapted  for  floors.  (5)  It  is  cheaper  in  London  than  the  better 
icriptions  of  building  stone.  It  is  so  easily  moulded  into  any  shape,  that  for  intricate 
rk,  such  as  carvings,  &c.,  it  is  only  half  the  cost  of  stone.  On  the  other  hand,  terra- 
ta  is  subject  to  unequal  shrinkage  in  burning,  which  sometimes  causes  the  pieces  to 
twisted.     When  this  is  the  case,  great  care  must  be  taken  in  fixing  the  blocks,  other- 

2  p  2 


580  Masonry — Brickwork. 

wise  the  long  lines  of  a  building,  such  as  those  of  the  string-courses  or  cornices,  which 
are  intended  to  be  straight,  are  apt  to  be  uneven,  and  the  faces  of  blocks  are  often  "in 
winding."  Twisted  and  warped  blocks  are  sometimes  set  right  by  chiselling,  but  tliia 
should  be  avoided,  for  if  the  vitritied  skin  on  the  surface  be  removed,  the  material  will  not 
be  able  to  withstand  tlie  attacks  of  the  atmosphere,  &c.  Terracotta  is  made  in  several 
colours,  depending  chiefly  upon  the  amount  of  heat  it  has  gone  through.  "White,  pale- 
grey,  pale-yellow,  or  straw-colour,  indicate  a  want  of  firing.  Kich  yellow,  pink,  and 
butf  varieties  are  generally  well  burnt.  A  green  hue  is  a  sign  of  absorption  of  moisture^ 
and  of  bad  material.  A  glazed  surface  can  be  given  to  terracotta  if  required.  Inferior 
terracotta  is  sometimes  made  by  overlaying  a  coarsely-prepared  common  body  with  a 
thin  coating  of  a  finer  and  more  expensive  clay.  Unless  these  bodies  have  been  mosl 
carefully  tested  and  assimilated  in  their  contraction  and  expansion,  they  are  sure  in 
course  of  time  to  destroy  one  another ;  that  is,  tlie  inequality  in  their  shrinkage  will 
cause  hair  cracks  in  tlie  fine  outer  skin,  which  will  inevitably  retain  moisture,  and  cause 
the  surface  layer  to  drop  otf  in  scales  after  winter  frosts.  Another  very  reprehensible 
custom  is  that  of  coating  over  the  clay,  just  before  it  goes  into  the  kiln,  with  a  tliin  wash 
of  some  ochreish  paint,  mixed  with  finely  ground  clay,  which  produces  a  sort  of  artificial 
bloom,  very  pretty  looking  for  the  first  year  or  two  after  the  work  is  executed,  but  sure 
to  wear  oft"  before  long. 

Lime. — "  Eicli "  or  "  fat "  limes  are  those  calcined  from  pure,  or  very  nearly  pure,  lime 
carbonate,  not  containing  sufiScient  foreign  constituents  to  have  any  appreciable  effect 
upon  either  the  slaking  or  setting  actions.  The  solubility  and  want  of  setting  power  of 
fat  lime  render  it  unsuitable  for  making  mortar,  except  for  the  walls  of  out-houses  and 
for  other  similar  positions.  It  is  nevertheless  frequently  used  for  the  mortar  in  structures 
of  a  much  more  imposing  character.  It  is,  however,  better  than  hydraulic  limes  for 
sanitary  purposes  (being  purer),  and  is  very  useful  for  plastering  and  for  white- 
washing. It  is  also  extensively  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  artificial  hydraulic 
limes  and  cements.  Fat  lime  requires  to  be  mixed  with  a  great  deal  of  sand  to  prevent 
excessive  shrinkage,  but  this  addition  does  not  materially  injure  it,  as  it  attains  no 
strength  worth  mentioning  under  any  circumstances.  The  only  setting  that  takes  place 
in  it  is  tlie  formation  of  a  thin  surface  crust,  bearing  a  small  proportion  to  the  whole 
bulk ;  mortar  made  from  such  lime  may  therefore  be  left  and  re-worked  repeatedly 
without  injury.  Some  of  the  lime  which  finds  its  way  into  the  London  market,  under 
the  assumed  names  of  Dorking,  Hailing,  and  Merstham,  is  merely  f^it  lime  tinged  with 
iron  sufficiently  to  give  it  the  buff  colour  characteristic  of  the  hydraulic  lime  made  out 
of  the  grey  chalk  from  these  localities.  Of  course,  this  stained  lime  makes  mortar  of 
the  same  inferior  description  as  would  be  obtained  from  a  common  fat  white  lime,  and 
has  no  hydraulic  properties  whatever. 

"  Poor  "  limes  are  those  containing  60-90  per  cent,  of  lime  carbonate,  together  with 
useless  inert  impurities,  such  as  sand,  which  have  no  chemical  action  whatever  upon 
the  lime,  and  therefore  do  not  impart  to  it  any  degree  of  hydraulicity.  These  lime? 
slake  sluggishly  and  imperfectly,  the  action  only  commences  after  an  interval  of  a 
few  minutes  to  more  than  an  hour  after  they  are  wetted,  less  water  is  required  for 
the  process,  and  it  is  attended  with  less  heat  and  increase  of  volume  than  in  the 
case  of  the  fat  limes.  If  they  contain  a  large  proportion  of  impurities,  or  if  they  are 
over-burnt,  they  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  slake  perfectly  unless  first  reduced  to 
powder.  The  resulting  slaked  lime  is  seldom  completely  pulverized — is  only  partially 
soluble  in  water,  leaving  a  residue  composed  of  the  useless  impurities,  and  without 
consistence.  The  paste  formed  from  the  slaked  lime  is  more  incoherent,  and  shrinks 
less  in  drying,  but  behaves  in  other  respects  like  that  made  from  fat  lime — in  fact,  it 
is  like  a  fat  lime  mortar  containing  a  certain  proportion  of  sand.  Mortar  made  from 
poor  lime  is  less  economical  than  that  from  fat  lime,  owing  to  the  former  increasing 
less  in  slaking,  bearing  less  sand  (as  the  lime  already  contains  some  in  the  form  of 


Masonry— Brickwork.  581 

npnritics),  and  roquirin;?  a  more  troublosomo  manipulation  than  the  latter.  It  is  in 
D  way  superior  as  rcgunis  setting,  and  should  therclbrc  only  be  used  when  no  better 
m  be  had. 

"Hydraulic"  limes  are  those  containing,  after  calcination,  enough  quicklime  to 
ivelop  more  or  less  the  slaking  action,  together  with  sulliciint  of  sucli  foreign  con- 
ituents  as  combine  chemically  with  lime  and  water  to  confer  an  appreciable  power 
■  setting  without  drying  or  access  of  air.  Their  powers  of  setting  vary  considerably, 
he  best  of  the  class  set  and  attain  their  full  strength  when  kept  immersed  in  water, 
hey  are  produced  by  the  moderate  calcination  of  stones  containing  73-92  per  cent,  of 
dcium  carbonate,  combined  with  a  mixture  of  foreign  constituents  of  a  nature  to 
■oduce  hydraulicity.  Different  substances  have  this  eflect,  but  in  the  great  majority  of 
itural  hydraulic  limes  commonly  used  for  making  mortar,  the  constituent  which  confers 
r^draulicity  is  clay.  In  some  varieties,  a  portion  of  the  lime  carbonate  is  replaced  by 
agnesia  carbonate,  which  increases  the  rapidity  of  setting,  and  adds  to  the  ultimate 
rength  of  the  mortar.  The  phenomena  connected  with  the  slaking  of  limes  vary 
eatly  according  to  tlieir  composition.  With  none  is  it  so  violent  as  with  the  pure 
ne  carbonate,  and  the  more  clay  the  limes  contain  the  less  energy  do  they  display, 
itil  we  arrive  at  those  containing  as  much  as  30  per  cent,  of  clay,  when  hardly 
ly  effect  at  all  is  produced  by  wetting  the  calcined  lime,  unless  it  is  first  ground  to 
iwder.  The  setting  properties  of  hydraulic  lime  also  differ  very  considerably  in 
oportion  to  the  amount  they  contain  of  the  clay  or  other  constituent,  which  gives 
e  lime  its  power  of  setting  without  drying  or  the  access  of  air. 

Artificial  hydraulic  lime  may  be  made  by  moderately  calcining  an  intimate 
ixture  of  fat  lime  with  as  much  clay  as  will  give  the  mixture  a  composition  like  that 

a  good  natural  hydraulic  limestone,  of  which  the  product  should  be  a  successful 
litation.  A  soft  material  like  chalk  may  be  ground  and  mixed  with  the  clay  in  the 
w  state.  Compact  limestone,  on  the  other  hand,  is  more  commonly  burnt  and  slaked 
the  first  instance  (as  being  the  most  economical  way  of  reducing  it  to  powder),  then 
ixed  with  the  clay  and  burnt  a  second  time.  Lime  so  treated  is  called  "  twice  kilned" 
ne.  The  mixture  may  be  made  by  violently  agitating  the  materials  together  in  water  by 
ichiuery,  or  by  grinding  them  together  in  a  dry  state,  afterwards  adding  water  to  form 
em  into  a  paste.  The  paste  in  either  case  is  moulded  into  bricks,  which  are  dried, 
Icined,  and  otherwise  treated  like  ordinary  lime.  Artificial  hydraulic  limes  are  not 
uch  manufactured  or  used  in  this  country. 

Sand. — Sand  is  known  as  " argillaceous,"  "siliceous,"  or  "calcareous,"  according  to 
i  composition.  It  is  procured  from  pits,  river-shores,  sea-shores,  or  by  grinding  sand- 
Dues ;  and  is  cliiefly  used  for  mortar  concrete  and  plaster.  Pit  sand  has  an  angular 
ain,  and  a  porous,  rough  surface,  winch  makes  it  good  for  mortar,  but  it  often  contains 
ly  and  similar  impurities.  Kiver  sand  is  not  so  sharp  or  angular  in  its  grit,  the 
ains  having  been  rounded  and  polished  by  attrition;  it  is  fine  and  white,  and 
erefore  suited  for  plastering.  Sea  sand  also  is  deficient  in  sharpness  and  grit  from  the 
me  cause;  it  contains  alkaline  salts,  which  attract  moisture.  When  sand  contains 
mps  or  stones  it  sliould  be  "screened,"  or,  if  required  of  great  fineness,  passed 
rough  a  sieve.  Sand  found  to  contain  impurities,  such  as  clay,  loam,  &c.,  which  unfit 
for  almost  every  purpose,  should  be  washed  by  being  well  stirred  in  a  wooden  trough, 
iving  a  current  of  water  tiowiiig  through  it,  which  carries  off  the  impurities.  It  is 
metimes  washed  by  machinery,  such  as  an  Archimedean  screw  revolving  and  carrying 
)  the  sand,  while  a  stream  of  water  flows  down  through  it.  Clean  sand  should  leave 
•  stam  when  rubbed  between  the  moist  hands.  Salts  can  be  detected  by  the  taste,  and 
e  size  and  sharpness  of  the  grains  can  be  judged  of  by  the  eye. 

Substitutes.— Burnt  clay  is  sometimes  used  as  a  substitute  for  sand  in  mortar.  It  is 
epared  by  piling  moistened  clay  over  a  bonfire  of  coals  and  wood.  As  the  clay 
comes  burnt  and  the  fire  breaks  through,  fresh  layers  of  clay  and  coal,  "  breeze,"  or 


582  Masonry — Brickwork. 

aslies,  are  piled  on,  and  the  hcsLp  may  be  kept  burning  until  a  sufficient  supply  has  been 
obtained.  The  clay  should  be  stiff.  Care  must  be  taken  that  it  is  thoroughly  burnt. 
Eaw  or  half-burnt  pieces  would  seriously  injure  mortar.  Sand  is  sometimes  very 
economically  obtained  by  grinding  the  refuse  "spalls"  left  after  working  stones  for 
walling.  It  is  generally  clean  if  carefully  collected,  but  the  sharpness  of  its  grit  depends 
upon  tlie  natui-e  of  the  stone  from  which  it  is  procured.  Scoriae  from  ironworks,  slag 
from  furnaces,  clinker  from  brick  kilns,  and  cinders  from  coal,  make  capital  substitutes 
for  saud  when  they  are  quite  clean  and  properly  used.     Woud  cinders  are  too  alkaline. 

Mortar. — Ordinary  mortar  is  composed  of  lime  and  sand  mixed  into  a  paste  with 
water.  When  cement  is  substituted  for  the  lime,  the  mixture  is  called  cement  mortar. 
The  use  of  mortar  in  brickwork  or  masonry  is  to  bind  together  the  bricks  or  stones,  to 
afiford  them  a  soft  resting-place,  which  prevents  their  inequalities  from  bearing  upon  one 
another,  and  thus  to  cause  an  equal  distribution  of  pressure  over  the  beds.  It  is  also 
used  in  concrete  as  a  matrix  for  broken  stones  or  other  bodies  to  bo  amalgamated  into 
one  solid  mass ;  for  plastering,  and  other  purposes.  The  quality  of  mortar  depends  upon 
the  description  of  materials  used  in  its  manufacture,  their  treatment,  proportions,  and 
method  of  mixing. 

Fat  limes  should  only  be  allowed  for  inferior  or  temporary  work.  On  account 
of  their  being  cheap  and  easy  to  manipulate,  they  are  often  used  in  positions  for  which 
they  are  entirely  unfit.  Mortar  made  from  fat  lime  is  not  suitable  for  damp  situations 
nor  for  thick  walls.  In  either  case  it  remains  constantly  moist ;  when  placed  in  positions 
where  it  is  able  to  dry  it  becomes  friable,  and  iu  any  case  is  miserably  weak.  Even  the 
economy  of  fat  lime  mortar  is  in  many  cases  doubtful ;  for  walls  built  with  it  are  injured 
by  frost,  require  constant  repainting,  and  perhaps  before  many  years  rebuilding.  Vicat 
says  of  fat  limes  that  their  use  ought  for  ever  to  be  prohibited,  at  least  in  works  of  any 
importance.  Pasley  adds  with  regard  to  fat  lime  mortar  that  when  wet  it  is  a  pulp  or 
paste,  and  when  dry  it  is  a  little  better  than  dust.  If  a  pure  or  feebly  hydraulic  lime 
mortar  is  used  in  massive  brickwork  or  masonry,  it  is  only  the  outer  edges  of  the  joints 
that  are  affected  by  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  air.  A  small  portion  of  the  exterior  of  the 
joints  sets,  but  the  mortar  in  the  inside  of  the  wall  remains  soft.  The  result  of  this  is 
that  a  heavy  pressure  is  thrown  upon  the  outer  edges  of  the  bricks  or  stones,  and  they 
become  "  flushed,"  that  is,  chipped  off.  In  some  cases,  from  the  same  cause,  the  headers 
of  brickwork  are  broken,  so  that  the  face  of  the  wall  becomes  detached,  and  liable  to  fall 
away.  Again,  these  weak  mortars  retain  or  imbibe  moisture,  which,  when  it  freezes, 
throws  off  the  outer  crust.  Pointing  is  then  resorted  to.  If  this  is  done  with  the  samo 
sort  of  mortar,  the  same  result  ensues,  and  in  an  aggravated  degree,  for  as  the  operation 
is  repeated,  the  joint  becomes  wider.  In  the  end  it  will  often  be  found  that  more  has  been 
expended  iu  patching  up  work  done  with  bad  mortar  than  would  have  sufficed  to  provide 
good  mortar  at  the  first. 

Hydraulic  lime  or  cement  should,  therefore,  always  be  used  in  mortar  for  work  of  any 
importance.  In  subaqueous  constructions  it  is,  of  course,  absolutely  necessary.  If  there 
is  any  choice,  the  class  of  hydraulic  lime  used  will  depend  upon  the  situation  and  nature 
of  the  work  to  be  done.  For  ordinary  buildings,  not  very  much  exposed,  slightly 
hydraulic  limes  will  suffice  to  form  a  moderately  strong  joint,  and  to  withstand  the 
weather.  For  damp  situations,  such  as  foundations  iu  moist  earth,  a  more  powerful 
hydraulic  lime  should  be  prepared.  For  masonry  under  water  an  eminently  hydraulic 
lime  or  cement  mortar  will  be  necessary.  If  the  work  be  required  to  set  very  quickly, 
Roman  cement,  or  a  cement  of  that  class,  would  be  used ;  whereas,  if  quick  setting  be 
not  necessary,  but  great  ultimate  strength  is  required,  a  heavy  Portland  cement  should 
be  adopted. 

Saud  is  used  in  mortar  to  save  expense  and  to  prevent  excessive  shrinkage.  Ordinary 
sands  are  not  in  any  way  chemically  acted  upon  by  the  lime,  but  are  simply  in  a  state 
of  mechanical  mixture  with  it ;  with  hydraulic  limes  and  cements  the  effest  of  saud  is 


Masonry — Brickwork.  583 

to  weaken  the  mortar.  "When  fat  lime  is  used,  however,  the  porous  structure,  eausctl  by 
the  sand,  enables  the  carbonic  acid  of  tlie  air  to  penetrate  fartlier,  and  to  act  npon  a 
larger  portion  of  the  joint.  Moreover,  the  particles  of  fat  lime  adhere  better  to  the 
surfaces  of  the  grains  of  sand  than  they  do  to  one  anotlier ;  thcrcfon;  the  sand  is  in 
2  ways  a  source  of  strength  in  fat  lime  mortar.  It  is  of  tlio  utmost  importaneo  that  the 
sand  used  for  mortar  should  be  perfectly  clean,  free  from  clay  or  other  impurities  which 
will  prevent  the  lime  from  adhering  to  it.  Sand  for  this  purpose  should  liave  a  sharp 
angular  grit,  the  grains  not  being  rounded,  their  surfaces  should  not  bo  iwlishcd,  but 
rough,  so  that  the  lime  may  adhere  to  them.  It  has  been  found  that,  speaking  generally, 
the  size  of  the  grains  of  sand  does  not  influence  the  strength  of  the  mortar.  Experiments 
tend  to  show  that  in  samples  4  weeks  old,  Portland  cement  mortar  made  with  fine  sand 
was  weaker  than  that  made  with  coarse  sand.  Very  fine  sand  is  objectionable  for  fat 
lime  mortar,  as  it  prevents  the  air  from  penetrating,  which  is  necessary  in  order  that  the 
mortar  may  set.  Although  coarse  irregular-grained  sand  may  make  the  best  mortar, 
finer  sand  is  sometimes  necessary  when  very  thin  joints  are  used.  Calcareous  sands,  on 
the  whole,  give  stronger  mortars  than  siliceous  ones.  Sea  sand  contains  salts,  which  are 
apt,  by  attracting  moisture,  to  cause  permanent  damp  and  effioreseonce.  This  moisture 
will  effectually  prevent  a  fat  lime  from  setting,  or  rather  drying,  but  would  tend  to 
increase  the  strength  of  a  hydraulic  lime  or  cement.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to 
exclude  all  organic  animal  matter  from  the  sand,  or  substitutes  for  sand,  that  may  be  used 
in  mortar  for  building  or  plastering  the  walls  of  dwellings,  otherwise  they  will  putrefy, 
and  render  the  walls  and  ceilings  sources  of  unwholesome  emanations. 

The  water  used  for  mixing  mortar  should  be  free  from  mud,  clay,  or  other  impurities. 
Salt  water  is  objectionable  in  some  situations,  as  it  causes  damp  and  cfilorescence.  The 
salts  it  contains  attract  moisture,  which  improves  the  strength  of  hydraulic  limes  and 
cements  by  preventing  them  from  drying  too  quickly,  but  is  fatal  to  a  pure  lime  for  the 
reasons  given  above.  Dirty  water,  and  water  containing  organic  matter,  are  of  course 
objectionable  for  the  same  reasons  as  dii'ty  sand. 

Lime  is  much  more  expensive  than  sand.  It  is,  therefore,  a  source  of  economy  to  add 
as  much  sand  as  is  possible  without  unduly  deteriorating  the  strength  of  the  mortar. 
So  long  as  the  joints  of  masonry  or  brickwork  are  weaker  than  the  stones  or  bricks,  the 
strength  of  the  wall  will  increase  in  proportion  as  the  strength  of  the  mortar  increases, 
until  they  are  nearly  equal  in  power  of  resistance.  The  mortar  need  not  be  quite  equal 
in  strength  to  the  bricks,  because  in  a  bonded  wall  the  fracture  is  constrained  to  follow 
a  longer  path  than  when  the  work  is  put  together  without  breaking  joint.  The  object, 
then,  is  to  produce  such  an  equality  of  resistance  as  will  compel  the  fracture  to  follow 
a  straight  line,  i.e.  to  break  the  material  of  the  wall  straight  across  rather  than  to 
follow  the  joints.  This  cannot  always  be  done,  with  a  due  regard  to  economy,  where 
the  wall  is  built  with  very  hard  stone,  but  it  can  be  done  with  the  generality  of  bricks. 
In  some  cases  a  stronger  mortar,  no  doubt,  adds  to  the  strength  of  the  wall.  For 
example,  when  the  bricks  are  very  bad,  they  will  sometimes  weather  out  on  the  fiice, 
leaving  a  honeycomb  of  mortar  joints.  Again,  unusually  strong  mortar  is  required 
sometimes  for  the  voussoirs  of  arches— to  prevent  sliding— for  the  lower  joints  of 
chimneys  and  walls,  &c.  As  a  rule,  however,  it  can  hardly  be  economical  to  make  the 
strength  of  the  mortar  joints  greater  than  that  of  the  bricks  or  stones  they  unite. 

In  considering  the  proportion  of  sand  to  be  mixed  with  different  limes  and  cements 
it  is  necessary  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  strength  of  the  joint  formed  by  the  mortar  will 
have  an  influence  upon  that  of  the  wall.  The  proportion  of  the  ingredients  in  mortar 
is  generally  specified  thus :— 1  quicklime  to  2  (or  more)  of  sand,  meaning  that  1  measure 
of  quicklime  in  lump  is  to  be  mixed  with  2  measures  (or  more)  of  sand.  The  quantities 
of  sand  put  at  different  times  into  a  measure  vary  a  little,  according  to  the  amount  of 
moisture  the  material  contains ;  but  so  little  that  practically  it  makes  no  dilTercnce,  and 
this  mode  of  measuring  sand  is  vrry  convenient  and  sufficiently  accurate.     With  the 


584  Masonry— Brickwork. 

lime,  however,  many  conditions  have  to  he  fulfilled  in  order  to  make  it  certain  that  the 

same  quantity  always  fills  the  same  measure.     The  specific  gravity  of  tlie  calcined 

stone,  the  size  of  the  lumj^s,  the  nature  of  the  burning,  the  freshness  of  the  lime,  all 

cause  the  actual  quantity  contained  in  a  givun  measure  to  difl'er  considerably.     In  order 

to  avoid  this  uncertainty,  it  has  been  proposed  that  the  weight  of  lime  for  a  given 

quantity  of  sand  should  be  sjiecificd.     Practically,  however,  this  has  not  been  carried 

out  to  any  great  extent,  and  the  bulk  of  lime  to  be  used  is  generally  specified  as  well  as 

that  of  the  sand.     The  following  proportions  are  given  by  General  Scott  for  mortar  in 

brickwork  built  with  ordinary  London  stock  bricks. 

Parts  by  Measure. 
Quicklime.      Sand. 

Fat  limes     1  3 

Feebly  hydiaulic  limes       1  2| 

Hydraulic  limes  (such  as  Lias)        ....  1  2 

Roman  cement 1  1  or  1^ 

Medina       „  ..      ..  1  2 

Atkinson'.'^., 1  2 

rorthuid     , 1  5 

Scott's        „         1  4 

The  proportions  here  recommended  apply  only  to  works  above  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  or  free  from  the  action  of  a  body  of  water.  For  hydraulic  purposes  and  founda- 
tions, 1  sand  to  1  quicklime  is  as  much  as  should  be  admitted.  Witli  cement  mortar, 
2  sand  may  be  used  with  1  cement,  unless  actually  in  contact  with  water,  when  1  part 
of  sand  should  be  the  limit  allowed. 

The  quicklime  and  sand  having  been  procured,  and  their  proportions  decided,  the 
preparation  of  tlie  ingredients  commences.  A  convenient  quantity  of  the  quicklime  is 
lueasured  out  on  to  a  wooden  or  stone  floir  under  cover,  and  water  enough  to  slake  it 
is  tpriukled  over  it.  Tlie  heaji  of  lime  is  tiieu  covered  over  with  the  exact  quantity  of 
sand  required  to  be  mixed  with  the  mortar ;  this  keeps  in  the  heat  and  moisture,  and 
renders  the  slakiug  more  rapid  and  thorough.  In  a  short  time — varying  according  to 
tljo  nature  of  the  lime — it  will  be  thoroughly  slaked  to  a  dry  powder.  In  nearly  all 
limes,  however,  there  will  be  found  over-burnt  refractory  particles,  and  these  should  be 
carefully  removed  by  screening — especially  in  the  case  of  hydraulic  limes ;  for  if  they 
get  into  the  mortar  and  arc  used,  they  may  slake  at  some  future  time,  and  by  their 
expansion  destroy  the  work.  The  fat  limes  may  be  slaked  in  any  convenient  quantity, 
whether  required  for  immediate  use  or  not.  Plenty  of  water  may  be  used  ia  slaking 
without  fear  of  injuring  them,  and  they  will  be  found  ready  for  use  in  2  or  3  hours. 
Hydraulic  limes  should  be  left  (after  being  wetted  and  covered  up)  for  a  period  varying 
from  12  to  48  hours,  according  to  the  extent  of  the  hydraulic  properties  tbey  possess;  the 
greater  these  are,  the  longer  they  will  be  in  slaking.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  use 
too  much  watur,  as  it  absorbs  the  heat  and  checks  the  slaking  process.  Only  so  much 
should  be  slaked  at  once  as  can  be  worked  off  within  the  next  8  or  10  days.  With 
strong  hydraulic  limes,  or  with  others  that  are  known  to  contain  over-burnt  particles,  it 
is  advisable  to  slake  the  lime  separately,  and  to  screen  out  all  dangerous  lumps,  &c., 
b.  fore  adding  the  sand ;  or  the  safest  plan  is  to  have  Iho  lime  ground  before  using  it. 
When  lime  is  purchased  ready  ground,  there  is  sometimes  danger  of  its  having  become 
"  air-slaked,"  by  which,  wear  and  tear  of  machinery  in  grinding  is  saved  at  the  expense 
of  loss  of  energy  on  the  part  of  the  lime.  At  the  same  time,  if  unadulterated  and  fresh, 
ground  lime  is  likcdy  to  be  of  good  quality.  The  quantity  of  water  required  for  slaking 
varies  with  the  pureness  and  freshness  of  the  lime,  and  is  generally  between  i  and  |  of 
its  bulk.  A  pure  lime  requires  more  water  than  one  with  hydraulic  properties,  as  it 
evolves  more  heat  and  expands  more  in  slaking.  A  recently-burnt  lime  requires  more 
water  than  one  that  has  been  allowed  to  get  stale. 


Masonry — Brickwork.  585 

The  great  object  in  mixinj,'  is  to  thoroughly  incorporate  the  ingredients,  eo  that  no 
2  <rrains  of  dry  sand  shouhl  lie  together  without  an  intervening  layer  or  fihn  of  lime  or 
cement.  On  extensive  works,  a  mortar-mill  is  universally  adopted  for  mixin','  the 
ingredients,  and,  indeed,  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  intimate  incorjioration  of  large 
quantities.  The  heap  of  slaked  lime  covered  with  sand  is  roughly  turned  over  and 
sliovelled  into  the  revolving  pan  of  the  mortar-mill,  enough  water  being  added  to  bring 
the  mixture  to  the  consistency  of  thick  honey.  When  the  ingredients  are  thoroughly 
mixed  and  ground  togetlier,  the  mortar  is  shdvelled  out  of  the  pan  on  to  a"  banker  "  or 
platform  to  keep  it  from  the  dirty  ground,  whence  it  is  taken  away  by  the  labourers  in 
their  hods.  A  good  deal  has  been  said  regarding  the  number  of  revolutions  that  sliould 
be  given  to  the  pan.  Nothing  seems  to  have  been  settled  upon  this  point  except  that 
the  mortar  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  yet  not  kept  so  long  in  the  mill  as  to  be  ground 
to  pap.  On  very  small  works  tlio  mixing  is  eftected  by  hand  or  in  a  pug-mill.  It  is 
evident,  however,  tliat  such  a  mixture  nuist  be  very  incomplete  unless  a  great  deal  of 
time  is  devoted  to  it.  Before  hydraulic  lime  is  mixed  in  this  manner  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  tliat  it  should  first  be  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  and  with  any  description  of 
lime  the  smallest  refractory  unslakeil  particles  should  be  carefully  screened  out. 
Mortar,  especially  when  made  with  cement,  is  sometimes  mixed  dry,  the  ingredients 
being  carefully  turned  over  together  2  or  3  times  before  the  water  is  added.  I3y  this 
process  a  very  thorough  incorporation  of  Ihe  materials  can  be  effected,  but  in  many  cases 
it  would  involve  a  separate  grinding  of  the  lime,  and  would  be  too  expensive.  If  a 
hydraulic  mortar  is  allowed  to  commence  to  set  and  is  then  disturbed,  it  is  greatly 
injured.  Care  should  be  taken,  therefore,  to  mix  it  only  so  long  as  is  required  for 
tliorough  reduction  and  incorporation  of  the  ingredients,  and  only  to  prepare  so  much  as 
can  be  used  within  a  few  hours.  With  fat  limes  it  matters  little  whether  large  or  small 
quantities  of  moitar  are  made  at  once,  because  they  set  very  slowly.  Very  quick-S(  tting 
cem(.'nts  must  be  used  immediately  they  are  mixed.  The  bulk  of  mortar  proilueed  in 
proportion  to  that  of  the  ingredients  ditfers  greatly  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
lime  or  cement  and  the  quantity  and  description  of  the  sand  added  to  it.  The  more 
hydraulic  limes  produce  a  smaller  quantity  of  mortar  because  they  expand  less  in 
slaking. 

Selenitic  mortar  is  generally  made  by  mixing  selenitic  cement  and  sand.  It  was  at 
one  time  made  by  mixing  a  small  proportion  of  calcined  sulphate  with  ordinary  lime  and 
sand.  The  licences  now  issued  by  the  patentees  render  it  necessary  that  selenitic  cement 
should  be  used.  The  i)roportion  of  sulphate  required  to  develop  the  characteristics  of 
the  material  is  added  to  the  cement  before  it  is  sold,  and  the  process  of  mixing  the 
mortar  is  carried  on  under  the  following  rules : — 1  bush.  (1  •  28  cub.  ft.)  of  prepared 
selenitic  lime  requires  about  G  gal.  of  water  (2  full-sized  pails).  If  prepared  in  a  mortar- 
mill :  (1)  Pour  into  the  pan  of  the  edge-runner  4  full-sized  pails  of  water;  (2)  gradu- 
ally add  to  the  water  in  the  pan  2  bush,  prepared  selenitic  lime,  and  grind  to  the  consist- 
ency of  creamy  paste,  and  in  no  case  should  it  be  thinner;  (3)  throw  into  the  pan  10  or 
12  bush,  clean  sharp  sand,  burnt  clay,  ballast,  or  broken  bricks,  which  must  be  well 
ground  till  thoroughly  incorporated ;  if  necessary,  water  can  be  added  to  this  in  griuding, 
which  is  preferable  to  adding  an  excess  of  water  to  the  prepared  lime  before  adding  the 
sanil.  When  the  mortar-mill  cannot  be  used,  an  ordinary  plasterers'  tub  (containing  about 
30-40  gal.)  or  trough,  with  outlet  or  sluice,  may  be  substituted.  If  prepared  in  a 
plasterers'  tub :  (1 )  Pour  into  the  tub  4  full-sized  pails  of  water  ;  (2)  gradually  add  to  the 
water  in  the  tub  2  bush,  prepared  selenitic  lime,  which  must  be  kept  well  stirred  until 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  water  to  the  consistency  of  creamy  paste,  and  in  no  case 
should  it  be  thinner;  (o)  measure  out  10-12  bush,  clean  sharp  sand  or  burnt  clay 
ballast,  and  form  a  ring,  into  which  pour  the  selenitic  lime  from  the  tub,  adding  water 
as  necessary  ;  this  sliould  be  turned  over  2  or  3  times,  and  well  mixed  with  the  larry  or 
mortar  hook.     Both  the  above  mixtures  are  suitable  for  bricklayeis'  mortar  or  for  lirst 


586  Masonry — Brickwork. 

coat  of  plastering  on  brickwork.  A  box  measuring  inside  13i  in.  by  13i  in.  by  13i  in. 
would  contain  about  1  bush,  and  would  be  useful  for  measuring  the  lime,  and  should  be 
kept  dry  for  that  purpose  ;  and  a  box  without  a  bottom,  measuring  inside  36  in.  by  18  in. 
by  18  in.  would  contain  about  5^  bush.,  and  would  be  very  useful  for  measuring  the  sand. 
Increase  or  decrease  the  quantities  given  proportionately  with  the  requirements.  The 
prepared  selenitic  lime  must  be  kept  perfectly  dry  until  made  into  mortar  for  use.  It  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  that  the  mode  here  indicated  of  preparing  the  mortar,  concrete, 
&c.,  should  be  observed,  viz.  first  well  stirring  the  prepared  selenitic  cement  in  the 
water  before  mixing  it  with  the  sand,  ballast,  or  other  ingredient,  otherwise  the  cement 
will  slake  and  spoil. 

A  few  years  ago  persons  using  selenitic  mortar  were  permitted  to  add  the  sulphate 
for  themselves,  and  where  selenitic  cement  is  not  pi-ocurable  the  process  might  still  be 
useful.  It  is  conducted  as  follows  : — 3  pints  plaster  of  Paris  are  stirred  in  2  gal.  water  ; 
after  the  mixture  is  complete,  it  is  poured  into  the  pan  of  a  mortar-mill ;  4  gal.  water  are 
added,  and  the  mill  revolved  3  or  4  times,  so  as  to  ensure  thorough  mixing :  1  bush, 
finely-ground  unslaked  lime  is  added  ;  the  mixture  is  continued  till  the  whole  becomes 
a  creamy  paste,  and  then  5  bush,  sand  are  gradually  introduced,  the  whole  being 
thoroughly  mixed.  No  more  is  mixed  than  will  be  required  during  the  day.  If  the 
water  gets  heated  or  sets  too  rapidly,  a  little  more  plaster  of  Paris  should  be  added,  but 
not  more  than  |  pint  extra  per  bushel  of  lime.  When  the  lime  used  in  this  last-described 
process  is  deficient  in  hydraulic  properties,  a  proportion  of  selenitic  clay  should  be  added 
so  as  to  bring  the  total  amount  of  clay  in  the  prepared  lime  up  to  about  20  per  cent.  It 
will  be  seen  that  the  addition  of  the  plaster  of  Paris,  clay,  &c.,  requires  considerable 
skill  and  judgment,  and  the  simpler  process  is  to  use  the  selenitic  cement,  in  which  the 
necessary  additions  have  already  been  carefully  made. 

Bad  lime  is  much  improved  by  mixing  Portland  cement  with  it.  Gillmoro  says  that 
lime  paste  may  be  added  to  a  cement  paste  in  much  larger  quantities  than  is  usually 
practised  in  important  works  without  any  considerable  loss  of  tensile  strength  or  hardness. 
There  is  no  material  diminution  of  strength  until  the  volume  of  lime  paste  becomes  nearly 
equal  to  that  of  the  cement  paste,  and  it  may  be  used  within  that  limit  without  appre- 
hension under  the  most  unfavourable  circumstances  in  which  mortars  can  be  placed.  The 
following  was  used  in  the  outer  wall  of  the  Albert  Hall: — 1  Portland  cement,  1  grey 
lime  (Durham),  6  clean  pit  sand.  The  lime  was  slaked  for  21  hours,  then  mixed  with 
sand  for  10  minutes  ;  the  cement  was  added,  and  the  whole  ground  for  1  minute.  Such 
a  mixture  must  be  used  at  once. 

"  Grout "  is  very  thin  liquid  mortar,  sometimes  poured  over  courses  of  masonry  or 
brickwork,  in  order  that  it  may  penetrate  into  empty  joints  left  by  bad  workmanship  or 
owing  to  the  uneven  character  of  the  building  material.  It  may  also  be  necessary  in 
deep  narrow  joints  between  large  stones.  It  is  deficient  in  strength,  and  should  be 
avoided  when  possible. 

Fat  lime  mortars,  unless  improved  by  adding  pozzuolana  and  similar  substances,  are 
so  wanting  in  strength  that  any  precautions  in  using  them  are  of  little  avail.  In  using 
hydraulic  limes  and  cements  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  presence  of  moisture  favours 
the  continuance  of  the  formation  of  the  silicates,  &c.,  commenced  in  the  kiln,  and  that 
the  setting  action  of  mortars  so  composed  is  prematurely  stopped  if  they  are  allowed  to 
dry  too  quickly.  It  is,  therefore,  of  the  utmost  importance,  especially  in  hot  weather, 
that  the  bricks  or  stones  to  be  imbedded  in  the  mortar  should  be  thoroughly  soaked,  so 
that  they  cannot  absorb  the  moisture  from  the  mortar,  as  well  as  to  remove  the  dust 
from  their  surfaces,  which  would  otherwise  prevent  the  mortar  from  adhering.  Mortar 
should  be  used  as  stiff  as  it  can  be  spread  ;  the  joints  should  be  all  well  filled.  Grout 
should  never  be  used,  except  where,  from  the  position  of  the  joint,  it  cannot  be  filled  by 
mortar  of  proper  consistence.  In  frosty  weather,  the  freezing  and  expansion  of  the  water 
in  the  mortar  disintegrates  it  and  destroys  any  work  in  which  it  may  be  laid.     Jlortar 


Masonry — Brickwork. 


587 


or  1 1 1 


should  always  be  placed  fur  the  use  of  the  huikler  on  a  small  platform  or  "  banker,' 
a  tub,  to  keep  it  from  the  dirt. 

•  Tools.— The  tools  required  by  the  bricklayer  are  uot  of  a  complicated  nature,  nor  is 
it  a  matter  of  difficulty  to  become  proficient  in  their  use.  Tlioy  nro  illustrated  b<lo\v. 
Fig.  1302  is  a  masons'  trowel ;  Fig.  1303,  a  pointers'  cutting  tiowcl ;  Figs.  1301,  1305, 


1303. 


>302, 


130). 


1305. 


0 


~) 


^ 


^ 


plasterers'  trowels;  Figs.  1806,  1307, plasterers'  moulding  tools;  Figs.  1308, 1309,  forms 
of  bricklayers'  hammers.  The  level  emi^loyed  by  bricklayers  is  composed  of  a  plumb 
level  (Fig.  251,  p.  186),  fastened  at  right  angles  to  a  straight-edge,  with  struts  at  the 
sides  to  preserve  tlie  relative  positions. 


i:;: 


Laying  Brides. — The  average  size  of  bricks  in  this  country  is  a  fraction  under  0  in. 
long  and  2J  in.  thick;  and,  in  consequence  of  this  uniformity  of  size,  a  wall  of  this 
material  is  described  as  of  so  many  bricks  in  thickness,  or  of  the  number  of  inches  which 
result  from  multiplying  9  in.  by  any  number  of  bricks — a  9-in.,  or  1-brick  wall ;  a  14-iu. 
wall,  or  1^  brick  (13i  in.  would  be  more  correct,  in  fact ;  for,  although  a  joint  of  mortar 
must  occur  in  this  thickness,  yet  the  fraction  under  the  given  size  of  the  brick  is  enough 
to  form  it)  ;  18  in.,  or  2  bricks,  and  so  on.  The  great  art  in  bricklaying  is  to  preserve 
and  maintain  a  bond,  to  have  every  course  perfectly  horizontal,  both  longitudinally  and 
transversely,  and  perfectly  plumb,  which  last,  however,  may  uot  mean  U2)right,  though 


588  Masoxey — Brickwork. 

that  is  the  general  acceptation  of  the  term,  for  the  plumb  rule  maybe  made  to  suit  any 
required  inclination,  as  inward,  against  a  bunk,  for  instance,  or  in  a  tapering  tower,  and 
■also  to  make  the  vertical  joints  occur  perpendicularly  over  each  other ;  this  is  vulgarly 
and  technically  called  keeping  the  perpends. 

By  bond  in  brickwork  is  intended  that  arrangement  which  shall  make  the  bricks  of 
■every  course  cover  the  joints  of  those  in  the  course  below  it,  and  so  tend  to  make  the 

1308. 


1} 


"whole  mass  or  combination  of  bricks  act  as  much  together  or  dependently  upon  one 
another  as  possible.  A  brick,  being  exactly  half  its  lengtli  in  breadth,  it  is  impossible, 
■commencing  from  a  vertical  end  or  quoin,  to  make  a  bond  with  whole  bricks,  as  the 
joints  must  of  necessity  fall  one  over  the  other.  This  difficulty  is  obviated  by  cutting  a 
brick  longitudinally  into  2  equal  parts,  which  are  called  half  headers.  One  of  these  is 
placed  next  to  a  whole  header,  inward  from  the  angle,  and  forms  with  it  a  f  length 
between  the  stretchers  above  and  below,  thus  making  a  regular  overlap,  wliich  may  then 
be  preserved  throughout.  Half  headers,  so  supplied,  are  technically  termed  closers.  A 
f  stretcher  is  obviously  as  available  for  this  purpose  as  a  J  header,  but  the  latter  is 
preferred,  because,  by  the  use  of  it,  uniformity  of  appearance  is  preserved,  and  whole 
bricks  are  retained  on  the  returns.  In  walls  of  almost  all  thicknesses  above  9  in.,  to 
preserve  the  transverse  and  yet  not  destroy  the  longitudinal  bond,  it  is  frequently 
necessary  to  use  half  bricks ;  but  it  becomes  a  question  whether  more  is  not  lost  in  the 
general  firmness  and  consistence  of  the  wall  by  that  necessity  than  is  gained  in  the 
uniformity  of  the  bond.  It  may  certainly  be  taken  as  a  general  rule,  that  a  brick  should 
never  be  cut  if  it  can  be  worked  in  whole,  for  a  new  joint  is  thereby  created  in  a  construc- 
tion, the  dithculty  of  which  consists  in  obviating  the  debility  arising  from  the  constant 
recurrence  of  joints.  Great  attention  should  be  paid  to  tliis,  especially  in  the  quoins  of 
buiLlings  in  which  half  bricks  most  readily  occur,  and  there  it  is  not  only  of  consequence 
to  have  the  greatest  degree  of  consistence,  but  the  quarter  bricks  used  as  closers  are 
readily  admitted,  and  the  weakness  consequent  on  their  admission  would  only  be  increased 
by  the  use  of  other  bats  or  fragments  of  bricks. 

Another  mode  of  bonding  brickwork  is,  instead  of  placing  the  bricks  in  alternate 
courses  of  headers  and  stretchers,  fo  place  headers  and  stretcliers  alternately  in  the  same 
course.  This  is  called  Flemish  bond.  Closers  are  necessary  to  both  varieties  of  bond  in 
tlie  same  manner  and  for  the  same  purpose  ;  half  bricks  will  also  occur  in  both,  but  what 
lias  been  said  in  reference  to  the  use  of  them  in  the  former  applies  even  with  more  force 
to  the  latter,  for  they  are  more  frequent  in  Flemish  than  English,  and  the  transverse  tie 
is  thereby  rendered  less  strong.  Their  occurrence  is  a  disadvantage  which  every  pains 
should  be  taken  to  obviate.  The  arrangement  of  the  joints,  however,  in  Flemish  bond, 
presenting  a  neater  appearance  than  the  English  bond,  it  is  generally  preferred  for  ex- 
ternal walls  when  their  outer  faces  are  not  to  be  covered  with  stucco  or  plaster  compo- 
sition of  any  kind,  but  English  bond  should  have  tlie  preference  when  the  greatest 
degree  of  strength  and  compactness  is  considered  of  the  highest  imjiortance,  because  it 


Masonry — Brickwork.  589 

afforJs  a  better  transverse  tie  thtin  the  other.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  that  what  is  known 
in  England  as  the  Flemish  bond,  in  brickwork,  is  unknown  in  Flanders,  and  is  practised 
in  the  British  Isles  alone.  In  Flanders,  Holland,  and  Rhenish  Germany,  which  are  all 
bricklaying  countries,  no  kind  of  bond  is  found  but  what  is  known  in  England  as 
English  bond. 

It  has  been  attempted  to  improve  the  bond  in  thick  walls  by  laying  raking  courses 
in  the  core  between  external  stretching  courses,  and  reversing  tlie  rake  when  the  course 
recurs.  This  obviates  whatever  necessity  may  exist  for  using  half  bricks  in  the  heailing 
courses,  but  it  leaves  triangular  interstices  to  be  filled  up  witli  bats.  Skilful  and  inge- 
nious workmen  are  well  aware  of  the  necessity  of  attending  to  the  bond,  and  are  ready 
both  to  suggest  and  to  receive,  and  practise  an  improvement;  but  generally  the  work- 
men themselves  are  both  ignorant  of  its  importance  and  careless  in  preserving  it,  even 
according  to  the  common  modes.  Their  work  should,  therefore,  bo  .strictly  supervised  as 
they  proceed  with  it,  for  many  of  the  failures  which  are  constantly  occurring  may  be- 
referred  to  tlieir  ignorance  or  carelessness  in  tliis  jiarticular. 

Not  second  in  importance  to  bonding  in  brickwork  is  that  it  be  perfectly  plumb  or 
vertical,  and  that  every  course  be  perfectly  horizontal  or  level,  both  longitudinally  and 
transversely.  The  lowest  course  in  the  footings  of  a  brick  wall  sliould  bo  laid  witli  the 
strictest  attention  to  this  latter  particular ;  for,  the  bricks  being  of  equal  thickness 
throughout,  the  slightest  irregularity  or  incorrectness  in  that  will  bo  carried  into  the 
superimposing  courses,  and  can  only  be  rectified  by  using  a  greater  or  less  quantity  of 
mortar  in  one  part  or  another ;  so  that  the  wall  will,  of  course,  yield  unequally  to  the 
superincumbent  weight,  as  the  work  goes  on,  and  perpetuate  the  infirmity.  To  save  the 
trouble  of  keeping  the  plumb  rule  and  level  constantly  in  his  hands,  and  yet  to  ensure 
correct  work,  the  bricklayer,  on  clearing  the  footings  of  a  wall,  builds  up  6  or  8  courses 
at  the  external  angles,  which  he  carefully  plumbs  and  levels  across,  and  from  one  to  the 
other.  These  form  a  gauge  for  the  intervening  parts  of  the  courses,  a  line  being  tightly 
strained  from  one  end  to  another,  resting  on  the  upper  and  outer  angles  of  the  gauge 
bricks  of  the  next  course  to  be  laid,  and  with  this  he  makes  his  work  range.  If,  however, 
the  length  be  great,  the  line  will,  of  course,  "  sag,"  and  it  must,  therefore,  be  carefully 
set  and  propped  at  sufficient  intervals.  Having  carried  up  3  or  4  courses  to  a  level  with 
the  guidance  of  the  line,  tlie  work  slinuld  be  proved  with  the  level  and  plumb  rule,  and 
particularly  with  the  latter  at  the  quoins  and  reveals  as  well  as  on  the  face.  A  smart 
tap  with  the  end  of  the  handle  of  the  trowel  will  generally  suffice  to  make  a  brick  yield 
what  little  it  may  be  out  while  the  work  is  so  green,  and  not  injure  it.  Good  workmen,, 
however,  take  a  pride  in  showing  how  correctly  their  work  will  plumb  without  tapping. 
To  work  which  is  circular  in  the  plan,  both  the  level  and  the  plumb  rule  must  be  used, 
together  with  a  gauge  mould  or  a  ranging  trammel,  to  every  course  ;  as  it  must  be  evi- 
dent that  the  line  cannot  be  applied  to  such  in  the  manner  just  described.  To  every 
wall  of  more  than  1  brick  thick  2  men  should  be  employed  at  the  same  time,  one  outside 
and  the  other  in ;  one  man  cannot  do  justice  from  one  side  even  to  a  Hin.  wall.  Inferior 
workmen  and  apprentices  are  generally  employed  as  inside  men,  though  the  work  there 
is  of  quite  as  great  importance  as  exteriorly,  except  for  neatness,  and  for  that  only  if 
the  brickwork  is  to  show  on  the  outside. 

Bricks  should  not  be  merely  laid.  Every  brick  shnidd  be  rubbed  and  pressed  down 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  force  the  slimy  matter  of  the  mortar  into  the  pores  of  the  brick.-, 
and  so  produce  a  perfect  adhesion.  Moreover,  to  make  brickwork  as  good  and  perfect 
ns  it  may  be,  every  brick  should  be  made  damp  or  even  wet  before  it  is  laid,  otherwise 
it  immediately  absorbs  the  moisture  of  the  mortar;  and  its  surface  bemg  covered  with 
dry  dust,  and  its  pores  full  of  air,  no  adhesion  can  take  place  ;  but  if  the  brick  be  damp 
and  the  mortar  moist,  the  dust  is  enveloped  in  the  cementitious  matter  of  the  mortar, 
which  also  enters  the  pores  of  the  brick,  so  that  when  the  water  evaporates  tbe.r  attach- 
ment is  complete,  the  retention  and  access  of  air  being  altogether  precluded.     To  wet  the 


590  Masonry — Brickwork. 

bricks  before  they  were  carried  on  to  the  scaifold  would,  by  making  them  heavier  add 
materially  to  the  labour  of  carrying  ;  in  dry  weather  they  would,  moreover,  become  dry 
again  before  they  could  be  used  ;  and  for  the  bricklayer  to  wet  every  brick  himself 
would  be  an  unnecessary  waste  of  time.  Boys  might  then  be  advantageously  employed  to 
dip  the  bricks  on  the  scaffold,  and  supply  them  in  a  damp  state  to  the  bricklayer's  hand. 
A  watering  pot  with  a  fine  rose  to  it  should  also  be  used  to  moisten  the  upper  surface 
of  the  last  laid  course  of  bricks,  preparatory  to  strewing  the  mortar  over  it.  In  brick- 
laying with  quick-setting  cements,  these  tilings  are  even  of  more  importance  ;  indeed, 
unless  bricks  are  quite  wet  to  be  set  with  cement,  it  will  not  attach  itself  at  all. 

A  matter  of  importance  in  connection  \\  ith  face-brickwork  is  "  finishing,"  commonly 
called  "  striking,"  the  joints,  a  matter  which  has  undergone  during  the  last  20  years, 
more  or  less,  a  complete  transformation  of  character,  in  style  of  work,  skill  displayed, 
and  mode  of  execution.  Various  causes  have  brought  about  this  change,  foremost  amongst 
them  being  the  prevailing  fashion  of  forcing  the  progress  of  brickwork  in  a  manner 
entirely  out  of  keeping  with  the  time  necessary  for  its  natural  growth.  This  has  given 
rise  to  the  now  almost  invariable  practice  of  leaving  the  joints  "  rough,"  to  be  afterwards 
"  pointed  down,"  as  it  is  termed,  when  the  building  is  being  completed,  and  the  scaffolds 
removed ;  wliilst  a  bricklayer  facing  his  joints  "  off  the  trowel,"  must  of  necessity 
exercise  a  certain  amount  of  care  in  selecting  his  bricks,  so  as  to  secure  the  best  face 
outwards,  because,  the  more  they  are  free  from  defects,  the  less  ditBculty  is  found  in 
"striking  "  the  joints. 

Nor  would  this  pointing  business  be  so  bad  if  the  joints  were  raked  out  effectually, 
so  as  to  give  a  sufficient  "key,"  and  the  material  of  a  proper  description  and  quality, 
judiciously  mixed,  and  beaten  to  the  necessary  state  of  consistency,  used  by  an  efl3cient 
workman  with  handy  tools,  and  a  reasonable  allowance  of  time  for  execution ;  for  then 
there  would  be  some  guarantee  of  future  stability,  and  also  some  possibilitj-  of  mitigating 
the  evil  effects  of  slovenly  bricklaying. 

There  are  doubtless  some  cogent  reasons  why,  during  tlie  winter  months,  face- 
brickwork  should  be  left  rough  for  after-pointing.  We  nil  know  what  even  one  night's 
liard  frost  will  do  in  the  way  of  injury  to  the  finished  joints  which  have  not  had  time  to 
get  sufficiently  hard  or  dry  to  resist  it.     But  why  should  not  this  be  avoided? 

To  safeguard  brickwork  from  injury  by  frost,  in  the  first  place,  the  bricks,  ppevious 
to  using,  should  be  kept  dry,  the  mortar  made  up  under  cover,  with  fresh  lime  (kept 
fresh  in  a  weather-tight  shed),  which,  if  not  ground  in  a  mill,  should  be  dry-slaked,  and 
orily  just  sufficient  water  used  in  the  mixing  to  bring  it  into  a  fit  state  of  consistency; 
the  top  and  face  of  all  walls,  so  soon  as  built,  completely  and  effectually  covered  up, 
and  during  building  to  be  covered  every  night ;  the  covering  to  remain  until  the 
danger  is  past,  or  only  uncovered  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  work. 

Another  specially  noticeable  change  has  also  taken  place  in  the  form  of  the  joints, 
whether  struck  in  the  first  instance  or  pointed  afterwards.  This  is  brought  about  by  the 
almost  universal  adoption  of  what  is  called  the  "  weather  joint,"  commonly  known 
amongst  bricklayers  in  aud  about  London  as  the  "  School  Board  joint  " — presumably  so 
because  it  was  on  the  Board  School  buildings  that  this  system  became  more  generally 
adopted.  Now  it  is  one  of  the  conditions  of  the  weather  joint  (so  called)  that  the  face 
.shall  be  bevelled  inwards,  thus  leaving  the  bottom  arris  of  the  bricks  above  bare  and 
square  undercut ;  and  that  the  lower  edge  of  the  joint  may  have  some  pretence  to  a 
straight  line,  it  is  usual  for  the  bricklayers  to  cut  it,  in  which  case  the  top  arris  of  the 
bricks  beneath  is  to  a  certain  extent  undercut  also.  So  there  arc  in  reality  2  open 
"furrows "or  channels  to  every  joint  laid  open  to  receive  any  amount  of  moisture. 
With  the  old  and  legitimate  system  of  pointing  it  would  not  be  so,  because  (always  pro- 
viding the  work  is  skilfully  done)  the  whole  surface  of  the  joint  would  be  struck  flush  to 
the  face  of  the  bricks,  and  completely  scaled  at  both  edges  to  the  arrises  of  the  course 
above  and  below,  with  no  undercutting  whatever.     But  supposing,  for  the  sake  of  argu- 


Masonry — Brickwork.  591 

ment,  that  the  new  style  has  an  advantage  over  the  old  in  respect  to  the  wcatlier,  so 
lunch  cannot  by  any  means  be  said  in  regard  to  the  general  ai)pcarance.  And  moreover 
the  new  system  is  exceedingly  distasteful  to  all  practical  bricklayers  for  one  especial  reason, 
if  for  no  other — the  "awkward  handlingof  the  tools"  involved  in  its  "  manipulation."  For 
instance,  when  commencing  to  build  from  off  tiic  ground  or  scaffold,  it  is  extremely  difli- 
cult  to  get  the  trowel  to  the  required  angle  for  striking  it,  and  it  is  only  when  the  courses 
are  raised  6  or  8  high  that  it  can  be  accomplished  with  any  degree  of  convenience,  leaving 
accuracy  out  of  the  question. 

Another  style  is  commonly  known  as  "  tuck-pointing."  It  is  only  of  late  years  that 
this  system  of  pointing  has  been  applied,  except  in  very  rare  instances,  to  new  brickwork, 
although  common  enough  in  renovating  or  dressing  up  the  face  of  old  buildings,  to  give 
them  a  smart  appearance — by  the  bye,  a  short-lived  one— for  which  purpose  only  it  may 
be,  to  a  certain  extent,  excusable.  But  the  only  possible  excuse  for  its  application  to  new 
work,  is  for  the  purpose  of  covering  a  multitude  of  sins,  in  the  shape  of  inferior  bricks, 
unskilfully  laid  in  execrably  bad  mortar,  the  walls  "  shoved  "  up  (the  correct  scaffold 
definition)  with  but  little  regard  either  to  perfect  face-bond  or  correct  perpends. 
Another  contingency  will  surely  follow — that  once  brickwork  has  been  subjected  to  this 
kind  of  pointing,  a  very  few  years  will  have  elapsed  ere  it  will  require  a  similar  treat- 
ment, and  never  be  fit  to  receive  any  other.  This  tuck-pointing  is  the  least  of  all  adapted 
to  resist  the  action  of  the  weather,  easily  explained  by  the  character  of  the  materials,  the 
system  of  manipulation,  and  form  of  the  joints.  In  the  first  place  the  "  stopping  "  or 
groundwork  of  the  pointing  is  mixed  with  large  proportions  of  vegetable  colouring- 
matter  to  produce  the  necessary  tint — such,  for  instance,  as  lampblack,  umber,  "  Venetian 
reil,"  "  Spanish,"  or  "  purple  brown,"  &c.  ;  neither  of  which  contains  a  particle  of 
*' grit,"  and  when  softened  with  water  all  are  like  so  much  mud,  will  never  set  hard, 
and  when  dry  are  little  or  no  better  than  dust,  having  no  cohesion  in  themselves  or 
their  surroundings. 

In  the  next  place  the  stopping  when  filled  into  the  natural  joints  of  the  brickwork, 
even  if  tucked  in  sound  (which  is  not  always  the  case),  is  "ironed"  up  to  a  smootli 
surface  level  with  the  face  of  the  bricks,  leaving  nothing  in  the  character  of  a  key,  by 
which  the  "  artificial  joint "  when  planted  on  its  face  may  become  incorporated  with  it. 
These  artificial  joints  when  "  laid  on "  and  completed  consist  of  a  network  of  raised 
bands  of  parallel  width,  bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  a  fine  mesh  "  trellis-work," 
stuck  on  to  the  brick  face,  and  having  no  useful  purpose  whatever,  beyond  defining  the 
bond  and  courses,  and  not  always  that  truthfully,  because,  the  brickwork  being  carried 
up  without  any  particular  regard  to  truth,  the  artificial  joints  are  frequently  placed 
upon  the  surface  of  the  brick  instead  of  the  natural  joint. 

The  whole  secret  of  forming  these  joints  depends  upon  the  dexterity  with  which  a 
workman  can  plaster  on  the  face  of  the  stopping  a  ridge  of  pointing  material  ^-|  in. 
wide,  and  then  drag  two-thirds  of  it  oft'  again  with  a  "  Frenchman,"  which  is  supposed  to 
cut  it  off.  This  Frenchman  is  simply  an  old  dinner-knife  ground  to  a  point,  the  tip  of 
which  is  turned  down  square  to  form  a  hook,  the  hook  being  intended  for  cleaning  oft' 
the  sui^erfluous  material  cut  by  the  edge  of  the  knife  as  it  passed  along  the  straight- 
edge. But  it  is  seldom  sufficiently  sharp  for  cutting  it,  so  it  simply  drags  off",  leaving  to 
each  joint  a  couple  of  jagged  edges,  standing  out  ^Vs  i'^-  ^^  thickness,  upon  which  the 
moisture,  dust,  and  sooty  matters  can  deposit  themselves  to  any  extent,  and  eat  their 
way  into  the  mudlike  stopping,  which  requires  but  a  very  short  space  of  time  to  become 
entirely  rotten  and  disintegrated,  and  if  the  surface  or  artificial  joint  has  not  by  this 
time  already  fallen  oflf  from  the  want  of  cohesion,  the  whole  will  gradually  bulge  out 
from  the  face  of  the  wall,  and  ultimately  tumble  together. 

There  is  another  description  of  pointing,  sometimes  called  "  bastard  tuck,"  the  mode 
being  somewhat  similar  to  the  last,  only  that  it  is  done  without  any  previous  stopping.  Tlie 
pointing  mortar  is  generally  laid  on  with  a  tool  called  a  "jointer,"  guided  by  a  straight- 


592  Masonry— Brickwork. 

edge.  This  tool  has  a  face  the  same  width  as  the  intended  joint,  and  leaves  its  impress 
upon  the  material,  the  superfluous  margins  being  cut  or  dragged  oil"  by  the  Frenchman, 
the  same  as  before.  This  kind  of  work  is  preferable  to  tuck-pointing,  inasmuch  as  it  is 
capable  of  being  made  sound  and  durable,  especially  if  the  original  joints  have  been 
previously  and  effectually  raked  out ;  also  the  mortar  may  contain  a  greater  proportion 
of  grit,  and  need  not  contain  any  colouring  matter  to  depreciate  its  setting  qualities.  It 
can  also  be  pressed  into  the  natural  joints  with  greater  effect,  thereby  ensuring  stability, 
and  finished  flush  with  the  face,  which  will  be  a  nearer  approach  in  appearance  to  work 
legitimately  struck  off  the  trowel. 

There  is  yet  another  kind  of  "  bastard  tuck-pointing,"  which  used  occasionally  to  be 
applied  to  brickwork,  faced  with  yellow  malms,  which  consists  of  a  method  of  stopping 
in  the  natural  joints,  while  yet  soft,  and  at  the  same  time  rubbing  over  the  whole  surface 
with  a  piece  of  brick  of  the  same  kind  as  those  in  the  wall.  By  these  means,  the 
particles  ground  from  the  friction  of  the  bricks  become  mingled  with  the  mortar,  so  that 
the  face  of  the  wall,  bricks,  and  joints  are  one  level  surface,  and  as  nearly  as  possible 
one  tint.  It  is  then  left  until  the  time  arrives  for  finishing,  when  the  artificial  joints 
are  laid  on  in  the  same  manner  as  described  in  tuck-poiuting.  One  thing  in  favour  of 
this  method  is  the  fact  that  the  stopping  becomes  nearly  as  hard  as  the  bricks,  anil 
therefore  very  little  danger  occurs  of  early  decay.  But  with  the  disappearance  of  yellow 
malm  bricks,  this  system  of  pointing  appears  to  have  disappeared  also,  and  it  would  be 
well  to  be  enabled  to  say  the  same  of  all  other  pointing  in  so  far  as  new  brickwork  is 

concerned. 

If  pointing  is  to  be  done,  and  must  be  done,  then  let  it  be  done  properly— that  is  to 
say,  neatly  and  sound,  with  good  material,  say  Portland  cement,  spread  out  in  a  dry 
place  for  several  days  to  air  it,  and  mixed  with  a  fair  proportion  of  good  sharp,  fine  grit, 
well  washed ;  the  natural  joints  raked  out  to  a  depth  of  not  less  than  |  in.,  easily  done 
when  the  work  is  being  built,  before  it  has  had  time  to  get  hard,  with  a  piece  of  wood 
shaped  as  a  raker ;  it  should  not  by  any  means  be  done  with  an  iron  instrument,  which, 
in  the  hands  of  an  imskilful  workman,  will  tear  off  the  arris  of  the  bricks.  After  raking, 
the  face  of  the  wall  should  be  ch  aned,  and  the  joints  well  swept  with  a  hard  broom.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind,  that  if  the  bricks  are  cleaned  at  this  stage,  the  cleaning  can  be 
done  at  half  the  cost,  because  the  dirt  and  mortar  spots  will  not  have  had  time  to  casi?- 
harden ;  if  allowed  to  do  so,  there  is  no  hope  of  removing  them  without  destroying  the 
ftice  of  the  brick.  In  hot,  dry  weather  each  piece  of  work  shoidd  bo  well  saturated  with 
water  before  pointing,  which  should  not  be  commenced  while  the  water  is  standing  upon 
the  face.  The  joints  should  also  be  '•  roughed  in,"  and  finished  while  sufficiently  moist 
to  be  pliable ;  the  tool  should  be  a  trowel,  because  what  little  trimming  is  necessary  on  tlie 
score  of  neatness  is  best  done  with  the  trowel,  for  the  reason  that  it  does  not  tear  the 
ed'i-es.  Red  brickwork  especially,  when  pointed  in  this  way,  will  look  remarkably  well ; 
because,  when  toned  down  by  a  few  months'  wear,  the  tint  of  the  cement  harmonizes 
with  the  colour  of  the  brick  with  a  very  pleasing  effect.  The  strength  and  tone  of  the 
material  will  be  greatly  improved  by  a  few  drenchings  of  water,  after  the  work  is  done, 
and  sufficiently  hard  to  bear  it,  providing  the  season  of  the  year  will  permit  it.  In  the 
absence  of  cement,  the  best  "greystone  lime"  should  be  used.  This  should  not  be 
"run"  the  common  way  of  treating  this  kind  of  lime,  but  "air-slaked,"  sifted  dry 
through  a  very  fine  sieve,  and  mixed  with  tl;e  sand  before  wetting,  in  the  same  way  as 
with  cement,  only  the  whole  quantity  required  for  the  job  should  if  possible  be  made  up 
at  one  time,  and  kept  moist ;  not  by  continual  adding  of  water,  but  in  a  damp  i)lace, 
shaded  from  the  sun  and  wind,  and  before  using  beaten  into  a  fit  state  of  consistency, 
with  a  wooden  or  iron  beater. 

Those  who  are  called  upon  to  use  "  black "  pointing  mortar  should  never  stain  it 
with  "lamp-black,"  "foundry  sand,"  or  "forge  blowers,"  but  procure  from  a  powder 
manufactory  a  refuse  called  "  green  charge  "  ;  it  is  in  a  wet  state  like  mortar,  very  cheap, 


Masonry — Brickwork. 


593 


md  a  little  will  go  a  long  way.  It  should  bo  thorouf^hly  mixed  wlien  the  pointing 
'  stuff"  is  being  made  up,  so  as  to  avoid  different  shades  of  colours  when  the  work 
jecoraes  dry. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  various  kinds  of  bond  in  brickwork,  whicli  will  be  more 
ilearly  understood  by  reference  to  the  following  diagrams.    Fig.  1310  illustrates  En"'lisli 

1310. 


1311. 


Dnd,  the  courses  being  made  up  alternately  of  a  row  of  headers  a  and  stretchers  h; 
ig.  1311,  Flemish  bond,  wherein  the  headers  a  and  stretchers  h  occur  alternately  in  tlie 
ime  course.  In  angles  of  walls  it  is  often  necessary  to  introduce  "  closers  "  in  order 
I  make  the  courses  break  joint;  these  closers  are  halves  or  quarters  of  bricks,  cut 
ther  lengthways  or  crossways,  and  introduced  last  but  one  in  tlie  course,  so  that  a 
hole  brick  may  always  come  at  the  end.  Figs.  1312,  1313  illustrate  respectively 
le  1st  and  2nd  courses  of  the  comer  of  a  9-in.  wall  in  English  bond  :  a  headers,  b 
osers,  c  stretchers.  Figs.  1314,  1315  indicate  respectively  the  1st  and  2nd  courses  of  a 
all  2  bricks  thick  in  English  bond:  a  headers,  b  closers,  c  stretchers;  and  Figs.  231(!, 
317,  respectively  the  1st  and  2nd  courses  at  an  angle  of  the  wall.    Figs.   1318,  1319 

2  Q 


594 


Masonry — Brickwork. 


show  respectively  the  1st  and  2iid  courses  of  a  1-brick  wall  in  Flemish  bond  ;  and 
Figs.  1320,  1321,  the  same  in  a  2-brick  wall.  Figs.  1322,  1323  are  the  1st  and  2nd 
courses  respectively  of  the  corner  of  a  1-brick  wall  in  Flemish  bond;  and  Figs.  1324. 
1325,  the  same  of  a  2-brick  walL   The  bond  usc'T  <■"-  "•"-■>-■"  "-ii=  -—.•-+..  ^e  o  „i-.„i.i--_- 


id  for  garden  walls  consists  of  3  stretchers 


1312. 


1313. 


1314. 


1315. 


and  1  hcarter  alternating  in  each  course.  A  bond  much  used  in  Scotland  has  5  courses 
of  stretchers  to  1  of  headers.  In  the  junction  at  right  angles  of  1-brick  English  bond 
walls,  the  1st  and  2nd  courses  respectively  are  as  in  Figs.  1326,  1327;  in  Flemish  bond, 
they  resemble  Figs.  1328,  1329. 

Hollow  loalls. — Brick  walls  are  sometimes  built  hollow,  with  the  view  of  gaining  one 
or  more  of  the  following  objects, — (1)  economy  of  materials,  (2)  equalizing  the  temi^cra- 
ture  and  preventing  damp  in  the  apartment  enclosed,  (3)  providing  a  flue  fur  tlie 
passage  of  smoke.  In  Dearn's  plan  for  a  hollow  wall,  the  bond  is  arranged  as  in 
Fig.  1330,  rows  of  headers  a  alternating  with  rows  of  stretchers  h  set  on  edge,  c  being 
closers,  and  d  the  hollow  spaces.  Another  plan  is  shown  in  Fig.  1331 ;  where  some  of  the 
stretchers  b  are  14  in.  long,  so  as  to  break  joint  and  avoid  the  use  of  closers. 

Fireplaces. — Fig.  1332  shows  tlie  manner  of  supjoorting  the  hearth-stone  of  a  fireplace 
when  timber  joists  are  used.  Into  tlie  front  wall  a  or  chimney  breast,  below  the  grate,  is 
huilt  the  hearth-stone  b,  supported  at  one  end  by  the  wall  and  at  the  other  by  a  trimmer 
arch  c  having  its  base  situated  in  the  wall  a,  and  its  crown  abutting  against  the  trimmer 
joi.st  d. 


Masonry— Brickwork. 


595 


1316. 


1317. 


1320. 


1321. 


1324. 


1^2n 


•2   Q  •?. 


596 


JMasonry — Concrete. 


Concrete. — Concrete  is  an  artificial  compound,  generally  made  by  mixing  lime  or 
cement  with  sand,  water,  and  some  hard  material,  such  as  broken  stone,  gravel,  burnt 


1326. 


1327. 


I32«. 


1329. 


1330. 


1331. 


clay,  bits  of  brick,  slag,  &c.     These  ingredients  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  so  as  to  form 
a  sort  of  conglomerate.     The  lime,  or  cement,  sand,  and  water,  combine  to  form  a  lime 


J\Iasonry—  Concrete. 


597 


1332. 


b          1 

cl 

?^>^ 

O.' 

X 

\ 

/\ 

^ 

or  cement  mortar  in  which  the  hard  material  is  imbedded,  so  that  the  result  is  a  species 
of  very  rougli  rubble  masonry.  The  broken  material  is  sometimes  for  convenience  called 
the  " aggregate,"  and  the  mortar  in  wliich  it  is  encased  the  "matrix."  Thu  strength 
and  other  qualities  of  concrete  depend  chiefly  upon  the  matrix.  They  are,  however, 
influenced  also  by  t!ie  aggregiite. 

As  to  the  matiix,  the  lime,  or  cement,  sand,  and  water,  should  be  so  proportioned 
that  the  mortar  resulting  from  their  mixture  is  the  best  that  can  be  made  from  the 
materials  available.  As  a  rule  it  shouUl 
be  better  than  the  mortar  used  for  walling, 
especially  if  the  concrete  is  to  be  used  in 
important  positions.  The  reason  for  this 
is  that,  in  concrete,  the  mortar  receives  kss 
assistance,  from  the  form  and  arrangement 
of  the  bodies  it  cements  togetlier,  than  it 
does  in  masonry  or  brickwork.  In  some 
cases  the  mortar  is  mixed  separately,  just  as 
if  it  were  to  be  used  in  building  brickwork 
or  masonry,  and  then  added  to  tlie  hard 
material.  More  generally,  however,  the  in- 
gredients are  mixed  together  in  a  dry  state. 

The  aggregate  is  generally  composed  of  any  hard  material  that  can  be  procured  near 
at  hand,  or  in  the  most  economical  manner.  Almost  any  hard  substance  may  be  used 
■when  broken  up,  e.  g.  broken  stone,  slag,  bits  of  brick,  of  earthenware,  burnt  clay,  breeze, 
and  shingle.  Preference  should  be  given  to  fragments  of  a  somewhat  porous  nature, 
such  as  pieces  of  brick  or  limestone,  rather  than  to  those  with  smooth  surfiices,  such  as 
flints  or  shingle,  as  the  former  ofier  rough  surfaces  to  which  the  cementing  material  will 
readily  adhere.  Any  aggregate  of  a  very  absorbent  nature  should  be  thoroughly  wetted, 
esiiecially  if  it  is  used  in  connection  with  a  slow-setting  lime  or  cement,  otherwise  the 
aggregate  will  suck  all  the  moisture  out  of  the  matrix,  and  greatly  reduce  its  strength. 
Many  prefer  aggregates  composed  of  angular  fragments  rather  than  those  consisting  of 
rounded  pieces,  e.  g.  broken  stone  rather  than  shingle.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  the 
angular  fragments  fit  into  one  another,  and  slightly  aid  the  coherence  of  the  mortar  or 
cement  by  forming  a  sort  of  "bond,"  while  the  round  stones  of  the  shingle  are  simply 
held  together  by  the  tenacity  of  the  matrix.  Moreover,  the  angular  stones  are  cemented 
together  by  their  sides,  the  rounded  stones  only  at  the  spots  where  they  touch  one  another. 
The  aggregate  is  generally  broken  so  as  to  pass  through  a  \\-  or  2-in.  mesh.  Very  large 
blocks  cause  straight  joints  in  the  mass  of  the  material,  which  should  be  avoided  if  the 
cement  is  to  bear  a  transverse  stress  or  to  carry  any  considerable  weight.  Of  the  aggre- 
gates in  common  use,  broken  brick,  breeze  or  coke  from  gasworks  if  clean,  and  burnt 
clay  if  almost  vitrified  throughout,  all  make  very  good  concrete.  Gravel  and  ballast 
are  also  good  if  angular  and  clean.  Shingle  is  too  round  and  smooth  to  be  a  perfect 
aggregate.  Broken  stone  varies  ;  some  kinds  are  harder,  rougher  on  the  surface,  and 
therefore  better,  than  others.  Flints  are  generally  too  round,  or,  when  broken,  smooth 
and  splintery.  Chalk  is  sometimes  used,  and  the  harder  varieties  make  good  concrete 
in  positions  where  they  are  safe  from  moisture  ar,d  frost.  Slag  from  iron  furnaces  is 
sometimes  too  glassy  to  make  good  concrete,  but  when  the  surface  is  porous  it  is  one 
of -the  best  aggregates  that  can  be  used.  It  is  hard,  strong,  and  heavy,  and  the  iron 
in  it  combines  chemically  with  the  matrix,  making  it  much  harder  than  it  would 
otherwise  be. 

Tiie  size  of  the  pieces  of  which  the  aggregate  is  formed  influences  the  content  of  tiie 
void  spaces  between  them,  and  therefore  the  quantity  of  lime  and  sand  tlitit  mu>tbe  nse-l. 
Unless  the  mortar  is  of  such  a  description  that  it  will  attain  a  greater  hardness  than  the 
aggregate,  the  object  should  be  for  the  concrete  to  contain  as  much  broken  material  and 


598  Masonry — Concrete. 

as  little-  mortar  as  possible.     The  following  Table  shows  the  amouat  of  voids  in  1  cnb.  yd. 
of  stoue  broken  to  diflerent  sizes,  and  in  other  materials  : — 

1  Cub.  Yd.  contains 
Voids  amounting  to 

Stone  broken  to  2i-iD.  gauge       10    cub.  ft. 

Do.  2       do.  10|    do. 

Do.  1^     do.  Hi    do. 

Shingle 9       do. 

Thames  ballast  (which  contains  the  necessary  sand)  ..     ..  4J     do. 

A  mixture  of  stones  of  different  sizes  reduces  the  amount  of  voids,  and  is  often  desirable. 
The  contents  of  the  voids  in  any  aggregate  may  be  ascertained  by  filling  a  water- 
tight box  of  known  dimensions  with  the  material,  and  measm'ing  the  quantity  of  water 
poured  in  so  as  to  till  up  all  the  interstices,  or  by  weighing  1  cub.  ft.  of  the  aggregate  and 
comparing  its  weight  with  that  of  a  cub.  ft.  of  the  solid  stoue  from  which  it  is  broken. 

In  building  walls,  or  other  masses  of  concrete,  large  pieces  of  stoue,  old  bricks,  chalk, 
&c.,  are  often  packed  in  for  the  sake  of  economy.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  lumps 
thus  inserted  be  at  least  1  in.  apart,  and  some  distance  clear  of  the  face,  so  that  they 
may  be  entirely  surrounded  by  cementing  matter.  Where  lumps  of  chalk  or  absorbent 
material  are  used,  care  must  be  taken  that  they  are  not  exposed  so  as  to  absorb  wet  or 
moisture,  otherwise  they  will  be  liable  to  the  attacks  of  frost,  and  may  become  a  source 
of  destruction  to  the  wall. 

The  proportion  of  each  material  is  determined  by  custom,  rule  of  thumb,  or  experience. 
A  common  mixture  consists  of  1  quicklime,  2  sand,  5  or  6  gravel,  broken  stone,  or 
brick  ;  or  1  quicklime,  7  Thames  ballast  (which  contains  sand  and  shingle).  The  same 
proportions  are  often  blindly  adhered  to,  whatever  may  be  the  nature  of  the  materials 
used.  The  best  proportions  for  the  ingredients  of  1  cub.  yd.  of  concrete  to  be  made  with 
any  given  materials  may,  however,  always  be  arrived  at  by  ascertaiuiug  the  contents  of 
the  voids  in  a  cub.  yd.  of  the  aggregate  (without  sand),  and  adding  to  the  latter  such 
materials  as  will  make  mortar  of  the  best  quality  and  in  sufiScient  quantity  to  perfectly  fill 
those  voids.  If  the  aggregate  contain  sand  (as  in  the  case  of  gravel  or  ballast),  the  sand 
should  be  screened  out  of  the  sample  before  the  voids  are  measured,  and  the  amount  of 
sand  thus  screened  out  will  be  deducted  from  that  required  for  the  mortar  which  is  to 
form  the  matrix  of  the  concrete.  In  practice,  a  little  more  mortar  than  is  actually  required 
to  fill  the  voids  is  provided,  in  order  to  compensate  for  imperfect  mixing.  Drake 
recommends  1  Portland  cement,  8  gravel,  for  walls  of  buildings ;  and  1  Portland 
cement,  6  gravel,  for  roofs,  floors,  &c.  On  the  Metropolitan  Main  Drainage  Works  the 
following  proportions  were  adopted: — 1  Portland  cement,  5|  ballast,  including  sand, 
for  sewers ;  and  1  Portland  cement,  8  ballast,  including  sand,  for  backing  walls  and 
other  work,  except  sewers. 

Concrete  is  much  used  for  paviug,  being  made  into  slabs,  and  then  laid  like  ordinary 
stone  flags.  For  this  purpose  it  is  preferable  to  use  an  aggregate,  such  as  shingle,  much 
harder  than  the  matrix,  and  to  use  very  little  sand  in  the  latter.  As  the  matrix  becomes 
■worn  away,  the  pebbles  of  the  aggregate  project  slightly,  making  the  surface  a  little 
rough,  and  therefore  less  slippery,  and  at  the  same  time  the  matrix  is  protected  from 
further  wear. 

Mixing. — The  materials  are  generally  mixed  in  a  dry  state.  The  proportions  decided 
upon  are  measured  out  either  roughly  by  barrow-loads,  or  in  a  more  precise  manner  by 
means  of  boxes  made  of  sizes  to  suit  the  relative  proportions  of  the  ingredients  to  be  used. 
Such  boxes,  in  which  the  quantities  to  be  mixed  together  can  be  accurately  gauged, 
shoidd  always  be  used  in  mixing  cement  or  other  concretes  intended  for  important  work. 
The  measured  materials  are  tlien  heaped  up  together,  and  turned  over  at  least  2,  better 
3,  times,  so  as  to  be  most  thoroughly  incorporated.  The  dry  mixture  should  then  be 
spriukled,  not  drenched,  the  water  being  added  gradually  through  a  "  rose,"  no  more 


Masonry — Concrete.  599 

leing  used  than  is  necessary  to  mix  the  whole  very  thoroughly.  If  too  much  water  be 
dded,  it  is  apt  to  wash  the  lime  or  cement  away.  The  mixture  should  then  again  be 
urned  over  once  or  twice.  When  lime  is  used  it  should  be  in  a  fine  powder.  If  a  fat 
ime  (which  is  almost  useless  for  concrete  in  most  positions),  it  should  bo  slaked  and 
creened.  If  a  hydraulic  lime,  it  should  be  finely  ground,  or,  in  the  absence  of  machinery 
or  grinding,  it  should  be  carefully  slaked,  and  all  unslaked  particles  removed  by  passing 
t  through  a  sieve  or  fine  screen.  The  lime  is  often  used  fresh  from  the  kiln,  jjiled  on  to 
he  other  ingredients  during  the  mixing.  This  is  apt  to  leave  unslaked  portions  in  the 
inie,  and  is  a  dangerous  practice.  When  Portland  cement  is  used  for  concrete,  it  must 
le  thoroughly  cooled  before  mixing.    Cements  of  the  Roman  class  should  be  fresh. 

When  the  mortar  is  prepared  separately,  and  then  added  to  the  aggregate,  it  may  be 
aixed  in  mortar-mills,  or  by  any  other  means  available,  the  same  precautions  being 
aken  as  in  mixing  mortar  for  other  purposes.  The  mortar  should  not  be  too  wet,  but 
hould,  when  added  to  the  dry  material,  contain  about  as  much  moisture  as  coarse  brown 
ugar.  It  can  then  be  readily  turned  over  and  incorporated  with  the  aggregate.  The 
iggregate  should  be  wet  througliout,  so  tliat  it  may  not  suck  the  moisture  out  of  the 
nortar. 

Some  engineers  consider  it  important  that  the  lime  or  cement  and  sand  should  be 
nixed  dry  with  the  aggregate  ;  others  think  that  it  is  better  to  mix  the  mortar  separately 
md  then  add  it  to  the  dry  material.  The  relative  advantages  of  these  2  methods  depend 
ipon  circumstances.  When  the  aggregate  is  in  the  form  of  sandy  ballast  or  gravel,  the 
lecond  method  could  not  be  adopted  without  the  expense  of  screening.  The  most 
ntimate  mixture,  and  therefore  (other  conditions  being  the  same)  the  best  concrete,  can 
irobably  be  produced  by  mixing  the  matrix  separately  and  adding  it  in  a  moist  (not  wet) 
itate  to  the  moistened  aggregate.  With  quick-setting  cements,  this  method  seems  to  be 
)pen  to  the  objection  that  the  mortar  will  begin  to  set  before  being  added  to  the  aggre- 
gate, and  that  the  setting  process  will  be  disturbed  by  the  after  process  of  mixing  with 
;he  ao-gregate.  As  a  rule,  however,  the  second  method  is  more  expensive  than  that  in 
ivhich  the  dry  materials  are  all  mixed  together ;  and  when  such  is  fhe  case,  it  is  not 
ivorth  while  to  adopt  it  for  ordinary  concrete. 

Laying- — A  common  practice,  which  until  lately  was  much  insisted  upon,  is  to  tip  the 
concrete,  after  mixing,  from  a  height  of  10  ft.,  or  more,  into  the  trench  where  it  is  to  be 
deposited.  This  process  is  now  considered  objectionable,  on  the  ground  that  the  heavy 
md  light  portions  separate  while  falling,  and  that  the  concrete  is  therefore  not  uniform 
throughout  its  mass.  Wooden  shoots  or  steeply-inclined  troughs  are  sometimes  used, 
lown  which  the  concrete  is  shot  from  the  place  where  it  is  mixed  to  the  site  where  it  is 
to  be  used.  Such  shoots  are  also  objectionable,  because  the  larger  stones  have  a  tendency 
:;o  separate  from  the  soft  portions  of  the  concrete.  Concrete  should,  after  thorough 
nixing,  be  rapidly  wheeled  to  the  place  where  it  is  to  be  laid,  gently  tipped  (through  a 
lieio'ht  of  not  more  than  3  ft.)  into  position,  and  carefully  and  steadily  rammed  in  layers 
ibout  12  in.  thick.  Each  layer  should  be  left  till  it  is  perfectly  set  before  another  layer 
is  put  upon  it.  It  is  essential  tliat  the  layers  should  be  horizontal ;  if,  not,  the  water 
trickling  off  will  carry  the  cement  with  it.  Each  layer,  after  it  is  thoroughly  set,  should 
be  carefully  prepared  to  receive  the  one  that  is  to  rest  upon  it.  Its  surface  sh»uld  be 
carefully  swept  clean,  wetted,  and  made  rough  by  mcaus  of  a  pick.  This  is  especially 
necessary  if  it  has  been  rammed,  for  in  that  case  the  finer  stuft'in  the  concrete  works  to 
the  top,  as  also  a  thin  milky  exudation,  which  will,  unless  removed,  prevent  the  next 
layer  from  adhering.  The  joints  between  the  layers  are  the  most  important  points  to  be 
attended  to  in  concrete.  When  the  proper  precautions  have  not  been  taken,  they  are  found 
to  be  sources  of  weakness,  like  veins  in  rocks,  and  the  mass  can  easily  be  split  with 
wedges.  When  there  is  not  time  to  allow  each  layer  to  set  before  the  concreting  is 
continued,  it  is  better  to  ram  it  as  quickly  as  possible,  and,  before  it  is  set,  to  add  the 
layers  above  it.     Anything  is  better  than  to  allow  the  ^ayers  to  be  disturbed  by  ramming, 


600 


Masonry — Concrete. 


by  walking  over  them,  or  in  any  otber  way,  after  they  have  commenced  to  set.  Concrete 
made  with  a  very  quick-setting  cement  should  therefore  not  be  rammed  at  all.  When 
concrete  has  to  be  laid  under  water,  care  must  be  taken  that  it  is  protected  during  its 
passage  down  to  the  site  of  deposit,  so  that  the  water  does  not  reach  it  until  it  is  laid. 
This  protection  is  afforded  sometimes  by  shoots,  by  boxes,  or  by  specially  contrived  iron 
"  skips,"  which  can  be  opened  from  above  when  they  have  reached  the  spot  where  the 
concrete  is  to  be  deposited,  so  as  to  leave  it  there.  Sometimes  the  concrete  is  filled  into 
bags  and  deposited  without  removing  the  bags.  Concrete  is  also  made  into  blocks  vary- 
ing in  size  from  2  to  200  tons.  These  are  allowed  to  set  on  shore,  and  deposited,  the 
smaller  ones  in  the  same  way  as  blocks  of  stone,  those  of  enormous  size  by  special 
arrangements  which  cannot  here  be  described. 

In  the  construction  of  walls  or  buildings  of  concrete,  the  latter  has  to  be  kept  in 
place  or  supported  by  boards  or  otherwise,  until  dry  and  firm  enough  to  be  self  support- 
ing. Various  kinds  of  suitable  apparatus  liave  been  invented  and  patented,  all  more  or 
less  costly.  A  strong,  simple,  and  inexpensive  set  may  be  made  after  the  plan  described 
and  illustrated  below.      In  Fig.  1333,  which  is  a  perspective  view,  the  boards  ab  c  de 

1333. 


are  eacli  made  of  3  planks  /  9  in.  wide  and  1|  in.  thick,  planed  on  the  inner  side.  The- 
width  of  each  board  is  thus  2  ft.  3  iu.,  and  the  length  may  be  various, — 4  ft.,  5  ft.,  G  ft. 
The  3  planks  /  forming  each  board  are  held  together  by  a  piece  of  angle  iron,  screwed 
on  at  each  end,  which  also  serves  to  retain  the  bolts  g  by  which  the  boards  are  secured 
to  the  uprights  /(.    The  last  are  formed  of  a  strip  of  board  2  in.  wide  by  about  6  ft.  long, 

to  which  is  screwed  a  piece  of  channel  iron  (: I)  of  the  same  width  and  length.     The 

iron  bolts  g  hold  each  pair  of  uprights  at  the  required  distance  apart,  to  suit  the  thick- 
ness of  the  wall,  as  well  as  helping  to  tie  together  the  boards  on  each  side  of  the  wall, 
and  resisting  tlie  pressure  of  the  moist  concrete.  As  the  wall  advances  in  height,  the 
bottom  boards  c  d  e  can  be  removed  and  placed  above  the  next  row  a  h,  and  so  on;  and 
when  the  wall  is  sufficiently  firm,  the  uprights  can  be  removed  and  fi.\ed  higlier.  In 
addition  to  the  straight  boards,  there  will  be  needed  some  angle  boards  for  turning 
corners.  Fig.  1334  is  an  elevation,  and  Fig.  1335  a  horizontal  section  of  the  structure. 
Fig.  133G  is  a  nearly  full  sized  section  showing  details. 

Cementing  Material. — It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  when  there  is  a  choice,  the 
strength  and  quality  of  the  cementing  material  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  importance 
of  thu  part  the  concrete  has  to  play.     Thus  fat  lime  concretes  would  be  objectionable 


Masonry — Concrete. 


601 


4feet' 


PwiobX 


•^ 


Pinhob 


1335. 


P 


Jforx/zanial'  ScctCarv 


-'imi^ch- 


1336. 


almost  anywhere,  except  as  filling  in  the  spandrils'of  arches.  Hydraulic  lime,  or  ccmout, 
is  advisable  for  concrete  in  nearly  all  situations.  Eminently  hydraulic  limes  should  be 
used  for  concrete  foundations  in  damp  ground,  and  in  the  absence  of  cement  for  sub- 
aqueous work  of  any  kind.  Portland  cement  concretes  are  adapted  for  all  positions, 
especially  for  work  under  water,  or  where  great  strength  is  recjuired ;  also  in  situations 
where  the  concrete  has  to  take 

the  place  of  stone,  as  in  facing  1334. 

to  walls,  copings,  &c.  For  work 
to  be  executed  between  tides, 
■where  the  concrete  is  required 
to  set  quickly  but  not  to  attain 
any  great  ultimate  strength, 
Koman  or  Medina  cement  may 
be  used  with  advantage.  "When, 
for  tlie  sake  of  its  strength, 
Portland  cement  concrete  is 
necessarily  used  under  water,  it 
must  be  protected  by  canvas 
covering  or  other  means  from 
any  action  which  would  wash  it 
away  before  it  had  time  to  set. 
When  concrete  is  likely  to  be 
exposed  to  great  heat,  as  in  fire- 
proof floors,  gypsum  has  been 
used  as  a  matrix. 

Bulk  produced. —  The  bulk 
of  concrete  obtained  from  a 
mixture  of  proper  proportions 
of  lime,  sand,  and  aggregate, 
varies  considerably  according  to 
the  nature  and  proportions  of 
the  materials  and  method  of 
treatment ;  but  it  should  in 
general  be  a  little  more  than 
the  cubic  content  of  the  aggre- 
gate before  mixing,  as  the  other 
substances,  if  in  proper  pro- 
portion, should  nearly  fit  into  and  disappear  in  its  voids.  The  following  examples 
show  how  the  bulk  of  concrete  produced  varies  according  to  circumstances— ('0  Concrete 
of  1  Portland  cement  to  6  shingle  (or  broken  stone)  and  2  sand  :  27  cub.  ft.  shingle  or 
broken  stone,  9  cub.  ft.  sand,  4J  cub.  ft.  Portland  cement  (3^  bush.),  25  gal.  water,  make 
1  cub.  yd.  concrete,  (i'^)  Concrete  of  1  Portland  cement  to  7  Thames  ballast  (con.-isting 
of  2  stone  1  sand) :  3.3  cub.  ft  ballast,  4\  cub.  ft.  Portland  cement  (3^  busli.),  30  gal.  water, 
make  1  cub.  yd.  of  concrete,  (c)  Concrete  of  1  Portland  cement  to  12  gravel,  used  at  Chatham 
dockyard :  32  cub.  ft.  gravel  (before  shrinkage),  2  cub.  ft.  Portland  cement,  50  gal.  water, 
made  1  cub.  yd.  of  concrete  in  situ,  (d)  Concrete  of  1  Portland  cement  to  8  stone  and 
sand,  used  at  Cork  Harbour  works  :  27  cub.  ft.  stone  broken  to  H-in.  gauge,  9  cub.  ft.  sand, 
4J  cub.  ft.  Portland  cement,  made  1  cub.  yd.  of  concrete  in  situ,  (e)  In  some  concrete 
landings  made  with  breeze  from  gasworks  and  Port'and  cement :  29  cub.  ft.  breeze  broken 
to  f  in.  gauge,  8  cub.  ft.  Portland  cement,  made  I  cub.  yd.  of  concrete  in  situ.  (/)  Concrete 
used  at  Portland  Breakwater  Fort,  stone  used  in  2  sizes  and  mortar  mixed  separately  : 
14 cub.  ft.  stones  broken  to  3i-in.  gauge,  14  cub.  ft.  stones  broken  to  Ih-in.  gauge,  10  cub. 
ft.  sand,  5  cub.  ft.  Portland  cement,  23^  gal.  water,  made  1  cub.  yd.  of  concrete  in  situ. 


602  Masonry — Concrete;  Saltpetreing, 

After  being  rammed,  the  concrete  is  compressed  into  about  f g  the  volume  it  occupies  when 

first  made. 

Selenitic  Cowcrefe.— Concrete  may  be  made  witli  selenitic  cement  mortar  as  the  matrix. 
Portland  cement  is  sometimes  added  in  small  quantities  to  the  selenitic  cement. 
From  a  series  of  experiments  it  appears  that  a  mixture  of  1  part  Portland,  4  of  selenitic 
cement,  and  25  of  sand,  was  if  anything  superior  to  the  same  Portland  used  with  4  o^ 
sand.  The  directions  for  preparing  the  concrete  are  as  follows:  4  full-sized  pails  of 
water,  2  bush,  prepared  selenitic  lime,  2  bush,  clean  sand.  These  ingredients  are  mixed 
in  the  edge-runner  or  tub,  and  then  turned  over  2  or  3  times  on  the  gauging-floor,  to 
ensure  thorough  mixing  with  12  or  14  bush,  ballast.  When  the  tub  is  used,  the  sand 
will  be  first  mixed  dry  with  the  ballast,  and  the  lime  poured  into  it  from  the  tub  and 
thoroughly  mixed  on  the  gauging-floor.  An  addition  of  i  best  Portland  cement  will  be 
found  to  improve  the  setting. 

Expansion. — Concrete,  when  made  with  hot  lime  or  cement,  swells  to  an  extent 
amounting  to  i-f  in.  per  foot  of  its  linear  dimensions.  This  is  owing  to  the  imperfect 
slaking  or  cooling  of  the  lime  or  cement.  It  is  probable  that  when  such  expansion  takes 
place  there  is  a  slight  disintegration  throughout  the  mass  of  concrete,  and  that  its 
coherence  is  destroyed.  It  has  been  ascertained  by  experiment  that  when  lime  is  carefully 
slaked,  the  concrete  does  not  expand  at  all,  and  concrete  should  be  so  carefully  prepared 
that  no  expansion  will  take  place.  The  expansion  which  occurs  in  concrete  made  with 
hot  lime  or  cement  has,  however,  been  taken  advantage  of  in  "  underpinning  "  walls 
that  have  settled  in  parts ;  hot  concrete  forced  tightly  into  openings  made  below  the  faulty 
portions  expands  and  sets,  filling  the  opening,  and  lifting  the  .superincumbent  work  into  its 
proper  position. 

An  indispensable  guide  to  those  interested  in  concrete  construction  is  Keid's  '  Practical 
Treatise  on  Natural  and  Artificial  Concrete.' 

Saltpetreing  of  walls. — The  surfaces  of  walls  are  often  covered  with  an  efflorescence 
of  an  unsightly  character,  formed  by  a  process  known  as  "  saltpetreing."  It  shows  itself 
chiefly  in  the  case  of  newly  built  walls,  but  also  in  those  parts  of  older  walls  which  are 
exposed  to  damp.  It  varies  somewhat  in  appearance  and  chemical  composition,  and  is 
most  apparent  in  dry  weather.  It  is  generally  white  in  colour  and  crystalline  in 
structure:  the  crystals  presenting  the  appearance  of  very  fine  fibres  or  needles,  or 
looking  like  a  thin  coating  of  snow  or  white  sugar.  Chemical  analysis  has  shown  that 
these  crystals  vary  considerably  in  composition.  They  often  consist  of  magnesia  sulphate, 
also  of  lime  sulphate ;  of  soda  carbonate,  sulphate,  or  nitrate  ;  of  soda  and  potash 
chlorides,  and  potash  carbonate.  Efflorescence  is  attributable  sometimes  to  the  bricks  or 
stones  of  a  wall,  sometimes  to  the  mortar.  Dampness  is  favourable  to  its  formation. 
Cold  as  low  as  the  freezing  point  stops  it.  In  bricks  burnt  with  coal  fires,  or  made  from 
clay  containing  iron  pyrites  (iron  bisulphide),  the  sulphur  from  the  fuel  converts  the 
lime  or  magnesia  in  the  clay  into  sulphates.  When  the  bricks  are  wet,  these  dissolve ; 
when  dry,  they  evaporate,  leaving  crystals  on  the  surface.  The  magnesia  sulphate  is 
generally  found  in  much  greater  quantity  than  the  lime  sulphate,  as  it  is  far  more 
soluble  in  water.  Many  limestones  contain  magnesia ;  these  are  acted  upon  during 
calcination  by  the  sulphur  in  the  fuel ;  sulphates  are  formed,  which  find  their  way  into 
the  mortar  and  produce  cff'ects  similar  to  those  above  mentioned.  Again,  the  sulphur 
acids  evolved  from  ordinary  house  fires  attack  the  magnesia  and  lime  in  the  mortar  joints 
of  the  chimney ;  these  dissolve  and  evaporate  on  the  surface.  The  formation  of  chlorides 
is  nearly  sure  to  take  place,  if  sea  sand  or  sea  water  be  used,  or  in  bricks  made  from 
clay  which  has  been  covered  by  salt  water.  In  some  situations  the  formation  of  the 
nitrates  has  been  attributed  to  the  absorption  of  ammonia  from  the  air.  The  potassium 
and  sodium  salts  are  supposed  in  many  cases  to  be  derived  partly  from  the  limestone  used 
for  the  mortar,  and  partly  from  the  fuel  employed  in  burning  the  lime. 

Not  only  does  the  efflorescence  present  a  disagreeable  appearance,  but  it  causes 


Masonry — Damp  Walls 


Scaffolding. 


G03 


damp  patches  on  the  surface  of  the  wall ;  it  will  eat  through  any  coat  of  paint  that  has 
been  applied  after  the  effloreacence  has  once  commenced,  and  will  oven  detach  small 
fragments  of  the  materials  compotsing  the  wall.  Prevention  in  tliis  case  is  better  than 
any  attempt  at  cure.  The  best  plan  is  to  avoid  all  the  materials  above  mentioned  as 
likely  to  give  rise  to  efflorescence.  In  the  case  of  bricks,  clay  containing  pyrites  or  much 
magnesia  should  not  be  used ;  special  bricks  may  be  burnt  with  coke  or  wood.  As 
regards  mortar,  the  use  of  limestones  containing  magnesia  to  any  great  extent  may 
generally  be  avoided.  If,  however,  it  docs  occur  in  spite  of  all  precautions,  the  following 
remedies  may  be  tried,  (a)  In  the  case  of  ashlar  work  :  (1)  The  surface  may  be 
covered  with  a  wash  of  powdered  stone,  sand,  and  water,  which  is  afterwards  cleaned  off ; 
this  fills  up  the  pores  of  the  stone,  and  temporarily  stops  the  efflorescence ;  when  the 
wash  is  removed,  the  saltpetreing  will  recommence,  but  in  a  weaker  degree  than  before. 
(2)  Painting  the  surface  is  sometimes  efficacious  if  it  is  done  before  the  efflorescence 
commences.  (Ji)  The  mortar  before  use  may  be  treated  to  prevent  it  from  causing  efflores- 
cence: (1)  By  mixing  with  it  any  animal  fatty  matter;  Gillmore  recommends  8-12  lb. 
of  fatty  matter,  100  lb.  quicklime,  and  .300  lb.  cement  powder.  (2)  Potash  salts  may  be 
rendered  harmless  by  adding  hydrofluosilieic  acid. 

Damp  icalls. — The  walls  of  a  stone  house,  and  sometimes  of  a  brick  house,  are 
often  covered  with  dampness.  This  is  due  to  the  same  cause  by  which  dew  is  deposited 
on  grass,  or  moisture  on  the  side  of  a  glass  or  pitcher  filled  with  ice  water  and  brought 
into  a  warm  room.  The  walls  become  cold,  and  as  stone  is  a  non-conductor  of  heat,  they 
remain  cold  for  a  long  time.  When  the  weather  changes  suddenly  from  cold  to  warm, 
the  air  becomes  filled  with  moisture,  for  the  warmer  the  air  is  the  more  moisture  it  will 
absorb.  When  this  warm  air  strikes  the  cold  wall,  the  moi.-tuve  is  deposited  on  it  from 
the  air,  which  is  suddenly  cooled  by  contact  with  the  walls,  and  as  the  warm  air  is  con- 
tinually coming  in  contact  with  the  walls,  the  dampness  accumulates  until  it  appears 
like  a  dew  upon  them,  and  pours  down  in  streams  at  times.  It  is  easily  prevented.  No 
plaster  should  be  put  directly  upon  brick  or  stone,  but  "  furring  "  strips  should  be  nailed 
to  the  wall,  and  the  laths  be  put  on  these.  Cellars  are  frequently  made  very  damp  in 
the  same  way  by  too  mucli  ventilation  in  warm  weather. 

Scaffulding.— The  scaffolding  used  by  bricklayers  consists  of  (1)  poles  which  are 
usually  20-SO  ft.  long,  or  even  more,  and   6-9  in.  in  extreme  diameter  at   the  butt 
end ;  (2)  putlogs,  which  are  short 
poles  about  6  ft.  long,  and  sel-  1^37. 

dom  more  than  4  in.  diam.,  but 
chopped  square  to  prevent  them 
from  rolling ;  the  ends  are  also 
square,  but  cut  still  smaller,  so 
as  not  to  exceed  2^  by  3i  in,  or 
thereabout,  in  order  that  they 
may  be  less  than  the  end  of  a 
brick ;  (3)  lashings  and  wooden 
wedges ;  the  former  of  l|-in.  rope, 
about  3  fathoms  long ;  (4)  planks 
of  the  usual  length  of  12-14  ft., 
all  1|  in.  thick,  generally  hooped 
at  the  ends  to  prevent  splitting. 

With  these  materials  the  scaflblding  for  brickwork  is  put  together  in  the  following 
manner :— First  a  line  of  upright  scaffolding  poles  is  erected  on  each  side,  parallel  to 
the  walls,  at  the  distance  of  about  5  ft.,  and  at  intervals  of  8-10  ft.  apart.  They  are 
usually  sunk  about  2  ft.  into  the  ground  at  the  butt  end,  and  the  earth  rammed  round 
them.  Next  a  line  of  horizontal  poles  of  the  same  description  is  lashed  and  wedged 
to  those  upright   poles,  iu  the  position  intended  for  the  first  scaffold  (or  platform). 


1333. 


a 


0/ 


604  Masoney— Scaffolding. 

These  horizontal  poles,  which  are  called  "  ledgers,"  are  continued  all  round  the  buildinfr, 
and  where  2  meet  it  is  usual  to  make  their  ends  overlaj),  and  to  lash  them  not  only  to  the 
upright  poles  but  also  to  each  other.  The  ledgers  and  poles  combine  in  supporting  the 
superstructure  of  the  scaffold,  which  is  formed  by  the  putlog  and  the  planks.  The  putlogs 
have  a  bearing  of  about  6  in.  in  the  walls,  and  are  laid  in  a  position  that  ought  to  be  the 
place  of  a  heading  brick.  At  the  other  end  they  rest  on  the  ledgers.  They  are  usually 
placed  about  5-6  ft.  apart,  excepting  between  doors  and  windows,  where  the  piers  are 
sometimes  so  narrow  as  to  require  them  to  be  placed  nearer  ;  they  cannot  of  course  be 
introduced  where  there  is  an  opening  without  inserting  any  extra  piece  of  timber  across 
that  opening  as  a  beam.  The  planks  are  placed  longitudinally  over  the  putlogs  parallel 
to  the  wall,  and  it  is  common  to  use  4  or  5  planks  alongside  of  each  other,  which  forms 
a  platform  3  or  4  ft.  in  width.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  planks  do  not  project  any 
distance  beyond  the  putlogs  upon  which  they  rest.     See  Figs.  1337,  1338. 

PLASTERING  AND  WHITEWASHING.— Tliese  operations  are  insepa- 
rable in  the  case  of  ceilings,  and  are  often  combined  in  other  instances. 

Plastering. — Materials. — A  great  variety  of  compositions  are  used  by  plasterers, 
among  the  most  important  being  cements  of  various  kinds.  Many  of  these  are  used  also 
for  building  purposes ;  others  are  very  deficient  in  strength  and  weathering  properties, 
and  are  suitable  only  for  covering  the  surfaces  of  internal  walls.  In  addition  there  are 
several  mixtures  made  up  of  lime,  sand,  and  other  materials,  distinguished  by  various 
names,  and  also  used  for  covering  surfaces  of  walls.  The  basis  of  most  i>lasters  is  a  native 
hydrated  lime  sulphate  occurring  as  a  soft  stone,  usually  of  a  more  or  less  crystalline 
texture,  and  varying  in  colour  from  white  through  shades  of  brown  and  grey  to  black.  The 
very  fine-grained  pure  white  varieties  are  termed  "  alabaster,"  or,  when  transparent, 
"  sclenites."  The  raw  stone  is  prepared  either  by  simple  calcination,  or  by  calcination 
and  combination  with  various  salts  of  the  alkalies.  Plaster  of  Paris  is  produced  by  the 
gentle  calcination  of  gypsum  to  a  point  short  of  the  expulsion  of  the  whole  of  tlie 
moisture.  The  raw  stone  is  sometimes  ground  in  the  first  instance  and  calcined  in  iron 
vessels.  Paste  made  from  it  sets  in  a  few  minutes,  and  attains  its  full  strength  in  an 
hour  or  two.  At  the  time  of  setting  it  expands  in  volume,  whicli  makes  it  valuable  for 
filing  up  holes  and  other  defects  in  ordinary  work.  It  is  also  added  to  various  composi- 
tions in  order  to  make  them  harden  more  rapidly  ;  and  is  used  for  making  ornaments 
for  ceilings,  &c.,  which  are  cast  by  forcing  it,  in  a  pasty  state,  into  wax  or  guttapercha 
moulds.  Where  it  is  plentiful,  it  is  used  in  all  parts  of  house-construction  where  it  will 
be  free  from  exposure  to  the  weather,  for  wliich  it  is  unfit,  as  it  is  very  soluble  iu 
water.  There  are  3  qualities  in  the  market — "  superfine,"  "  fine,"  and  "  coarse  " ;  the 
2  former  being  whiter  and  smoother  in  grain  than  the  last.  The  superfine  is  sold 
in  casks,  and  the  other  qualities  in  casks  or  sacks.  Both  casks  and  sacks  contain 
2  cwt. 

Portland  cement  is  much  used  by  plasterers  for  external  rendering,  tlie  lighter 
varieties,  weighing  95-105  lb.  per  bush.,  being  best  adapted  for  this  purpose.  They  set 
more  quickly,  and  thus  save  expense  not  only  in  their  first  cost,  but  alto  in  the  labour 
that  is  bestowed  upon  them  by  the  plasterer.  Koman  cement,  and  others  of  the  same 
class,  are  used  for  internal  rendering.  Keene's  cement  is  a  plaster  produced  by  re- 
calcining  plaster  of  Paris  after  soaking  it  iu  a  saturated  solution  of  alum :  1  lb.  alum  is 
dissolved  iu  1  gal.  water,  and  in  this  solution  are  soaked  84  lb.  calcined  plaster  of  Paris 
in  small  lumps;  these  lumps  are  exposed  S  days  to  tiie  air,  and  then  recalcined  at  a 
dull  red  heat.  The  addition  of  i  lb.  copperas  gives  the  cement  a  cream  colour,  and  is 
said  to  make  it  better  capable  of  resisting  the  action  of  the  weather.  This  cement  is 
harder  than  the  other  varieties  made  from  plaster  of  Paris,  and  is  consequently  used  for 
floors,  skirtings,  columns,  pilasters,  &c. ;  it  is  also  frequently  painted  to  imitate  marble. 
It  is  made  in  2  qualities,  coarse  and  superfine :  the  former  is  white,  and  capable  of 
receiving  a  high  polish  ;  the  latter  is  not  so  white,  or  able  to  take  so  good  a  polish,  but 


to 


Plasteeing — Materials.  COS 

sets  hard.  The  superfine  quality  is  sold  in  casks  containing  3J  buah.,  and  the  coarse  in 
casks  of  the  same  size,  and  in  sacks  containing  3  bush. 

Parian  or  Keating's  cement  is  said  to  be  produced  by  mixinp;  calcim  d  and  jiowdcred 
gypsum  with  a  strong  solution  of  borax,  then  rccalcining,  grinding,  and  mixing  with  a 
solution  of  alum.  There  are  2  qualities  in  the  market — "sujieifine"  and  "coarse." 
They  are  sold  in  casks  and  sacks  of  the  same  sizes  as  tliose  used  for  KoL-ue's  cement. 
Parian  is  said  to  work  freer  than  cither  Kcenc's  or  Martin's  cement,  and  is  therefore 
preferable  for  large  surfaces,  which  have  to  be  liand-floatcd  before  trowelling ;  but  the 
2  latter  cements  are  fatter,  and  produce  sharper  arrises  and  mouldings.  Martin's  cement 
is  made  in  a  similar  way  to  Parian — pi^tash  carbonate  (pcarlash)  being  used  instead  of 
borax,  and  liydrochloric  acid  being  sometimes  added.  It  is  made  in  3  different  qualities 
— coarse,  fine,  and  superfine — the  coarser  kinds  being  of  a  reddish-white  colour,  and  the 
finer  pure  white.  It  is  said  to  cover  more  surface  in  proportion  to  its  bulk  tlian  any 
other  similar  material.  Metallic  cement  has  a  metallic  lustre,  is  suitable  for  outside 
work,  and  is  intended  to  dispense  with  colouring  or  painting,  but  is  not  much  used.  One 
variety  is  made  by  mixing  ground  slag  from  copper-smelting  works  with  ordinary 
cement  stone.  Portland  cement  stucco  is  a  mixture  of  Portland  cement  and  chalk.  It 
is  of  a  good  colour  and  close  texture  ;  weaker  than  Portland  cement,  but  not  so  liable  to 
crack.  Lias  cement  is  produced  from  Lias  shales  containing  a  large  proportion  of 
soluble  silica.  It  resembles  Lias  lime  in  appearance,  sets  in  8  or  10  minutes,  and  is 
used  for  lining  water-tanks,  or  other  purposes  for  which  a  light  quick-setting  cement  is 
required.  John's  stucco  cement  is  used  as  a  wash  or  paint,  and  when  mixed  with  3 
parts  of  sand  as  a  stucco.  It  is  said  to  adhere  well,  to  be  hard  when  set,  impervious  to 
wet,  and  fit  for  mouldings  or  castings. 

These  so-called  "  cements  "  or  plasters  are  largely  used  for  the  best  class  of  internal 
plastering,  and,  as  they  set  very  quickly,  they  can  be  painted  within  a  few  hours,  wliich 
is  a  great  advantage.  They  are  capable  of  receiving  a  very  high  polish,  to  obtain 
which  the  surface  is  rubbed  down  with  gritstones  of  various  degrees  of  coarseness ; 
afterwards  stopped  or  paid  over  with  semi-liquid  neat  cement  which  fills  up  the  pores  ; 
rubbed  again  with  snake-stone,  and  finished  with  putty  powder.  The  plasters  should 
not  be  used  in  situations  much  exposed  to  the  weather,  on  account  of  their  solubility. 

The  materials  used  in  ordinary  plastering  are  laid  on  in  successive  coats,  which 
differ  from  one  another  in  composition.  In  all  of  them  the  lime  used  should  be  most 
thoroughly  slaked,  or  it  will  throw  out  blisters  after  being  spread.  For  this  reason  the 
"  stuff"  is  generally  made  long  before  it  is  required,  and  left  for  weeks  to  cool.  Pure 
or  fat  limes  are  generally  used  for  the  sake  of  economy,  and  for  safety.  Hydraulic 
limes  would  require  special  attention  to  prevent  them  from  blowing.  Moreover,  the 
surface  of  plaster  made  with  fat  lime  is  more  absorbent,  and  less  liable  to  encourage 
condennation,  than  that  of  plaster  made  with  hydraulic  lime.  Salt  water  and  sea-sand 
should  not  be  used,  as  the  salts  they  contain  would  cause  permanent  dampness  and  efflo- 
rescence. The  hair  used  by  the  plasterer  in  order  to  make  his  "coarse  stuff"  hang 
together  is  obtained  from  the  tanners'  yard.  It  should  be  long,  sound,  free  from  grease 
and  diit,  thoroughly  separated,  beaten  up,  or  switched  with  a  lath,  so  as  to  separate 
the  hairs,  and  dried.  It  is  classed  according  to  quality  as  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3,  the  last  being 
the  best.  A  bushel  weighs  14-15  lb.  White  hair  is  selected  for  some  work,  but  as  it 
should  all  be  thoroughly  covered  by  the  coats  subsequent  to  that  in  which  it  occurs,  its 
colour  is  not  of  importance. 

"Coarse  stuff"  is  a  rough  mortar  containing  1-lJ  part  sand  to  1  of  slaked  lime  by 
measure.  This  is  thoroughly  mixed  with  long,  sound  ox  hair  (free  from  grease  or  dirt, 
and  well  switched,  or  immersed  in  water  to  separate  the  hairs)  in  the  proportion  of  1  lb. 
hair  to  2  cub.  ft.  of  the  stuff  for  the  best  work,  and  1  to  3  for  ordinary  work.  The  sand  is 
generally  heaped  round  in  a  circular  dish  form  ;  the  lime,  previously  mixed  with  water 
to  a  creamy  consistence,  is  poured  into  the  middle.     The  hair  is  then  added,  and  well 


606  Plasteeixg — Materials. 

worked  in  throughout  the  mass  ■with  a  rake,  and  the  mixture  is  left  for  several  weeks  to 
"  cool,"  i.  6.  to  become  thoroughl}-  slaked.  If  mixed  in  a  mill,  the  hair  should  only  be 
put  in  at  tlie  last  moment,  or  it  will  get  broken  and  torn  into  short  pieces.  If  there  is 
sufficient  hair  in  coarse  stuff  for  ceilings,  it  should,  when  taken  up  on  a  slate  or  trowel, 
hang  down  from  the  edges  without  dropping  off".  For  walls,  the  hair  may  be  rather  less 
than  in  top  stuff  for  ceilings.  "  Fine  stuff"  is  pure  lime  slaked  to  paste  witli  a  small 
quantity  of  water,  and  afterwards  diluted  with  water  till  it  is  of  the  consistence  of 
cream.  It  is  then  left  to  settle;  the  water  rising  to  the  top  is  allowed  to  run  off, 
and  that  in  the  mass  to  evaporate  until  the  whole  has  become  thick  enough  for  use. 
For  some  purposes  a  small  quantity  of  hair  is  added.  "  Plasterers'  putty  "  is  pure  lime 
dissolved  in  water,  and  then  run  through  a  fine  sieve.  It  is  very  similar  to  fine  stuff, 
but  prepared  in  a  more  careful  manner,  and  is  always  used  without  hair.  "  Gauged 
stuff"  or  "  putty  and  plaster,"  contains  f->  plasterers'  putty,  the  remainder  being  plaster 
of  Paris.  The  last-named  ingredient  causes  the  mixture  to  set  very  rapidly,  and  it  must 
be  mixed  in  small  quantities,  not  more  being  prepared  at  a  time  than  can  be  used  in 
J  hour.  The  proportion  of  plaster  used  depends  upon  tlie  nature  and  position  of  the 
work,  the  time  available  for  setting,  the  state  of  the  weather,  &c.,  more  being  required 
in  proportion  as  the  weather  is  damp.  An  excess  of  plaster  causes  the  coating  to  crack. 
It  is  used  for  finishing  walls  and  for  cornices ;  in  tlie  latter,  the  putty  and  plaster  should 
be  in  equal  proportions. 

Selenitic  plaster  is  made  with  selenitized  lime,  otiierwise  known  as  selenitic  cement, 
described  on  p.  585.  The  method  of  mixing  the  material  for  the  first  coat  of  plastering 
on  brickwork  is  exactly  similar  to  the  process  as  carried  out  for  mixing  mortar.  For 
plastering  on  lath  work  and  other  coats  tlie  following  directions  should  be  followed.  To 
the  same  quantities  of  water  and  prepared  lime,  as  given,  add  only  6-8  bush,  clean  sharp 
sand  and  2  hods  well-haired  lime  putty  ;  the  hair  being  previously  well  hooked  into  the 
lime  putt3\  Lime  putty  should  be  run  a  short  time  before  being  used,  to  guard  against 
blisters,  which  will  sometimes  occur.  This  mixture  will  be  found  to  answer  equally 
well  for  ceilings  as  for  partitions.  If  the  sand  is  very  sharp,  use  only  6  bush,  sand  for 
covering  the  lath,  and  when  sufficiently  set,  follow  with  8  bush,  sand  for  floating  (or 
straightening).  For  common  setting  (or  finishing  coat  of  plastering),  the  ordinary 
I)ractife  of  using  chalk  lime  putty  and  washed  sand  is  recommended.  But  if  a  hard 
selenitic  face  is  required,  care  must  be  tal^en  that  the  prepared  selenitic  lime  be  first 
passed  through  a  2-1  by  24  mesh  sieve,  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  blistering,  and  used  in  the 
following  proportions  : — 4  pails  water,  2  bush,  prepared  selenitic  lime  (previously  sifted 
through  a  24  by  24  mesli  sieve),  2  hods  chalk  lime  putty,  3  bush,  fine  washed  sand. 
This  should  be  treated  as  trowelled  stucco  ;  first  well  hand-floating  the  surface,  and 
then  well  trowelling.  A  very  hard  surface  is  tlien  produced.  For  selenitic  clay  finish, 
take  5  pails  water,  1  bush,  prepared  selenitic  lime,  3  bush,  prepared  selenitic  clay, 
2  bush,  fine  washed  sand,  1  hod  chalk  lime  putty.  This  mixture,  well  hand-floated  to  a 
fair  face,  and  then  well  trowelled,  will  produce  a  finished  surface  equal  to  Parian  or 
Keene's  cement,  and  will  be  found  suitable  for  hospital  walls,  public  schools,  &c. 
Being  non-absorbent,  it  is  readily  washed.  The  use  of  ground  selenitic  clay  improves 
the  mortar,  and  renders  it  more  hydraulic.  "When  the  selenitic  clay  is  used,  2  bush, 
may  be  added  to  1  bush,  prepared  selenitic  lime,  the  proportion  of  sand,  ballast,  &c., 
being  the  same  as  for  prepared  selenitic  lime.  The  use  of  selenitic  clay  effects  a  con- 
siderable saving,  as  it  is  much  cheaper  than  lime.  For  outside  plastering,  use  6-8  bush, 
clean  sand ;  and  for  finishing  rough  stucco  face,  4-5  bush,  fine  washed  sand,  to  the 
proportions  of  lime  and  water  given. 

"  Kough  cast "  is  composed  of  washed  gravel  mixed  with  hot  hydraulic  lime  and 
water  ;  it  is  applied  in  a  semi-fluid  state. 

"  Stucco  "  is  a  term  very  loosely  applied  to  various  substances  which  differ  consider- 
ably from  one  another.     These  may  be  classed  as  follows: — (1)  Compounds  of  hydraulic 


Plasteiung— Materials.  GOT 

lime,  formerly  miich  used  for  external  covering  to  walls.  (2)  Mixtures  of  lime,  plaster, 
and  other  materials  for  forming  smooth  surfaces  on  internal  walls,  chiefly  those  intended 
to  be  painted.  (3)  All  sorts  of  calcareous  cements  and  plasters  used  for  covering  walls. 
"Common  stucco"  consists  of  3  parts  clean  sharp  sand  to  1  of  hydraulic  lime.  It  was 
much  used  atone  time  as  an  external  covering  for  outside  walls,  hut  has  to  a  great  extent 
been  superseded  by  cements  of  recent  introduction.  "Trowelled  stucco"  is  used  for 
surfaces  intended  to  be  painted,  and  is  composed  of  <;  fine  stuff  (without  hair)  and  )  very 
fine  clean  sand.  "  Bastard  stucco  "  is  of  the  same  comjiosition  as  trowelled  btucco,  with 
the  addition  of  a  little  hair.  "  Eougli  stucco "  contains  a  larger  proportion  of  sand, 
which  should,  moreover,  be  of  a  coarser  grit.  The  surface  is  roughened,  to  give  it  the 
appearance  of  stone. 

"Scagliola"  is  a  coating  applied  to  walls,  columns,  &c.,  to  imitate  marble  ;  it  is  made 
of  plaster  of  Paris,  mixed  with  various  colouring  matters  dissolved  in  glue  or  isin^-lass- 
also  with  fragments  of  alabaster  or  coloured  cement  interspersed  througli  the  body  of  the 
plaster. 

"  Marezzo  marble  "  is  also  a  kind  of  plaster  made  to  imitate  marble.  Upon  a  sheet 
of  plate  glass  are  placed  threads  of  floss  silk,  which  have  been  dipped  into  the  veining 
colours  previously  mixed  to  a  semi-fluid  state  with  i^laster  of  Paris.  Upon  the  experi- 
ence and  skill  of  the  workman  in  placing  this  coloured  silk  the  success  of  the  material 
produced  depends.  When  the  various  tints  and  shades  required  have  been  put  on  the 
glass,  the  body  colour  of  the  marble  to  be  imitated  is  put  on  by  hand.  At  this  stage  the 
silk  is  withdrawn,  and  leaves  behind  sufficient  of  the  colouring  matter  with  which  it  was 
saturated  to  form  the  veinings  and  markings  of  tlie  marble.  Dry  plaster  of  Paris  is  now 
sprinkled  over  to  take  up  the  excess  of  moisture,  and  to  give  the  plaster  the  proper 
consistence.  A  canvas  backing  is  applied  to  strengthen  the  thin  coat  of  plaster,  which  is 
followed  by  cement  to  any  desired  thickness ;  tlie  slab  is  then  removed  from  the  glass, 
and  polished.  Imitation  marble  of  tliis  description  is  employed  for  pilasters  and  other 
ornamental  work.  The  basis  of  Marezzo  marble,  as  well  as  of  Scagliola,  being  plaster 
of  Paris,  neither  of  them  is  capable  of  bearing  exposure  to  the  weather.  The  "  artificial 
marble  "  now  manufactured  in  London  is  made  on  the  same  principle  as  the  Marezzo, 
but  difiers  from  it  in  the  character  of  the  cement  used.  A  less  expensive  table  is  also 
substituted  for  the  plate  glass,  and  the  canvas  backing  is  altogether  omitted. 

Plasterers  require  a  great  variety  of  mouldings,  ornaments,  pateras,  flowers,  and 
other  enrichments  for  the  decoration  of  the  work.  These  may  be  made  either  in  plaster 
of  Paris  composition  or  in  papier-mache'.  Plaster  ornaments  are  cast  either  in  wax  or 
in  plaster,  the  latter  process  being  used  chiefly  for  large  ornaments  which  have  an  under- 
cut pattern.  The  ornament  is  in  either  case  first  modelled  in  clay  and  well  oiled.  In 
making  wax  moulds,  the  wax  is  melted,  mixed  with  rosin,  and  poured  in  upon  the  model, 
arrangement  having  been  made  to  prevent  its  escape  ;  the  whole  is  then  steeped  in  water, 
and  the  wax  becomes  detached  in  one  mass.  When  plaster  is  used  as  the  material  for 
the  mould,  it  is  laid  on  the  model  in  plastic  pieces  fitted  togetlier,  and  then  the  whole, 
when  dry,  is  immersed  in  boiled  linseed  oil.  In  casting,  the  jdaster  in  a  semi-fluid  state 
is  dabbed  with  a  brush  into  the  mould.  Composition  ornaments  are  made  with  a 
mixture  of  whiting,  glue,  water,  oil,  and  rosin.  The  oil  and  rosin  are  melted  together 
and  added  to  the  glue,  which  has  been  dissolved  in  water  separately.  This  mixture  is 
then  poured  upon  pounded  whiting,  well  mixed,  and  kneaded  up  with  it  to  the  consist- 
ency of  dough.  When  used,  the  material  is  warmed  to  make  it  soft,  and  is  forced  into 
boxwood  moulds  carved  to  the  patterns  required.  Papier-mache'  is  a  much  lighter 
material  for  ornaments  than  either  composition  or  plaster,  and  it  is  much  used  for  the 
purpose.  Cuttings  of  paper  are  boiled  down  and  beaten  into  a  paste,  mixed  with  size, 
placed  in  a  mould  of  metal  or  sulphur,  and  pressed  by  a  counter-mould  at  the  back,  so 
as  to  be  reduced  to  a  thickness  of  about  J  in.,  the  inner  surface  being  parallel  to  the 
outer  surface,  and  roughly  formed  to  the  same  pattern.    Papier-mache  is  sometimes  made 


608 


PLASTEraNG — Tools 


Lathinc;. 


of  sheets  of  paper  glued  together,  and  forced  into  a  metal  mould  to  give  the  pattern 
required.  In  some  cases,  a  composition  of  paper  pulp  and  rosin  is  first  jjlaced  in  the 
mould.  This  adheres  to  the  paper  ornaments  moulded  as  above  described,  and  takes 
the  Hues  and  arrises  of  the  mould  more  sliarply  than  the  paper  alone  would  do.  Carton 
pierre  is  a  species  of  papier-mache  made  with  paper  pulp,  whiting,  and  size,  pressed  into 
plaster  moulds.  Fibrous  plaster  consists  of  a  thin  coating  of  plaster  of  Paris  on  a  coarse 
canvas  backing  stretched  on  a  light  framework.  This  niateiial  has  great  advantages. 
Large  surfaces  can  be  quickly  covered  without  much  preparation  for  fixing,  as  it  is  very 
light,  and  it  can,  if  required,  be  painted  at  once. 

Tools.— The  "trowel"  (Fig.  1339)  should  measure  about  12  in.  long,  4  in.  wide,  the 
blade  being  of  light  good  steel,  and  the  handle  well  rounded.  The  "  hawk  "  (Fig.  13-iO) 
has  a  blade  of  hard  wood,  14  in.  sq.,  |  in.  thick  in  the  middle  and  reducing  to  I  in.  at 


1339. 


1340 


1341. 


the  edges,  with  a  cleat  in  the  back  to  resist  warping  ;  the  wooden  handle  is  barely  6  in. 
long  and  under  1^  in.  thick.     The  "float"  (Fig.  1341)  is  a  hard  board  about  12  in.  by 
in.  thick,  with  a  cleat  let  into  the  back  to  which  the  handle  (bentwood)  is 
The  "  darby  "  (Fig.  1342)  is  a  pine  board  4  ft.  long  and  4  in.  wide,  with  a 


4  in.  and  | 
attached. 


1342. 


1343. 


& 


n  ■ 

EZ  • 

C  • 

rz  • 


liandle  like  that  of  the  hawk  near  one  end,  and  a  narrow  flat  strip  near  the  other.  The 
"  scratcher"  (Fig.  1343)  consists  of  a  few  short  strips  of  wood,  pointed  at  the  end,  and 
secured  to  cross-pieces  at  about  1  in.  apart.  In  addition  there  are  required  a  straight- 
edge, a  long  plumb  level,  an  angle  block  for  corners,  a  whitewash  brush,  a  pointing 
trowel,  a  paddle  for  finishing  angles,  mitreing  tools  and  moulds,  and  light  scaffolding. 

Lathing. — The  arrangement  of  the  joists,  &c.,  of  floors  and  ceilings  has  already  been 
described  under  Carpentry,  pp.  334-40.  Before  beginning  to  lath  a  ceiling,  it  is  necessary 
to  prove  the  under  surface  of  the  joists  by  applying  a  long  straight-edge,  and  to  make  up 
for  any  slight  inequalities  in  them,  when  the  work  is  not  to  be  of  a  superior  character,  by 
nailing  on  laths  or  strips.  A  framed  floor  with  ceiling  joists  is  tolerably  sure  to  be 
straight ;  but  the  carpenter  must  previously  have  tested  the  lower  surfaces  of  the  beams 
or  binders,  to  ensure  their  accuracy  of  level  with  that  of  the  ceiling  joists,  unless  the 
ceiling  joists  have  been  nailed  to  the  beams.  If  a  ceiling  is  to  be  divided  into  compart- 
ments or  panels,  the  projecting  or  depending  portions  must  be  bracketed  or  cradled  down 
to  receive  the  laths.  It  is  an  important  point  to  be  attended  to  in  plastering  on  laths, 
and  in  ceilings  particularly,  that  the  laths  should  be  attached  to  as  small  a  surface  of 
timber  as  possible,  because  the  plastering  is  not  supported  by  its  adhesion  or  attachment 
to  the  wood,  but  by  the  keying  of  the  mortar  itself,  which  passes  through  between  the 
laths,  and  bends  round  over  them.  If,  therefore,  the  laths  are  in  constantly  recurring 
contact  with  thick  joists  and  beams,  the  keying  is  as  constantly  intercepted,  and  the 
idastering  in  all  such  places  must  depend  on  the  portions  between  that  are  properly 


Plastering — Latliing  ;  Laying  and  Pricking-up.  009 

keyed.  UiiiltT  a  single  floor,  in  which  the  joists  nro  Ticccssnrily  thi'jk,  a  narrow  filk-t 
should  be  nailed  along  the  middle  under  the  whole  lengtli  of  them,  to  receive  the  latlis, 
and  keep  them  at  a  sufficient  distance  from  the  timber  to  allow  tlie  plastering  to  key 
under  it ;  thus,  too,  the  surface  may  be  made  more  perfectly  even,  as  it  is  in  single 
floors  that  inequalities  mostly  occur. 

This  being  all  arranged,  the  plasterer  commences  lathing.  The  laths  should  be  of 
the  stronger  sort.  Thin,  weak  laths,  if  used  in  a  ceiling,  are  sure  to  produce  inequali- 
ties by  sagging  with,  or  yielding  to,  the  weight  attached  to  them.  One  or  two  weak  ones 
in  a  ceiling  of  otherwise  strong  laths  may  be  the  ruin  of  the  best  piece  of  work.  Laths 
should  be  previously  sorted,  the  weak,  the  crooked,  and  knotty,  if  there  be  such,  being 
reserved  for  inferior  work,  and  the  best  and  strongest  selected  for  the  work  of  most 
importance,  so  that  the  workman  shall  find  none  to  his  hand  that  is  not  fit  to  bo  brought 
in.  Taking  a  lath  that  will  reach  over  3  or  4  openings,  the  plasterer  strikes  a  nail  into 
it  on  one  of  the  intermediate  joists,  at  about  J  in.  from  the  one  before  it,  and  then  secures 
the  ends  of  that,  and  the  one  tliat  it  meets  of  the  last  row  with  one  nail,  leaving  the  otlier 
end  of  the  lath  he  has  just  set,  to  be  secured  in  the  same  manner  with  the  end  of  tliat 
which  shall  meet  it  next  in  continuation. 

It  is  of  importance  in  ceilings  to  pay  attention  to  the  bonding  of  the  work.  In 
lathing  or  quartering  partitions  or  battened  walls,  the  bonding  is  not  a  matter  of  such 
material  consequence  as  in  a  ceiling,  because  the  toothing  which  the  thickness  of  the 
lath  itself  afi'ords  to  the  plastering,  is  enough  to  support  it  vertically  ;  but,  nevertheless, 
the  more  complete  the  keying,  even  in  work  of  this  kind,  the  better,  as  the  toothing  above 
will  not  always  protect  it  from  any  exciting  cause  to  fall  forward  or  away  from  the  lathe. 
The  thinner  or  weaker  sort  of  lath  is  generally  considered  sufficiently  strong  for  partitions 
In  common  lathing,  the  spaces  between  the  laths  should  be  I  in.  If  they  be  made  less 
than  that,  the  clinches  will  not  be  strong  enough  ;  and  if  more,  they  will  sag  down  on 
the  ceiling,  and  drop  off  with  their  own  weight  on  the  sides.  In  no  case  should  the 
spaces  exceed  |  in.,  except  when  the  furring  is  very  thin,  like  strips  of  lath  nailed  on 
inside  sheeting  or  ceiling.  Most  lathers  break  joints  at  every  6th  lath,  and  some  every 
10th ;  but  it  is  better  to  break  joints  every  2nd  lath.  When  ordinary  laths  are  used, 
|-|  in.  thick,  the  studding,  joists,  &c.,  should  never  be  over  16  in.  apart — 12  in.  would  be 
better.  Lathing  is  estimated  by  the  sq.  yd.,  and  is  measured  the  same  as  plastering, 
without  deducting  openings  for  doors,  windows,  «S:c.,  except  when  the  opening  exceeds 
63  sq.  ft. 

Laying  and  Pricking  tip. — When  the  lathing  is  finished,  the  work  is  either  laid  or 
pricked  up,  according  as  it  is  to  be  finished  with  1,  2,  or  3  coata.  "  Laying  "  is  a  thick 
coat  of  coarse  stuff,  or  lime  and  hair,  brought  to  an  even  surface  with  the  trowel 
only  ;  for  this  the  mortar  must  be  well  tempered,  and  of  moderate  consistence,  thin  or 
moist  enough  to  pass  readily  through  between  the  laths,  and  bend  with  its  own  weiglit 
over  them,  and  at  the  same  time  stilf  enough  to  leave  no  danger  that  it  will  fall  apart,  a 
contingency,  however,  that  in  practice  frequently  occurs,  in  consequence  of  badly-com- 
posed or  badly-tempered  mortar,  unduly  close  lathing,  or  sutficient  force  not  having  been 
used  with  properly  consistent  mortar  to  force  it  through  and  form  keys.  If  the  work  is 
to  be  of  2  coats,  i.  e.  "  laid  and  set,"  when  the  laying  is  sufficiently  dry,  it  is  thoroughly 
swept  with  a  birch  broom  or  scratcher  to  roughen  its  surface,  and  then  the  "  set,"  a  thin 
coat  of  fine  stuff,  is  put  on.  This  is  done  with  the  common  trowel  alone,  or  assisted  by 
a  wetted  hogs'-bristle  brush,  which  the  workman  uses  with  his  left  hand  to  strike  over 
the  surface  of  the  set,  while  he  presses  and  smooths  it  with  the  trowel  in  his  riglit.  If 
the  laid  work  should  have  become  very  dry,  it  must  be  slightly  moistened  before  the  set 
is  put  on,  or  the  latter,  in  shrinking,  will  crack  and  fall  away.  This  is  generally  done 
by  sprinkling  or  throwing  the  water  over  the  surface  from  the  brusli. 

For  "  floated,"  or  3-coat  work,  the  first,  or  ''■  pricking  up,"  is  roughly  laid  on  the 
laths,  the  object  being  to  make  the  keying  complete,  and  form  a  layer  of  mortar  on  the 

2  B 


610  Plastering— Laying  and  Pricking-up. 

laths  to  which  the  next  coat  may  attach  itself.  It  mnst,  of  course,  be  kept  of  equal  thick- 
ness throughout,  and  should  stand  about  J-|  in.  on  the  surface  of  the  laths.  When  it 
is  finished,  and  while  the  mortar  is  still  quite  moist,  the  plasterer  scratches  or  scores  it 
all  over  with  the  end  of  a  lath  or  the  scratcher.  These  scorings  should  be  made  as  deep 
as  possible,  without  laying  bare  the  laths;  and  the  rougher  their  edges  are  the  better, 
as  the  object  is  to  produce  a  surface  to  which  the  next  coat  will  readily  attach  itself. 

"When  the  "  prickcd-up  "  coat  is  so  dry  as  not  to  yield  to  pressure  iu  the  sli;^htest 
degree,  preparations  may  be  made  for  the  "  flouting."  Ledges,  or  margins  of  lime  and 
hair  about  G  in.  in  width,  and  extending  across  the  whole  breadth  of  a  ceiling,  or  height 
of  a  wall  or  partition,  must  be  made  iu  the  angles  or  at  the  borders,  and  at  distances  of 
about  i  ft.  apart  throughout  the  whole  extent.  These  must  be  straight  with  one  another, 
and  be  proved  in  every  way  by  the  application  of  straight-edges.  Technically  these 
ledges  are  termed  "  screeds."  The  screeds  are  gauges  for  the  rest  of  the  work  ;  for  when 
they  are  ready,  and  the  mortar  in  them  is  a  little  set,  the  interspaces  are  filled  up  flush 
with  them,  and  a  darby  float,  or  long  straight-edge,  being  made  to  traverse  the  screeds, 
all  the  stuff  that  projects  beyond  the  line  is  struck  ofl",  and  thus  the  whole  is  brouo-ht  to 
a  straight  and  perfectly  even  surface. 

To  perfect  the  work  the  screeds  on  ceilings  should  be  levelled,  and  on  walls  and 
partitions  plumbed.  When  the  floating  is  sufficiently  set  and  nearly  dry,  it  is  brushed 
with  a  birch  broom  as  before  described,  and  the  third  coat,  or  "  set,"  is  put  on.  This,  fur 
a  fine  ceiling  that  is  to  be  whitened  or  coloured,  must  be  of  what  plasterers  call  "  putty  "  ; 
but  if  it  is  to  be  papered,  ordinary  fine  stufi",  with  a  little  hair  in  it,  will  be  better. 
Walls  and  partitions  that  are  to  be  papered  are  also  faced  with  fine  stufi",  or  rough  stucco, 
but  for  paint  the  set  must  be  of  bastard  stucco  trowelled. 

Plastering  in  external  walls  requires  the  addition  of  some  hydraulic  cement  to  the 
mortar.  The  scaling  of  plaster  liable  to  the  action  of  water  and  frost  is  said  by  Cameron 
to  be  prevented  by  mixing  sawdust  with  the  mortar. 

Whitewashing. — This  is  also  known  as  calcimining  and  distemper  painting. 

Whitewash  is  maiie  from  pure  white  lime  mixed  with  water.  It  is  used  for  common 
walls  and  ceilings,  especially  where,  for  sanitary  reasons,  a  frequent  fresh  application 
is  considered  preferable  to  any  coating  which  would  last  better.  It  readily  comes  off 
when  rubbed,  will  not  stand  rain,  nor  adhere  well  to  very  smooth  or  non-poious  surfaces. 
It  is  cheap,  and  where  Uted  for  sanitary  reasons  should  be  made  up  of  hut  lime  and 
applied  at  once,  under  which  conditions  it  also  adheres  better.  It  is  improved  by  adding 
1  lb.  pure  tallow  (free  from  salt)  to  every  bushel  of  lime.  The  process  is  generally 
described  as  "lime  whiting."  The  following  is  a  method  recommended  for  making 
whitewash  for  outside  work.  Take  a  clean  water-tight  barrel,  and  put  into  it  J  bush, 
lime.  Slake  it  by  pouring  water  over  it  boiling  hot,  and  in  suflicient  quantity  to  cover 
it  5  in.  deep,  and  stir  it  briskly  till  thoroughly  slaked.  When  the  slaking  has  been 
efi"ected,  dissolve  it  in  water,  and  add  2  lb.  zinc  sulphate  and  1  of  common  salt ;  these 
will  cause  the  wash  to  harden,  and  prevent  its  cracking. 

Common  colouring  is  prepared  by  adding  earthy  pigments  to  the  mixtures  used  for 
lime  whiting.  The  foUowi-.ig  proportions  may  be  used  per  bushel  of  lime  ;  more  or  less 
according  to  the  tint  required : — Cream  colour,  4-6  lb.  ochre  ;  fawn  colour,  6-8  lb. 
umber,  2  lb.  Indian  red,  2  lb.  lampblack  ;  buff"  or  stone  colour,  6-8  lb.  raw  umber,  and 
3-4  lb.  lampblack. 

Whiting  is  made  by  reducing  pure  white  chalk  to  a  fine  powder.  It  is  mixed  with 
water  and  size,  and  used  for  whitening  ceilings  and  inside  walls.  It  will  not  stand  the 
weather.  The  best  method  of  mixing  it  is  in  the  proportion  of  6  lb.  whiting  to  1  qt. 
double  size,  the  whiting  to  be  first  covered  with  cold  water  for  6  hours,  then  mixed  with 
the  size  and  left  iu  a  cold  place  till  it  becomes  like  jelly,  in  which  condition  it  is  ready 
to  dilute  with  water,  and  use.  It  will  take  1  lb.  jelly  to  every  6  super,  yd.  Whiting  is 
made  iu  3  qualities — "  common,"  "  town,"  and  "  gilders."    It  is  sold  by  weight  in  casks 


Whitewashing.  611 

containing  2-10  cwi,  in  sacks  containing  2  cwt.,  in  firkins  (very  small  casks),  in  bulk 
and  in  small  balls. 

Distemper  is  the  name  for  all  colouring  mixed  with  water  and  size.  White  distemper 
is  a  mixture  of  wliitiug  and  size.  The  best  way  of  mixing  is  as  follows: — Take  G  lb. 
best  whiting  and  soak  it  in  soft  water  sufficient  to  cover  it  for  several  hours.  Pour  oflf 
the  water,  and  stir  the  whiting  into  a  smooth  paste,  strain  the  material,  and  add  I  qt. 
size  in  tlie  state  of  weak  jelly ;  mix  carefully,  not  breaking  the  lumps  of  jelly,  then 
strain  through  muslin  before  using ;  leave  in  a  cold  place,  and  the  material  will  become 
a  jelly,  which  is  diluted  with  water  when  required  for  use.  Sometimes  about  J  table- 
spoonful  of  blue  black  is  mixed  in  before  the  size  is  added.  It  is  sometimes  directed  that 
the  size  should  be  used  hot,  but  in  that  case  it  does  not  work  so  smoothly  as  when  used 
in  the  condition  of  cold  jelly,  but  on  the  contrary  drags  and  becomes  crumpled,  thus 
causing  a  rough  surface.  When  the  white  is  required  to  be  very  bright  and  clean, 
potato  starch  is  used  instead  of  the  size.  Coloured  distemper  is  tinted  with  the  same 
pigments  as  are  used  for  coloured  paints,  whiting  being  used  as  a  basis  instead  of  white- 
lead  or  zinc  white.  In  mixing  the  tints,  the  whiting  is  first  prepared,  then  the  colouring 
pigment,  the  latter  being  introduced  sparingly ;  size  is  added,  and  the  mixture  is  strained. 
The  colours  are  classed  as  "common,"  "superior,"  and  "delicate." 

If  the  ceiling  is  new,  nothing  further  is  required  than  a  coat  of  good  Paris  white 
(whiting  of  a  superior  kind),  with  just  sufficient  glue-size  added  to  bind  it,  provided  the 
finishing  plaster  was  of  good  workmanship ;  but  if  inferior  and  very  porous,  it  will  require 
a  preparation  of  strong  size,  soft-soap,  and  a  handful  of  plaster  of  Paris.  For  old  ceilings, 
all  the  previous  whiting,  &c.,  must  be  thoroughly  washed  off"  with  an  old  whitewash 
brush  and  hot  water,  and  allowed  to  dry  before  re-whitening.  When  this  is  done,  if  the 
ceiling  is  "  hot " — i.  e.  porous,  and  soaks  in  the  moisture  very  quickly — it  must  be 
prepared  with  a  mixture  of  1  handful  lime,  the  same  of  whiting,  ^  lb.  glue,  I  lb.  soft- 
soap,  and,  if  smoky  or  damp,  about  2  oz.  alum,  to  make  a  pail  f  full.  When  this  is  dry, 
it  is  ready  for  the  finish.  Use  the  preparation  thin.  To  prepare  whitewash  properly,  the 
whiting  sliould  be  soaked  overnight  in  plenty  of  water,  thoroughly  stirred  up  to  wash  it, 
and  allowed  to  settle  till  the  morning,  when  all  the  water  possible  should  be  drained  oflf. 
The  size  should  likewise  be  melted  the  night  before  use,  so  as  to  be  jellied  by  the 
morning.  It  works  better  when  cold.  About  5  lb.  glue  is  required  to  1  gal.  water, 
which,  with  the  water  taken  up  by  the  whiting,  will  make  it  ready  for  use.  Before  using, 
the  size  and  whiting  should  be  broken  up  separately  and  strained  through  a  fine  sieve  ; 
then  mixed  and  strained  again.  Before  putting  on  the  whiting,  shut  all  doors  and 
windows  to  exclude  the  draught,  take  a  sweep  right  across  the  room,  and  continue  till 
finished.  If  2  are  engaged  at  it,  so  much  the  better,  as  it  requires  to  be  done  quickly  : 
be  careful  to  cover  well,  or  you  will  not  make  a  nice  job.  When  finished,  the  doors  and 
windows  can  be  opened,  as  the  sooner  it  dries  after  it  is  once  on  the  more  even  and  solid 
will  it  look.  For  whitening  and  colouring  walls,  great  care  is  required  in  preparing 
them  ;  all  the  old  stuff  is  to  be  cleared  off,  well  rubbed  down  with  dry  lump  pumice,  all 
holes  well  and  evenly  stopped  with  plaster  of  Paris,  and  a  preparation  of  strong  size, 
whiting,  and  alum,  thickly  laid  on,  of  the  colour  you  are  going  to  finish,  but  a  little 
darker  in  shade.  When  this  is  well  dry,  rub  it  well  down  to  a  good  level  and  smootii 
face  with  lump  pumice  or  coarse  sandpaper.  The  finishing  coat  may  be  made  in  tiie 
same  way  for  the  ceilings  ;  but  if  exposed  to  the  liability  of  being  touched  or  rubbed 
against,  a  little  more  or  stronger  size  is  to  be  used ;  and  if  in  any  way  to  damp,  a  little 
alum.  To  get  any  of  the  colours  required,  it  is  merely  necessary  to  get  the  dry  powders 
and  rub  up  with  the  whiting,  prior  to  mixing  with  size,  adding  by  degrees  till  the 
required  depth  of  tone  is  arrived  at.  For  the  diflerent  shades  of  drab  or  btone-colour 
yellow  ochre,  umber,  black,  and  red  are  used.  For  shades  of  blue,  from  the  French  grey 
to  sky  blue,  ultramarine,  &c.     {Painting  for  the  Million.) 

If  glue  is  employed  to  give  body,  it  is  destroyed  by  the  corrosive  action  of  the 

2  F.  2 


612  Whitewashing. 

lime,  and  in  consequence  the  latter  easily  rubs  off  the  walls  when  dry.  This  is 
the  case  also  if  tlie  lime  is  employed,  as  is  often  absurdly  recommended,  timply  slaked 
in  water,  and  used  without  any  fixing  material.  Limewash  is  prepared  by  placing 
some  freshly-burned  quicklime  in  a  pail,  and  pouring  on  sufficient  water  to  cover  it ;  boiled 
oil  (linseed)  should  then  be  immediately  added,  in  the  proportion  of  1  pint  to  1  g^l. 
of  the  wash.  For  coarser  work,  any  common  refuse  fat  may  be  used  instead  of  the 
boiled  oil.  The  whole  should  then  be  thiimed  with  water  to  the  required  consistency, 
and  applied  with  a  brush.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  leave  the  brush  in  the  lime- 
wash  for  any  lengtli  of  time,  as  it  destroys  the  bristles.  In  lime-washing,  Russian 
tallow  is  frequently  used  in  preference  to  any  other  fatty  matters.     {Tegetmeier.') 

No  brick  wall  that  ever  is  intended  to  be  painted  should  be  whitewashed.  All 
washes  absorb  water,  and  in  damp  weather  lose  their  colour.  For  1  barrel  of  colour 
wash  take  ^  bush,  white  lime,  3  pecks  hydraulic  cement,  10  lb.  umber,  10  lb.  ochre 
1  lb.  Venetian  red,  f  lb.  lampblack.  Slake  the  lime,  cut  the  lampblack  with  vinegar, 
mix  well  together,  add  tlie  cement,  and  fill  the  barrel  with  water.  Let  it  stand  for 
12  hours  before  using,  and  stir  frequently  while  putting  it  on.  This  is  not  white,  but 
of  a  light  stone  colour,  without  the  unpleasant  glare  of  white.  The  colour  may  be 
changed  by  adding  more  or  less  of  the  colours  named,  or  other  colours.  This  wash 
covers  well,  needing  only  one  coat.  A  rough  board  barn  waslied  with  this  will  look 
Well  for  5  years,  and  even  longer,  without  renewing.  The  cement  hardens,  but  on 
a  rough  surface  will  not  scale.     (Scient.  Amer.) 

A  wash  which  can  be  applied  to  lime  walls  and  afterwards  become  waterproof  so  as 
to  bear  washing.  Reseusehek,  of  Munich,  mixes  together  the  powder  from  3  parts 
siliceous  rock  (quartz),  3  parts  broken  marble  and  sandstone,  2  parts  burned  porcelain 
clay,  and  2  parts  fresiily  slaked  lime,  still  warm.  In  this  way  a  wash  Is  made  which 
forms  a  silicate  if  often  wetted,  and  becomes  afti.r  a  time  almost  like  stone.  The 
4  constituents  mixed  together  give  the  ground  colour  to  which  any  pigment  that  can  be 
used  with  lime  is  added.  It  is  applied  quite  thickly  to  the  wall  or  outer  surface,  let 
dry  one  day,  and  the  next  day  frequently  covered  with  water,  which  makes  it  waterproof. 
This  wash  can  be  cleansed  with  water  without  losing  any  of  its  colour;  on  the  contrary, 
each  time  it  gets  harder,  so  that  it  can  even  be  brushed,  while  its  porosity  makes  it 
look  soft.  The  wash  or  calcimine  can  be  used  for  ordinary  purposes  as  well  as  for 
the  finest  painting.     A  so-called  fresco  surface  can  be  prepared  with  it  in  the  dry  waj'. 

Well  wash  the  ceiling  by  wetting  it  twice  with  water,  laying  on  as  much  as  can  well 
lie  floated  on,  then  rub  the  old  colour  up  with  a  stumpy  brush  and  wipe  off  with  a  large 
sponge.  When  this  is  done,  stop  all  the  cracks  with  whiting  and  plaster  of  Paris. 
When  dry,  claircole  with  size  and  a  little  of  the  whitewash.  If  very  much  stained 
when  this  is  dry,  paint  those  parts  with  turps,  colour,  and,  if  necessary,  claircole  again. 
To  make  the  whitewash,  take  12  lb.  whiting  (in  large  balls),  break  them  up  in  a  pail, 
and  cover  with  water  to  soak.  During  this  time  melt  over  a  slow  fire  4  lb.  common  size, 
and  at  the  same  time,  with  a  palette  knife  or  small  trowel,  rub  up  fine  about  a  dessert- 
spoonful of  blue  black  with  water  to  a  fine  paste ;  then  pour  the  water  off  the  top  of 
the  whiting,  and  with  a  stick  stir  in  the  black ;  when  well  mixed,  stir  in  the  melted 
size  and  strain.  When  culd  it  is  fit  for  use.  If  the  jelly  is  too  stiff  for  use,  beat  it  well 
up  and  add  a  little  cold  water.  Commence  whitewashing  over  tlie  window,  and  so  work 
from  the  liglit ;  lay  off  the  work  into  that  done,  and  not  all  in  one  direction,  as  in 
painting.  Distemper  colour  of  any  tint  may  be  made  by  using  any  other  colour  instead 
of  the  blue  black  —as  ochre,  chrome,  Dutch  pink,  raw  sienna  for  yellows  and  buff  ; 
Venetian  red,  burnt  sienna,  Indian  red,  or  purple  brown  for  reds;  celestial  blue,  ultra- 
marine, indigo,  for  blues  ;  red  and  blue  for  purple,  grey,  or  lavender ;  red-lead  and 
chrome  for  orange  ;  Brunswick  green  for  greens.     (Smither.) 

1  doz.  balls  of  whiting,  2  lb.  size,  and  1  oz.  celestial  or  ultramarine  blue,  will  cover 
about  12  8q.  yd.    Take  the  whiting  and  break  up  in  just  enough  water  that  you  can 


Roofing.  613 

work  it  about  in  a  bucket  with  a  stout  stick.  Put  nliout  1  pint  water  in  a  3qt. 
Btiucepan,  and  boil;  take  off  the  fire,  and  drop  your  size  into  it,  and  let  it  stand  up^n 
the  hob  until  melted.  When  tolerably  warm,  pour  into  your  whiting,  being  careful  to 
keep  stirring  it.  Mix  up  your  blue  with  a  Hat  slick  upon  a  slate  or  board,  and  add 
until  it  becomes  of  the  shade  required.  Lime  that  wdl  produce  a  fast  limewash  is 
burnt  in  the  bottom  of  brick  kilns,  the  bricks  upon  the  top,  and  fired  with  heatli,  fir 
loppings,  coal,  wood,  ferns,  and  gorso.  The  sand  from  the  bricks,  the  chalk,  and  the 
potash  from  the  wood  combined,  cover  the  ehidk  or  lime  with  a  silicate  soluble  in  water. 
To  use  this,  get  it  fresh  burnt,  break  it  up,  and  pour  boiling  water  upon  it ;  it  subsides 
into  a  beautiful  cream-like  consistence.  This,  owing  to  the  soluble  silicate  in  it,  must  be 
used  and  made  fresh.  It  is  fast,  and  frequently  presents  a  glazed  surface,  and,  if  not 
put  on  too  thick,  is  very  durable.  A  pock  of  lime  will  do  about  20  sq.  yd. ;  this  is 
iiierely  lime — the  fresher  the  better.  Slake  it.  Make  it  of  the  proper  consistence,  and 
add  to  every  bucket  one  gill  of  turps  and  linseed  oil,  mixed.  Some  use  tallow, 
some  size. 

I.inie  is  always  apt  to  turn  a  bad  colour.  The  way  to  whitewash  a  ceiling  is  to  first 
thoroughly  wash  with  clean  water — not  one  pail,  which  speeilily  gets  dirty,  but  with 
several.  Then  steep  balls  of  whiting  in  water,  and  the  next  day  reduce  them  to  a  thick 
cream.  Put  a  kettle  on  the  fire,  with  sutficient  size,  and  when  hot  pour  it  on  the 
whiting,  adding  at  the  same  time  some  finely-ground  blue  black.  The  proportions  are, 
say,  6  balls  whiting,  2  lb.  size,  and  |-1  oz.  of  blue  black,  according  to  taste.  The 
mixture  must  be  allowed  to  cool  before  using.  To  limewash,  clean  first,  and  tlien 
proceed  to  make  up  the  following:  Take  h  bush,  lime,  and  slake  it;  add  1  lb.  comm(m 
salt,  ^  lb.  white  vitriol,  and  1  gal.  skim  milk.  With  a  clean  surface,  this  will  not 
shell  off,  neither  will  limewash  and  size,  when  properly  prepared  and  laid  on  a  clean 
surface. 

Milk  distemper  is  almost  equal  for  body  and  durability  to  oil  paint,  besides  being 
free  from  offensive  odour.  In  houses  where  sick  and  weakly  persons  are  located,  the 
milk  paints  may  with  advantage  be  used  for  ceiling  and  wall  painting.  The  ingredients 
for  making  this  paint  are  as  follows :  1  gal.  skim  milk,  1  lb.  newly  slaked  lime,  h  lb. 
pale  linseed  oil,  and  about'  8  lb.  Spanish  white,  or  best  washed  whiting.  Beat  up  the 
oil  in  the  lime  with  a  little  milk,  having  previously  put  the  powdered  white  in  the  skim 
milk  to  dissolve.  When  the  lime  and  oil  are  thoroughly  amalgamated,  add  the  pasie 
so  formed  to  the  milk  and  Spanish  white  mixture,  and  stir  up  the  whole  with  a  spatula. 
This  paint  dries  in  about  1  hour.  One  coat  is  usually  sufiicient  for  walls  or  ceilings, 
but  2  coats  are  absolutely  necessary  for  new  work.  Care  must  be  taken  that  the  milk 
is  not  sour,  for  in  that  case  it  would,  by  uniting  with  the  lime,  form  an  earthy  salt, 
which  could  not  resist  any  moisture  that  may  be  in  the  air,  nor  even  dampness  that 
sometimes  finds  its  way  into  the  interior  of  walls.  The  milk  paint  may  be  tinted  au\- 
colour  by  the  addition  of  ordinary  dry  or  damp  colours. 

ROOFING.— The  subject  for  consideration  in  this  section  is  the  covering  of  build- 
ings for  the  purpose  of  protecting  them  from  the  weather.  The  wooden  framework  for 
supporting  the  covering  material  has  been  already  described  under  Carpentry  (pp.  340-G) ; 
there  remain  for  discussion  here  the  various  kinds  of  material  used  for  covering,  and^ 
the  methods  of  securing  them  in  place.  The  first  detail  to  be  decided  on  is  the  "  pitch  " 
or  slope  to  be  given  to  the  roof,  and  this  will  depend  both  on  the  nature  of  the  covering 
material  and  the  character  of  the  climate.  In  the  tropics,  where  rain  falls  in  torrent?, 
a  flat  pitch  helps  to  counteract  the  rush  of  water ;  in  colder  regions  the  pitch  must  be 
such  as  to  readily  admit  of  snow  sliding  off  as  it  accumulates,  to  prevent  injury  to  the 
framework  by  the  increased  weight.  The  pitches  ordinarily  observed,  stated  in  "  height 
of  roof  in  parts  of  the  span,"  are  as  follows  :— Lead,  -/„ ;  galvanized  iron  or  zinc,  A ;  slates, 
1 ;  stone,  slate,  and  plain  tiles,  ?  ;  pantiles,  f ;  thatch,  felt,  and  wooden  shingles, -i  to  i. 
The  various  methods  of  roofing  will  be  discussed  in  order. 


614  KooFiNG — Thatcliiug. 

TliatcMng.— In  country  districts  the  roofs  of  cottages  and  outbuildings  are  frequently 
covered  with  thatch.  This  consists  of  layers  of  straw— wheaten  lasts  twice  as  long  as 
oaten— about  15  in.  in  thickness,  tied  down  to  laths  with  withes  of  straw  or  with  string. 
Thatch  is  an  excellent  non-conductor  of  heat,  and  consequently  buildings  thus  roofed  are 
both  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter  than  others,  and  no  better  roof  covering  for 
a  dairy  can  be  found.  Thatch  is,  however,  highly  combustible,  and  as  it  harbours 
vermin  and  is  soon  damaged,  it  is  not  really  an  economical  material,  though  the  first 
cost  is  small.  A  load  of  straw  will  do  1 J  "  squares  "  of  roofing,  or  1.50  superficial  feet. 
First  class  thatching  is  an  art  not  readily  acquired.  "While  really  good  thatching  will 
stand  for  20  years,  average  work  will  not  endure  10. 

The  operation  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows.  For  renewing  an  old  thatch  the 
best  and  cheapest  material  is  "stubble  "  (the  lower  and  stiffer  half  of  wheaten  straw) ; 
but  for  new  thatch,  stubble  is  not  long  enough  alone,  and  must  be  used  with  straw,  or  be 
replaced  entirely  by  straw.  The  material  is  thoroughly  soaked  with  water,  and  then 
straightened  out  with  the  hands  so  as  to  arrange  the  straws  all  in  one  direction,  termed 
'•  drawing."  When  a  double  handful  (called  a  "  yelven  ")  has  been  thus  prepared,  it  is 
laid  aside,  until  a  sufficient  number  are  ready  to  fill  a  "  jack  "  (large  forked  stick),  in 
which  they  are  placed  just  so  much  out  of  the  parallel  as  to  be  easily  separated.  A  small 
hook  in  the  jack  permits  it  to  be  hung  from  the  thatcher's  ladder. 

Commencing  at  the  eaves  and  working  upwards  to  the  ridge,  he  proceeds  to  lay  a 
strip  of  thatch  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  ladder  from  that  carrying  the  jack.  The  strip 
laid  (technically  a  "  stelch  ")  is  of  convenient  width  for  the  workman's  reach  ;  it  will  be 
of  equal  breadth  throughout  if  the  section  of  roof  is  square,  or  taper  gradually  upwards 
if  the  area  is  triangular.  The  thatcher  commences  by  forming  the  eaves  at  the  bottom  of 
the  stelch,  and  fastens  this  portion  securely  before  proceeding  to  the  next  yelven.  The 
mode  of  fastening  varies  :  in  renewing  old  thatch,  the  new  material  is  secured  by  thrust- 
ing the  upper  ends  into  the  old  thatch  by  a  wooden  spur;  in  new  thatching,  the  straw  is 
bound  to  the  rafters  and  laths  with  tar  cording,  passed,  by  means  of  a  huge  needle, 
through  the  straw  near  the  upper  end  of  the  yelven,  where  it  will  be  covered  by  the  next 
instalment.  Each  succeeding  addition  as  the  work  advances  towards  the  ridge  is  made 
to  overlap  the  preceding  one,  all  except  the  lower  end,  and  is  secured  by  the  tar 
cording. 

When  the  whole  stelch  is  finished  from  eaves  to  ridge,  the  thatch  is  combed  straight 
by  a  short-toothed  wooden  rake.  Every  succeeding  stelch  must  be  so  united  to  its  pre- 
decessor that  no  gap  or  weak  part  is  left  to  mark  their  junction,  or  such  a  spot  will  never 
be  watertight.  The  security  cf  the  thatch  is  further  ensured  by  furnishing  it  with  a 
series  of  buckles  and  runners  on  the  outside.  Buckles  are  a  kind  of  huge  wooden  hair- 
pin, made  by  splitting  withes,  shaving  the  middle  somewhat  thinner  than  the  remainder, 
twisting  it  2  or  3  times,  bending  it  end  to  end,  cutting  it  to  a  length  of  12-18  in.,  and 
pointing  the  ends.  Runners  are  simply  long  strips  of  split  withe,  laid  in  horizontal 
bands  on  the  thatch,  and  held  by  the  buckles,  which  are  thrust  upwards  into  the  thatch, 
as  shown  at  Fig.  1344:  a,  thatch;  b,  laths;  c,  rafters;  d,  tar  cording;  e,  buckles; 
/,  runners. 

The  buckles  are  placed  at  6  to  12  in.  apart,  and  2  series  of  buckles  and  runners  are 
generally  adopted,  an  upper  series  just  below  the  ridge,  and  a  lower  just  above  the  eaves, 
with  additional  series  whenever  there  is  exposure  to  strong  winds.  The  eaves  are 
trimmed  off  evenly  with  shears.  The  best  method  of  finishing  off  at  the  ridge  is  by  a 
kind  of  plaiting  of  the  straw,  not  easily  described.  A  simpler  substitute  is  to  plaster  with 
road-dirt,  and  plant  a  weed  such  as  houseleek  or  etonecrop  in  the  soil. 

In  the  western  counties  of  England,  the  word  straw  is  applied  only  to  the  stems  of 
barley  and  oats  ;  wheaten  straw,  after  it  has  been  deprived  of  leaves  by  a  rough  combing, 
is  tied  in  small  bundles  called  "  niches,"  and  known  as  "  reed."  In  thatching,  the  butt 
end  of  the  reed  is  laid  outwards  and  the  head  inwards ;  and  the  finished  thatch  on 


Roofing — Thatchins:. 


615 


buildings  (but  not  on  ricks)  is  shaved  over  with  a  sliarp  sickle.  Long  strong  reoda 
found  in  the  marshes,  such  as  SI:ii)ton  Lea,  are  cut  at  certain  seasons  and  stacked  in 
bundles  for  similar  ai)plication. 

Byrne  describes  thatching  as  generally  made  of  wheaten  straw,  laid  on  lathing  and 
rafters,  which  may  be  of  the  same  strength  and  placed  the  same  distance  apart  as  for  a 
common  slated  roof;  but  in  country 
places,  where  tliatching  is  mostly 
used,  the  rafters  are  generally 
formed  of  the  branches  of  trees  of 
3-G  in.  in  diameter ;  the  slighter 
they  are,  the  better,  provided  they 
are  sufficiently  strong,  as  the  lighter 
the  roof,  the  less  strain  there  is  on 
the  walls :  of  course,  if  the  rafters 
are  stout,  they  should  be  planed 
farther  apart  than  slight  rafters  ; 
and  if  the  rafters  are  far  apart,  the 
lathing  must  be  stronger,  otherwise 
the  thatching  will  bag,  or  lie  in 
hollows  between  the  rafters.  The 
straw  is  laid  on  the  lathing  in 
small  bundles  called  "  hellams," 
until  it  attains  a  thickness  of  12-16 
in. ;  it  is  fastened  to  the  rafters 
with  young  twigs  and  rope-yarn. 
A  good  pitch  for  a  thatched  roof  is 

45",  or,  as  it  is  technically  called,  a  true  pitch :  if  the  pitch  is  made  less,  the  rain  will 
not  run  off  freely ;  and  if  a  greater  pitch  than  45°  is  used,  the  straw  is  found  to  slip 
down  from  its  fastenings. 

Thatchers'  t(jols  are  as  follows  : — A  common  stable  fork  is  used  to  toss  the  straw  up 
together  when  it  is  wetted,  preparatory  to  its  being  made  into  bundles  for  u.se.  A 
thatchers'  fork,  Fig  1345,  is  a  branch  of  Borae  tough  kind  of  wood,  cut  with  2  smaller 
branches  proceeding  from  it,  so  as  to  form  a  fork,  as  shown  ;  the  joint  of  the  2  branches 
is  gene-rally  strengthened  by  a  small  cord,  to  keep  it  from  splitting  when  it  is  uschI.  A 
small  cord  is  fastened  by  one  end  into  one  of  the  ends  of  the  fork,  and  a  loop  is  spliced 
on  the  other  end  of  the  cord ;  this  loop  is  made  to  pass  over  the  other  end  of  the  fork, 


1343. 


1346. 


I'J^ 


134T. 


Tii 


'A 


1348. 


1319. 


J/*" 


and  to  fit  into  a  notch  cut  to  receive  it.  This  tool  is  used  to  carry  the  straw  from  the 
heap,  where  it  has  been  wetted  and  prepared,  up  to  the  thatcher  on  the  roof,  where  it  ia 
to  he  used. 

The  thatchers'  rake,  Figs.  134G  to  1348,  should  have  a  handle  of  ash  or  some  tough 


616  EooFiNG — Thatching. 

•wood,  made  square,  so  that  it  may  be  grasped  firmly  -without  fear  of  its  slipping  round  in 
the  hand  :  the  arrises  may  be  slightly  rounded  off,  so  as  not  to  hurt  the  hand.  It  will 
be  seen  by  referring  to  Fig.  1347  that  a  crook  is  formed  in  the  handle  ;  the  reason  for 
this  will  be  explained  when  we  come  to  speak  of  the  manner  of  using  the  different 
tools.  The  use  of  this  tool  is,  after  the  straw  is  laid,  to  comb  it  down  straight  and 
smooth. 

The  thatchers'  knife,  or  eaves'  knife,  is  similar  in  shape  and  make  to  the  reap-hook, 
except  tliat  it  is  larger,  and  not  curved  so  quickly.  The  use  of  this  tool  is  to  cut  and 
trim  the  straw  to  a  straight  line  at  the  eaves  of  the  roof. 

The  thatcher  also  requires  a  knife  shaped  something  like  a  bill-hook,  to  point  the 
twigs  used  for  securing  the  straw  ;  a  half-glove  or  mitten,  of  stout  leather,  to  protect  the 
hands  when  driving  in  the  smaller  twigs,  called  spars  ;  a  long  flat  needle,  Fig.  1349 ;  a 
pair  of  leather  gaiters,  to  come  up  above  the  knees,  to  protect  his  knees  and  shins  when 
kneeling  on  the  rafters ;  a  sharp  grit-stone  to  sharpen  the  knives. 

As  before  stated,  the  rafters  for  a  thatched  roof  may  be  of  round  timber,  such  as  the 
branches  of  trees,  and  young  trees,  of  3-6  in.  diara.,  placed  not  more  than  14  in.  from 
centre  to  centre,  but  sometimes  the  rafters  are  of  sawn  timber :  in  that  case  they  should 
be  cut  about  the  same  scantling  as  for  a  slated  roof,  not  as  for  a  tiled  roof.  The  lathing 
in  a  thatched  roof  being  very  liable  to  rot,  it  should  be  split  out  of  heart  of  oak,  or  some 
other  equally  durable  wood;  the  laths  are  about  IJ  in.  wide,  and  J-f  in.  thick,  and  are 
nailed  on  the  rafters  about  8  in.  apart  in  a  horizontal  direction,  just  the  same  as  for  a 
tiled  or  slated  roof.  If  the  laths  are  placed  fartlier  apart  than  8  in.,  the  straw  is  apt  to 
bag  or  sink  down  between  them ;  the  rain  lodges  in  the  hollows,  and  of  course  soon  rots 
the  straw.  An  eaves'  board  about  7  in.  wide  is  required  to  start  the  first  part  of  each 
course  of  thatching  upon. 

The  rafter  and  eaves'  board  being  fixed,  and  the  lathing  nailed  on  in  rows  at  the 
prescribed  distance  apart  before  mentioned,  as  much  straw  is  taken  as  it  is  thought  will 
be  required  for  the  whole  roof,  which  may  be  got  at  by  estimating  a  square  to  take  3|- 
3|  cwt.  of  wheaten  straw  :  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  fibres  or  stalks  as  parallel  to 
each  other  as  possible.  As  each  truss  of  straw  is  opened,  it  is  spread  out  and  wetted, 
using  about  3-4  gal.  of  water  to  each  truss.  The  straw  is  then  tossed  over  and  mixed 
together  in  one  great  heap  with  the  stable  fork,  so  that  every  part  may  get  an  equal 
portion  of  the  water.  If  the  weather  is  fine  and  dry,  the  straw  may  be  used  directly ;  but 
if  the  weather  is  damp  or  rainy,  the  straw  should  be  allowed  to  lie  fur  a  day  or  so  to 
drain,  and  be  once  more  turned  over.  The  reason  for  wetting  the  straw  is  to  make  it 
lie  close,  and  to  enable  the  thatcher's  labourer  more  easily  to  draw  the  stalks  out 
parallel. 

The  thatcher  and  his  labourer  being  now  ready  to  commence,  the  labourer  spreads 
as  much  of  the  straw  on  the  floor  as  will  make  a  bundle  12  in.  wide  and  4  in.  thick  ;  the 
labourer  then  stooping  down,  with  his  left  hand  draws  the  straw,  littlu  by  little,  to  his 
feet,  and  while  doing  so,  with  his  right  hand  draws  out  any  loos-e  straws  that  may  be 
lying  crosswise:  by  this  means  he  gets  a  compact  bundle  of  straw  3  ft.-4  ft.  long 
according  to  the  goodness  of  the  straw,  and  all  the  stalks  are  paniUel.  This  bundle  is- 
calkd  a  "  hellam."  The  labourer  having  placed  4-6  hellams  crosswise  in  his  thatching 
fork,  he  carries  it  on  his  shoulder  up  to  the  thatcher  on  the  roof,  in  the  same  manner  as 
a  bricklayer's  labourer  carries  a  hod  of  mortar  :  the  fork  is  secured  on  the  roof  by  a  small 
peg  and  a  piece  of  string. 

The  thatching  is  now  laid  in  courses  3  ft.  wide,  beginning  at  the  right  end  of  the  roof, 
so  that  the  thatcher  works  from  right  to  left.  The  courses  are  laid  parallel  with  the 
rafters,  and  not  parallel  with  the  lathing  (as  is  the  case  in  slating  and  tiling).  Care 
must  be  taken  at  starting  the  eaves  to  have  a  good  firm  body  of  thatch,  letting  the  straw 
hang  over,  to  be  afterwards  trimmed  with  the  eaves'  knife  to  a  straight  and  good-looking 
edge.     A  row  of  3  hellams  is  placed  on  each  succeeding  lath  in  the  course,  and  each 


Roofing— ShinnrL's  ;  Felt.  617 

row  of  liellams  is  secured  to  the  rafters  with  a  young  tough  twig,  called  a  "  lodger," 
about  4  ft.  long  and  1  in.  diam. :  eacli  row  of  liellams  is  also  secured  to  the  row  inider- 
neath  it  with  3  split  twigs,  called  sjiars,  about  2  ft.  long,  and  Scan  be  split  out  nfu 
branch  2  in.  m  diameter;  they  are  pointed  at  both  ends,  and  are  then  doubled  in  two, 
and  the  thatcher  gives  them  2  twists  round  in  his  IiaTid,  in  tlie  same  manner  as  a  rope  is 
twisted  :  this  gives  the  spar  a  splintery  surface,  and  enables  it  to  hold  on  when  driven 
into  the  straw. 

The  thatcher  has  a  leather  glove  on  his  right  hand :  and  keeping  his  hand  flat  or 
open,  he  gives  the  spar  2  or  3  smart  blows,  sufficient  to  drive  it  into  the  straw  ;  the 
leather  serves  as  a  protection  to  the  hand.  The  spars  must  be  soaked  in  water  for  some 
hours  before  they  are  used,  in  order  that  they  shall  not  break  in  the  doubling  up. 

The  "ledger"  is  a  tough  twig,  about  4  ft.  long  and  1  in.  thick,  as  before  described; 
one  end  is  pointed,  and  driven  or  rather  pushed  G  in.  under  the  outside  rafter  of  the 
course :  it  is  then  brought  over  the  top  of  2  rafters,  and  over  the  top  of  the  hellams,  and 
then  secured  to  the  inside  rafter  of  the  course  with  about  8  ft.  of  rope-yarn,  by  means  of 
the  long  flat  needle,  thus  lioLling  down  the  row  of  hellams,  and  preventing  them  from 
slipping  off  the  roof.  In  spe  iking  of  the  outside  and  inside  rafter  of  a  course,  it  is  meant 
by  the  outside  rafter,  the  rafter  that  is  farthest  from  the  thatcher;  and  by  the  inside 
rafter  the  one  that  is  nearest  to  him ;  and  thus  the  inside  rafter  of  one  course  becomes 
the  outside  rafter  of  the  nest  course. 

The  thatcher  gives  each  course,  as  it  is  laid,  a  combing  down  with  his  rake,  to  get  out 
the  loose  straws  :  he  then  takes  a  bucket  of  water,  and  throws  it  riglit  down  the  cnnrse, 
and  gives  the  straw  a  good  beating  with  the  back  of  his  rake,  to  break  any  stubborn 
straws  and  to  make  it  all  lie  close:  he  then  finally  gives  it  another  combing,  and  after 
that  smooths  it  down  with  the  back  or  flat  side  of  his  rake,  and  it  is  finished. 

It  will  be  seen  by  referring  to  Figs.  2078  and  2080,  that  a  crook  is  formed  in  the 
handle  of  the  rake.  The  reason  for  thus  crooking  the  handle  is  to  keep  the  thatcher's 
hand  from  contact  with  the  straw,  and  thereby  save  his  knuckles. 

The  ridge  and  hips  are  managed  thus  : — The  thatcher,  in  doing  one  side  of  his  roof, 
takes  care  to  leave  a  good  length  of  screw  hanging  over  and  past  the  ridge.  As  he 
finishes  the  top  of  each  course  on  the  other  side  of  the  roof,  he  bends  down  the  tops  of 
the  first  side,  and  covers  them  over  with  the  last  row  of  hellams  on  the  last  side,  bending 
these  last  in  their  turn  down  over  the  other  side  of  the  roof.  The  ridge  is  then  secured 
on  each  side  with  3  rows  of  bands  or  spars,  placed  end  to  end,  and  each  spar  is  secured 
with  3  other  spars  to  thatch.  In  the  Case  of  the  hips,  there  are  no  bands  of  spars,  but 
single  spars,  12  in.  apart,  are  bent  crosswise  over  the  hip,  and  secured  with  3  other  spars, 
as  before.  The  eaves  are  also  secured  with  2  rows  or  bands  of  spars.  Wheaten  straw 
thatching,  done  as  here  described,  will  last  in  our  climate  for  15-20  years.  Oat  straw, 
about  8  years. 

Shingles  or  shides. — A  convenient  roofing  material  when  wood  is  cheap  and  abundant 
consists  of  a  kind  of  "  wooden  slates,"  split  pieces  of  wood  measuring  about  9  in.  long, 
5  ill.  wide,  and  1  in.  thick  at  one  end  but  tapering  to  a  sharp  edge  at  the  other. 

Shingles,  or  wooden  slates,  are  made  from  hard  wood,  either  of  oak,  larch,  or  cedar,  or 
any  material  that  will  split  easily.  Their  dimensions  are  usually  6  in.  wide  by  12  or  18 
in.  long,  and  about  J  in.  thick.  They  are  laid  in  horizontal  courses  of  4  or  5  in.  gauge, 
naded  upon  boards,  the  joints  broken,  commencing  with  the  eaves'  course.  The  ridge  is 
secured  by  what  is  called  a  ridge-board,  or  a  triangle  of  inch  stuff  of  6  or  8  in.  each  side. 
In  America,  where  this  roof  is  common,  the  mechanics  have  a  special  tool  for  shingling, 
called  a  shingle-axe,  with  a  hammer  at  the  back. 

jFeZf.— Roofing  ftlt  is  a  substance  composed  largely  of  hair  saturated  with  an  asphalte 
composition,  and  should  be  chosen  more  for  closeness  of  texture  than  excessive  thickness. 
It  is  sold  in  rolls  2  ft.  8  in.  wide  and  25  yd.  long,  thus  containing  200  ft.  super  in  a  roll. 
Before  the  felt  is  laid  on  the  boards  (^iu.  close  boarding),  a  coating  composed  of  5  lb. 


618  EooFiNG — Felt;  Dachpappe;  ^Yillesdeu  Paper. 

ground  whiting  and  1  gal.  coal  tar,  boiled  to  expel  the  water,  is  applied,  while  still 
slightly  warm,  on  the  boards  themselves ;  the  felt  is  then  laid  on,  taking  care  to  stretch  it 
smooth  and  tight,  and  the  outside  edge  is  nailed  closely  with  |-in.  zinc  or  tinned  tacks. 
The  second  width  of  felt  laps  the  first  1  in.  at  least,  tlie  joint  receiving  a  little  of  the 
composition,  and  the  tacks  pass  through  both  thicknesses  of  felt,  and  so  on  till  the  whole 
of  the  roof  is  covered.  Then  the  surface  requires  a  coat  of  the  composition,  and  in  3  or  4 
weeks  a  second  or  finishing  coat,  when  it  will  need  nothing  for  3  or  4  years,  but  should 
receive  one  the  moment  it  begins  to  bleach.  The  gutters  and  riilge  are  generally  in  2 
thicknesses  of  felt.  A  dry  day  should  be  selected  for  the  work.  The  most  common 
application  on  the  felt  is  simple  coal  tar  brushed  on  hot  and  sprinkled  with  sharp  sand 
while  still  fresh. 

Dachpappe. — This  is  a  kind  of  asphalte  pasteboard  much  employed  in  Denmark ;  it 
is  laid  on  close  boarding  at  a  very  low  pitch,  and  forms  a  light,  durable  covering,  having 
the  non-conducting  properties  of  thatch.  It  is  sold  in  rolls  2  ft.  9  in.  wide  and  25  ft. 
long,  having  a  superficial  content  of  7^  sq.  yd.,  at  the  rate  of  1(Z.  per  sq.  ft.  "When  laid, 
it  requires  dressing  with  an  asphalte  composition  called  "Erichsen's  mastic,"  sold  at 
9s.  9d.  per  cwt.,  1  cwt.  of  the  varnish  sufiicing  to  cover  a  surface  of  65  sq.  yd. ;  iron  wire 
nails,  for  fastening  down  the  pasteboard,  cost  13d.  per  1000,  this  number  being  enough  to 
nail  down  15  sq.  yd.  The  method  adopted  in  laying  the  pasteboard  is  as  follows: — The 
framework  of  the  roof  is  covered  iu  with  dry  well  seasoned  boards,  f  in.  to  1  in.  thick,  and 
not  above  6  in.  broad.  If  tliey  are  not  sufficiently  dry,  they  sliould  be  split  lengthwise 
before  being  laid  down,  in  order  to  keep  them  from  warping,  and  every  board  should 
be  fastened  with  3  nails  at  least  to  each  of  the  rafters.  This  sjDlitting  prevents  the 
shrinkage  of  the  wood  from  exercising  any  injurious  effect  on  the  pasteboard  roofing. 

Willesden  paper. — This  is  another  extremely  light,  durable,  and  waterproof  roofing 
material,  which  diflfers  essentially  from  the  2  preceding  substances  in  needing  to  be  fixed 
to  rafters  or  scantling,  and  requiring  no  boarding  on  the  roof.  It  is  a  kind  of  cardboard 
treated  with  cuprammonium  solution,  and  has  become  a  recognized  commercial  article. 
It  is  made  in  rolls  of  continuous  length,  54  in.  wide,  consequently,  when  fixing  the  full 
width  of  the  card  (to  avoid  cutting  to  waste),  the  rafters  should  be  spaced  out  2  ft.  1  in. 
apart  from  centre  to  centre,  so  that  the  edge  of  one  sheet  of  card  laid  vertically  from 
eaves  to  ridge  will  overlap  the  edge  of  the  adjoining  sheet  4  in.  on  every  alternate  rafter, 
and  be  there  fixed  with  outside  batten  as  specified  below.  For  sides  and  ends  of  sheds, 
partitions,  ceilings,  &c.,  the  uprights  or  timbers  against  which  the  adjoining  sheets  of 
the  card  are  overlapped  and  fixed  should  be  placed  4  ft.  2  in.  apart  from  centre  to  centre, 
with  or  without  an  intermediate  upright.  In  all  cases  the  card  must  be  fixed  with 
outside  wooden  battens  (2  in.  by  1)  and  strong  nails  (or  screws)  driven  through  the  batten 
and  card  to  the  rafter  or  framework.  The  card  is  thus  gripped  between  the  batten  and 
the  framework.  For  ordinary  roofing,  the  nails  or  screws  should  not  be  less  than  2\  to 
2J  in.  long,  so  as  to  provide  firm  holding.  Iron  bands  bolted  or  screwed  tlirough  the 
card  will  serve  in  place  of  battens  (when  desired)  for  curved  roofs,  lean-to's,  &c. 

At  every  joint  the  edges  of  the  adjoining  sheets  must  overlap  each  other  3  or  4  in., 
and  be  fastened  by  outside  batten,  as  above  specified ;  by  this  method  very  secure  fixing 
and  waterproof  joints  are  ensured.  An  occasional  screw  is  also  recommended.  Each 
sheet  for  roof  should  be  cut  long  enough  to  extend  from  eaves  to  ridge,  allowing  sufficient 
length,  not  only  to  permit  an  overlap  at  the  ridge,  but  also  for  turning  up  under  the 
eaves-boards,  there  to  be  secured  by  a  batten  as  before  described. 

In  small  structures,  where  the  span  is  inconsiderable,  the  card  by  preference  may  be 
laid  from  eaves  to  eaves  in  one  length,  without  joint  at  ridge.  The  sheet  or  panel  when 
in  position  may  be  tacked  down,  while  the  battens  are  being  fixed  as  already  described. 
Previous  to  fixing,  the  card,  being  in  a  contracted  state  when  cut  from  the  roll,  should 
be  exposed  to  a  cold  or  moist  atmosphere,  say  for  12  hours,  or  sponged  on  both  sides 
with  water,  in  order  to  obtain  flatness  of  surface.     The  sharp  edges  of  the  ridge-piece  or 


EooFiNG — Willesdeii  Paper. 


G19 


caves-boards  romid  which  the  card  is  strained  should  bo  chamfered  off.  When  a  large 
sheet  or  panel  of  the  card  is  required,  two  or  uioro  widths  can  be  joined  by  overlapjiing 
the  edges  of  the  card  3  in.,  and  riveting  them  together  with  cupper  rivets,  or  sewing  by 
strong  needle  and  waxed  or  "  Willesden  "  treated  thread.  When  advisable  to  strengthen 
the  edge,  it  can  be  bent  over  and  then  sewn  or  riveted,  or  a  strip  of  tliC  card  made  in 
the  form  of  a  clip  can  be  sewn  or  riveted  on  the  edge  of  the  sheet.  In  all  cases  before  a 
sharp  bend  is  made  the  card  should  be  placed  in  cold  water  for  a  few  hours,  or  sponged 
with  hot  water  on  both  sides,  to  prevent  cracking.  The  card  may  be  painted  or  tarred, 
and  thus  will  not  corrode  or  blister,  as  painted  wood  or  iron,  but  remain  practically 
indestructible. 

A  rapid,  easy  mode  of  covering  may  be  named  as  follows : — Cut  a  length  of  card  from 
the  roll,  grip  each  end  between  2  battens  firmly  screwed  together,  and  draw  tiie  sheet 
or  sheets  thus  secured  over  a  roof,  ridge,  rick,  pole,  or  anything  requiring  protection,  and 
make  fast  to  the  ground  or  other  holding,  and,  wlien  desirable,  for  such  temporary  and 
portable  covering  the  edges  of  the  card  may  be  bound  with  "  Willesden  "  webbing,  and 

1350. 


eyeleted  to  enable  the  sheet  to  be  easily  made  fast  by  cords  or  ropes.  Similarly,  a  piece 
or  strip  of  "  Willesden  "  canvas  may  be  riveted  or  sewn  on  to  the  card  at  any  place,  and 
serve  as  a  flap,  or  for  any  purpose  where  canvas  may  bo  required. 

The  "  Willesden  "  card  possesses  great  practical  advantage,  by  the  ease  with  which 
repairs  may  be  effected  without  skilled  assistance.    In  case  of  accidental  damage,  a  i)iece 


620 


EooFiNG — Willesden  Paper  ;  Slates. 


1351. 


of  card  may  be  placed  respectively  on  inner  and  outer  side  of  the  damaged  part,  and 
then  be  sewn  together  by  strong  needle  and  waxed  thread,  or  riveted  with  copper  rivets. 

Referring  to  the  illustrations,  the  solid  lines  represent  woodwork,  wliile  the  broken 
lines  indicate  the  roofing  card.  Fig.  1350  is  a  view  of  a  shed  roof;  Fig.  1351,  cross  section 
of  shed;  Fig.  1352,  detail  of  ridge 
and  eaves,  with  alternative  ridge 
construction,  showing  the  usual 
fixing  for  sheds;  Fig.  1353,  detail 
of  ridge  and  eaves,  when  the  roof 
is  to  be  made  airtight ;  Fig.  1354, 
detail  section  of  the  rafters. 

Slates. — By  far  the  most  im- 
portant roofing  material,  and  the 
one  in  most  general  use  at  the  pre- 
sent time,  is  slate.  Slate  is  an 
argillaceous  sedimentary  rock 
■which,  after  being  deposited  as 
clay  at  a  very  early  geological 
epoch,  has  been  subjected  to  enor- 
mous mechanical  pressure,  the  re- 
sult of  which  has  been  that  the  beds  have  been  squeezed  together  and  the  material 
rendered  very  dense  and  compact,  while  the  original  lines  of  stratification  have  been 
almost  obliterated,  and  the  particles  have  been  rearranged  in  fresh  planes  perpendicular 


-PaperAprau 


to  the  direction  in  which  the  pressure  was  exerted ;  along  these  planes  the  rock  splits 
■with  great  ease.  Tlie  strength  of  tlie  material  lias  thus  no  connection  with  its  natural 
bed,  even  when  the  latter  can  be  discovered.     This  splitting  or  fissile  property  makes 


KooFiNG — Slates. 


621 


slate  eminently  useful  as  a  building  material,  as,  notwithstanding^  the  fact  that  it  is  one 
of  the  hardest  and  densest  of  rocks,  it  can  be  obtuiued  in  such  thin  sheets  that  tlie 
weight  of  a  superficial  foot  is  very  small  indeed,  and  consequently,  when  used  for 
covering  roofs,  a  heavy  supporting  framework  is  not  required.  Slato  absorbs  a 
scarcely  perceptible  quantity   of  water,  and  it   is   very   hard  and  close-grained  and 


1364. 


JovitsTvewmg 
overlap  of 
"fViUcidcnfpap  p 


■^^-OverlcLp  of 
ffiUesdatpa/oer 


B:,i 


smooth  on  surface ;  it  can  be  laid  safely  at  as  low  a  pitch  as  22^°.  In  consequence 
of  this,  the  general  introduction  of  slate  as  a  roofing  material  has  had  a  prejudicial 
effect  upon  the  architectural  character  of  buildings.  The  bold,  liigh-pitched,  lichen- 
covered  roofs  of  the  middle  ages — which,  with  their  warm  tints,  form  so  picturesque  a 
feature  of  many  an  old-fashioned  English  country  town— have  given  place  to  the  flat,  dull, 
slated  roofs. 

The  best  roofing  slate  is  obtained  from  North  Wales,  chiefly  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Llanberis,  where  there  are  numerous  quarries,  those  at  Penrliyn  being  tlie  largest ;  the 
slates  from  this  district  generally  go  by  the  name  of  Bangor.  At  Ffestiniog  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  there  are  also  numerous  quarries,  the  slates  from  which  are  generally 
designated  Portmadoc  slates,  as  they  are  shipped  from  this  port.  The  colour  varies  from 
green  to  purple  and  black,  and  a  good  effect  can  be  obtained  in  buildings  by  using 
alternate  bands  of  different  colours  in  the  roof.  Good  slates  are  also  obtained  from 
Cornwall,  where  the  quarries  have  been  worked  for  a  long  period ;  and  from  the  Lake 
district,  those  which  coma  from  the  neighbourhood  of  Maryport  being  of  a  bright  sea- 
green  colour.  As  a  general  rule,  the  finer  the  grain  of  the  slate  and  the  cleaner  and 
smoother  the  surface  with  which  it  splits,  the  better  it  will  be.  When  the  surface  is 
coarse  and  uneven,  it  is  probable  that  the  slates  have  been  obtained  from  a  bed  where 
the  pure  rock  was  in  close  proximity  to,  and  partly  mixed  with,  some  foreign  substance, 
such  as  sandstone ;  and  such  slates  would  be  likely  to  absorb  more  water  than  the  fine- 
grained varieties. 

The  large  demand  for  roofing  slates  has  led  to  the  opening  of  many  new  quarries 
during  the  last  few  years,  the  slates  from  which  are  of  varying  degrees  of  excellence. 
Non-absorbtion  of  water  is,  of  course,  the  most  valuable  characteristic ;  an  easy  test  of 
this  can  be  applied  by  carefully  weighing  one  or  two  specimens  when  dry,  and  then 
steeping  them  in  water  for  a  few  hours  and  weighing  them  again,  when  the  difference 
in  weight  will  of  course  represent  the  quantity  of  water  absorbed.  The  light-blue 
coloured  slates  are  generally  superior  to  the  blue-black  varieties. 

The  chemical  analysis  of  an  average  specimen  of  slate  may  be  taken  as 

Silica 54-75  per  cent. 

Alumina        22 '90        „ 

Iron  oxide 9 '66         „ 

Magnesia       1  ■  90         „ 

Potash  and  soda S'l-t        „ 

Water 5-45 

Its  specific  gravity  is  2  •  8. 


622 


KooFiNG — Slates. 


Eoofing  slates  are  sorted  into  various  sizes,  which  are  sold  under  the  following 
names : — 


Queens,  the  size  of  which  is  36  in.  by  2-i  in. 
Imperials         „  „  30  in.  by  24  in. 

Princesses        „  „  24  in. .by  14  in. 

Duchesses       „  „  24  in.  by  12  in. 


Countesses,  size  of  which  is  20  in.  by  10  in. 
Viscountesses  „  „  18  in.  by  9  in. 

Ladies  „  „  16  in.  by  8  in. 

Doubles  „  „  13  in.  by  6  in. 


Of  these  the  Duchess  and  Countess  slates  are  the  most  extensively  used. 

Slates  should  always  be  laid  with  a  certain  lap,  that  is,  each  course  Bhould  overhang 
the  next  but  one  below  it  to  a  certain  extent,  and  this  should  not  be  less  than  2  in. 
Thus  there  will  be  a  certain  width  of  slate  in  each  course  exposed,  and  this  is  called  the 
gauge,  its  width  diminishing  as  the  lap  increases.  The  gauge  for  any  kind  of  slating  is 
found  by  deducting  the  lap  from  the  length  of  the  slate,  and  then  halving  the  remainder  : 

20 3 

thus,  if  Countess  slates  are  laid  with  a  3-in.  lap,   the  gauge  will  be   — - —  =  8|  in. 

Eftch  course  of  slates  '•  breaks  joint "  with  the  one  below  it.  The  average  weight  of 
ordinary  slating  may  be  taken  as  7  cwt.  per  square  of  100  superficial  ft.  The  valleys  of 
slated  roofs  are  generally  laid  with  lead  turned  up  under  the  slates,  and  the  hip  rafters 
are  either  covered  with  lead— which  is  the  best  plan — or  with  thick  saddle-back  slates 
finished  at  top  with  an  ornamental  roll.  Some  years  ago  a  system  was  introduced  called 
patent  slating.  This  consisted  in  laying  large  thick  slates  so  that  they  butted  against 
one  another  in  a  vertical  line,  the  joints  coming  exactly  over  a  rafter  to  which  the  slates 
were  firmly  screwed.  The  successive  courses  overlapped  one  another  a  few  inches,  and 
when    the    roof  was   covered, 

thin  fillets  of  slate  about  3  in.  1354.* 

wide  were  bedded  in  putty 
over  the  vertical  joints,  tightly 
screwed  down  to  the  rafters, 
and  pointed  carefully  all 
round.  Slating  could  be  laid  in 
this  manner  to  a  very  low  pitch, 
and  yet  remain  water-tight  for 
a  considerable  time,  but  it  was 
found  that  a  slight  settlement 
of  the  roof  was  sufficient  to 
injure  it,  and  as  the  putty  also 
soon  perished,  the  system  was 
abandoned,  and  it  is  now  never 
adopted.  It  gave,  however,  a 
distinctly  ornamental  appear- 
ance to  a  roof. 

The  usual  method  of  laying 
slates isillustrated  in  Fig.  1354*, 
which  represents  3  courses,  the 
distance  between  a  and  6  being 
the  lap,  and  that  between  6  and 
c  the  gauge.  Slates  are  some- 
times laid  on  close  boarding 
nailed  to  the  rafters,  in  which 
case  it  is  usual  to  put  a  layer 

of  sheathing  felt  on  the  boarding  before  laying  the  slates ;  but  they  oftener  rest  on 
battens  or  slate  laths,  as  in  Fig.  1355,  placed  at  a  distance  apart  equal  to  the  gauge 
to  be  given  to  the  slates.     It  is  usual  to  fasten  slates  by  1  or  2  zinc  or  copper  nails, 


1355. 


KooFiNG — Slates. 


G23 


according  to  size,  passed  throuKli  holes  punched  near  the  centro  and  top  of  the  slates. 
Slating  is  measured  by  the  square  of  100  ft.  tsupcr,  12  in.  extra  being  allowed  for  caves, 
hip3,  valleys,  and  irregular  angles;  circular  slating  is -i  extra.  A  good  slate  should 
emit  a  clear  rinj^'iug  note  when  struck,  and  feel  hard  and  rough  (o  the  touch.     The 


1356. 


1357. 


o 


"  back  "  of  a  slate  is  its  upper  surface  ;  the  "  bed,"  its  under  side  ;  the  "  head,"  its  upp(  r 
edge  ;  the  "  tail,"  its  lower  edge.  Fig.  1356,  is  a  slater^s  pick  hammer  ;  Fig.  1357,  a  ];.lh 
hammer;  Fig.  1358,  a  cutting  iron  for  reducing  the  dimensions  of  slates;  Fig.  1359,  a 
slater's  axe  having  a  cutting  edge  and  a  pick  at  the  back. 


1358. 


The  effect  of  wind  pressure  on  slated  and  tiled  roofs  is  important.  The  cause  of 
slates  being  blown  off  is  not  quite  so  simple  as  might  at  first  be  imagined.  When  loose 
ridge  tiles  or  broken  slates  occur,  these  are  blown  off  as  a  matter  of  course,  but  it  fre- 
quently happens  that  roofs  which  were  perfectly  sound  are  seriously  dumagod.  As  the 
direction  in  which  the  force  of  the  wind  acts  is  horizontal,  there  would  seem  to  be  no 
tendency  to  rip  up  or  break  off  materials  lying  so  closely  upon  one  another  as  slates. 
The  true  explanation  is  probably  this  :  any  exceptionally  strong  gust  of  wind  is  succeeded 
by  a  momentary  vacuum,  and  as  under  ordinary  circumstances  the  atmospheric  pressure 
inside  and  outside  a  ro(jf  is  equal,  it  follows  that  during  the  brief  continuance  of  the 
vacuum  outside  the  pressure  inside  is  considerably  in  excess,  and  the  weakest  points  of 
the  roof  covering  will  have  a  tendency  to  be  pushed  outwards.    Now  in  roofs  covered 


621  Roofing — Slates;  Tiles. 

with  battens,  to  which  the  top  only  of  the  slates  are  nailed,  the  lower  portions  of  the 
slates  would  be  murh  less  able  to  resist  any  such  outward  pressure,  and  would  be  forced 
upwards,  and  if  at  such  a  moment  another  gust  of  wind  were  to  occur  it  would  find  its 
way  under  the  slate  and  break  it.  If  the  rafters  were  covered  with  close  boarding  instead 
of  battens  this  would  offer  a  far  more  even  resistance,  and  for  this  reason  close  boarded 
roofs  are  much  less  liable  to  damage  from  wind.  The  whole  question  of  the  action  of 
wind  upon  sloping  roofs  has  not  received  the  attention  from  professional  men  that  its 
importance  demands. 

An  architect  says  he  has  been  in  the  habit  for  many  years  of  bedding  his  roofing 
slates  in  hydraulic  cement,  instead  of  having  them  nailed  on  dry  in  the  usual  way,  wliich 
leaves  them  subject  to  be  rattled  by  the  wind,  and  to  be  broken  by  any  accidental 
pressure.  The  cement  soon  sets  and  hardens,  so  that  the  roof  becomes  like  a  solid  wall. 
The  extra  cost  is  10  or  15  per  cent.,  and  he  thinks  it  good  economy,  considering  only  its 
permanency,  and  the  saving  in  repairs  ;  but,  besides  this,  it  affords  great  safety  against 
fire,  for  slate  laid  in  the  usual  way  will  not  protect  the  wood  underneath  from  the  heat 
of  a  fire  at  a  short  distance. 

Tiles. — If  all  tiles  were  of  the  brilliant  hue  that  is  occasionally  met  with  in  country 
districts,  it  is  probable  that  their  use  as  a  roofing  material  would  have  remained  restricted. 
But  lately  manufacturers  have  succeeded  in  producing  a  warm  redilish -brown  tint  closely 
approximating  to  that  of  old  weathered  tiles,  than  which  nothing  can  be  more  pleasing. 
Tiles  are  made  from  clay  in  much  the  same  manner  as  bricks,  but  as  they  are  thinner, 
they  require  a  tougher  clay,  and  considerably  more  care  in  their  manufacture.  The 
clay  is  dug  and  weathered,  and  then  ground  in  a  pug  mill,  so  that  it  acquires  great  con- 
sistency. It  is  then  formed  into  the  required  shape  by  being  pressed  into  an  oak  mould, 
plated  with  iron.  The  clay  is  kept  from  sticking  to  the  mould  by  dusting  the  latter 
witli  sand  or  fine  coaldust.  The  tiles  are  then  dried  in  the  open  air,  and  afterwards 
baked  in  a  kiln,  constructed  on  much  the  same  principle  as  a  brick  kiln,  but  enclosed  in 
a  conical  building  called  a  dome.  The  period  of  burning  depends  upon  the  quality  of 
the  clay  and  the  colour  to  which  the  tiles  are  to  be  burnt.  This  general  description 
applies  to  nearly  all  ruofing  tiles,  but  of  course  the  moulding  processes  vary  according 
to  the  kind  of  tile  tliat  is  being  made.  Till  quite  recently,  pantiles  and  plain  tiles  were 
the  only  kinds  made,  the  former  having  a  double  curved  surface,  on  the  one  side  convex 
and  the  other  concave,  which  shape  is  given  to  the  plastic  clay  by  hand.  A  small 
hollow  in  the  mould  gives  the  projecting  nib  by  which  pantiles  are  hung  on  the  laths  of 
a  roof.  The  ordinary  size  of  pantiles  is  14^  by  10^  in.  and  they  are  generally  laid  to  a 
gauge  of  10  or  11  in.  These  tiles  are  only  used  for  an  inferior  class  of  building,  as  it  is 
difficult  to  keep  a  roof  covered  with  them  watertight  for  a  length  of  time,  because  they 
can  never  be  made  to  fit  closely  over  each  otlier  at  their  lower  edges,  and  therefore  the 
rain  has  a  tendency  to  drift  up  underneath  them.  They  partially  overlap  laterally,  but 
not  sufficiently  to  make  a  watertight  joint,  and  they  are  consequently  frequently  pointed 
with  mortar,  which  furms  a  thick  and  ugly  joint,  and  soon  perishes.  The  weight  per 
square  is  about  10  cwt.  The  Bridgwater  tiles  are  very  similar  to  pantiles,  but  wider, 
and  formed  with  a  double  roll. 

Plain  tiles  are  oblong  in  shape,  with  a  very  slightly  curved  surface,  and  they  are 
either  moulded  with  nibs  for  hanging  on  the  laths,  or  are  formed  with  two  holes  for  nails 
or  pegs.  Their  size  is  10^  by  G|  in.  Many  excellent  specimens  of  plain  tiles  have  been 
thown  at  the  various  building  exhibitions  which  have  been  held  lately,  but  it  would  be 
difficult  to  find  any  superior  to  the  best  Broseley  tiles,  which  are  well  burnt,  even  in 
texture,  and  of  a  very  pleasant  tint.  Plain  tiles,  of  the  size  mentioned  above,  should  be 
laid  to  a  4|-in.  gauge,  and  they  are  either  hung  to  the  laths  by  their  nibs  or  by  pegs 
driven  through  the  holes  in  their  surface.  Some  builders  are  fond  of  bedding  the 
heading  joints  in  mortar,  but  it  is  very  doubtful  if  this  is  a  good  plan.  Of  course  it 
makes  tlie  roof  somewhat  tigliter  at  first,  but  experience  shows  that  tile  roofs  almost 


KooFiNG — Tiles.  625 

always  fail  in  consequence  of  the  laths  becoming  decayed  and  allowing  tlio  tiles  to  slip, 
and  the  presence  of  the  mortar  accelerates  this  decay.  It  is,  moreover,  certain  that  if 
mortar  be  used  the  tiler  will  bo  disposed  to  depend  npon  it  for  keeping  the  tiles  in 
position,  and  will  not  devote  so  much  care  to  the  proper  hanging  and  pegging  of  each 
tile,  and  as  all  roofs  are  subject  to  slight  movements  duo  to  changes  of  temperature  and 
to  varying  wind  pressures — have  in  fact  a  certain  amount  of  "  spring  " — this  will  instantly 
act  upon  the  mortar  joint  and  will  tend  to  disturb  it,  and  in  a  very  short  time  the  mortar 
begins  to  fall  away  and  helps  to  block  up  the  roof  gutters.  In  some  country  districts,  it 
is  the  practice  to  lay  the  tiles  on  a  bed  of  hay  laid  over  the  laths,  and  this  plan  appears 
to  answer  very  well  if  proper  care  be  taken,  and  it  adds  to  the  warmth  of  a  building 
in  winter.  It  is  not  desirable  to  give  tiled  roofs  a  less  pitch  thiin  45°,  and  50°  is 
preferable. 

With  ordinary  plain  tiles,  those  in  any  one  course  do  not  overlap  laterally  ;  conse- 
quently each  course  must  overlap  to  a  certain  extent  the  next  but  one  below  it,  or  the 
rain  would  enter  between  the  joints.  Of  late  years  many  attempts  Lave  been  made  to 
obviate  this  necessity,  which  is  the  cause  of  the  great  weight  of  this  kind  of  rooting, — 
nearly  a  ton  per  100  sq.  ft.  If  tiles  can  be  moulded  so  that  they  will  fit  into  one  another, 
and  form  a  watertight  joint  laterally,  the  successive  courses  need  only  overlap  suffi- 
ciently to  prevent  the  rain  driving  upwards,  and  this  can  be  prevented  by  forming  a  groove 
at  the  upper  edge  of  one  tile  into  which  a  corresponding  projection  on  the  lower  edge  of 
the  next  tile  would  fit.  This  method  has  been  adopted  with  considerable  success  in 
Phillips'  patent  lock-jaw  roofing  tiles,  which  interlock  with  one  another  on  all  4  sides, 
and  form  such  closely-fitting  joints  that  nothing  can  penetrate  them  ;  and  the  patentee 
claims  that  by  exerting  great  pressure  on  the  clay  during  the  process  of  manufacture  he 
is  able  to  ensure  uniformity  and  perfect  fit,  without  which  the  tiles  would  of  course  be 
practically  useless.  These  tiles  are  of  two  ditYerent  kinds :  the  "  single  grip,"  and  the 
"  double  grip,"  The  latter  are  suitable  for  the  most  exposed  situations,  and  will  stand 
the  roughest  usage.  Half  tiles  are  made  for  hanging  next  to  a  gable  in  alternate  courses, 
in  order  to  secure  a  perfect  bond,  in  the  same  way  that  closers  are  used  in  brickwork. 
No  mortar  is  required  with  them,  nor  any  special  skill  in  laying  them.  The  difference 
between  these  tiles  and  the  ordinary  kind  in  the  weight  per  sqiiare,  5J  cwt.,  and  the 
number  required,  150,  is  very  striking,  the  weight  being  less  than  one-third  that  of 
ordinary  tiles.  Taylor's  patent  tiles  are  moulded  with  a  different  kind  of  lateral  over- 
lapping arrangement.  All  these  patent  tiles  give  a  decidedly  ornamental  appearance 
to  roofs,  as  they  break  up  the  plain  surface  into  a  series  of  elevations  and  depressions. 

It  is  curious  to  notice  how  closely  some  of  the  new  patent  systems  of  tiling  resemble 
those  in  use  among  the  Romans  and  in  the  early  part  of  the  middle  ages.  Tiles  were 
used  at  a  very  early  period  for  roof  coverings,  and  were  first  made  with  rims  on  each  side, 
and  under  the  rims  were  notches  forming  a  lap  laterally  ;  and  hollow  tiles,  similar  to 
common  hip  and  ridge  tiles,  were  laid  over  the  vertical  joints,  themselves  overlapping 
each  other.  An  improvement  was  effected  by  making  the  tiles  trapezoidal  in  shape, 
instead  of  rectangular,  and  thus  the  narrow  end  of  one  tile  was  pushed  down  till  it 
closely  fitted  between  the  rims  of  the  one  below  it ;  the  notches  under  the  rims  were 
then  discontinued,  but  the  vertical  joints  were  covered  as  before. 

In  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries,  in  the  old  French  province  of  Champagne, 
tiling  was  carried  to  very  great  perfection  ;  and  it  is  probable  that  no  better  tiles  have 
ever  been  made  than  those  which  can  be  still  seen  in  many  buildings  in  Troyes  and  its 
neighbourhood.  The  tiles  are  very  like  the  modern  Broselys,  but  were  made  with  one 
nib  for  hanging  on  the  laths  and  one  hole  for  nailing  ;  and  to  show  the  extreme  care 
which  was  taken  with  them,  the  positions  of  the  nib  and  hole  were  reversed  in  each 
alternate  course  of  tiles.  This  was  done  in  order  that,  as  the  alternate  courses  were  laid 
"  breaking  joint,"  the  nail-hole  should  always  come  over  the  centre  line  of  each  rafter,  and 
the  nib  always  midway  between  the  rafters.    The  rafters  were  of  course  fixed  in  the 

2  s 


626  Roofing— Tiles  ;  Metallic  Koofing. 

proper  position  for  the  tiles,  wliich  were  laid  to  a  gauge  of  about  4^  in. ;  and  as  the 
length  was  12|  in.,  tliere  was  always  a  lap  of  nearly  4  in.  In  some  of  the  tiles  of  this 
period,  the  exposed  portion  of  each  tile  was  glazed,  and  thus  rendered  non-porous.  This 
would  be  an  excellent  plan  to  adopt  with  modern  tiles,  but  it  would  render  them  too 
expensive  for  general  use.  There  is,  however,  another  peculiarity  in  the  best  of  these  old 
French  tiles  which  might  easily  be  adopted  by  modern  manufacturers,  and  which  would 
be  a  great  improvement,  and  that  is  the  chamfering  of  the  lower  edge  of  the  tile.  The 
mould  could  easily  be  made  of  the  shape  requisite  to  form  this  chamfer,  which  would 
greatly  diminish  the  risk  of  the  tiles  being  ripped  up  by  tlie  action  of  a  strong  wind. 
The  tiles  of  this  period  are  frequently  found  in  as  good  condition  now  as  when  first 
burnt. 

The  great  objection  to  all  tiles  is  their  porosity,  which  causes  them  to  absorb  a  con- 
siderable quantity  of  water,  and  this  tends  to  rot  the  woodwork  underneath.  This  wooden 
substructure  consists  in  the  case  of  both  slates  and  tiles,  either  of  fillets  of  wood  nailed  on 
the  rafters  at  intervals  corresponding  to  the  gauge  required,  or  of  close  boarding  similarly 
nailed  to  the  rafters.  For  slates,  these  fillets  are  generally  2|  in.  or  3  in.  wide  and  1  in. 
thick,  called  slating  battens,  and  the  slates  are  nailed  to  them  by  nails — 2  to  each  slate — 
passing  through  small  holes  pierced  in  the  slate  itself  For  tiles,  which  are  much  heavier, 
.stouter  fillets  are  required,  and  the  tiles  are  hung  on  to  these  by  pegs  passing  through 
the  holes  in  the  tiles,  or  by  the  projecting  nibs  which  have  been  already  described. 
Close  boarding  is  far  preferable  for  either  kind  of  covering,  as  it  keeps  the  roof  tighter 
and  warmer,  and  in  case  it  should  be  necessary  for  workmen  to  pass  over  the  roof  for  any 
purpose  after  its  completion  there  is  much  less  danger  of  the  slates  or  tiles  being  broken 
than  with  battens.     The  risk  of  damage  from  high  winds  is  also  much  less. 

Metallic  roofing. — The  structural  arrangement  of  a  building  frequently  renders  it 
impossible  to  form  a  sloping  roof  over  all  parts  of  it,  and  hence  flats  are  necessary. 
When  this  is  the  case,  metallic  coverings  are  the  best  that  can  be  adopted. 

Formerly  it  was  not  uncommon  in  buildings  where  cost  was  not  a  consideration  to 
use  sheet  copper  for  covering  flats  or  slight  slopes.  Copper  forms  a  very  light  covering, 
as  it  may  be  safely  used  in  sheets  not  more  than  •  03  in.  thick,  which  would  weigh  about 
20  oz.  per  ft.  super.  Copper  slowly  oxidizes  when  exposed  to  the  air,  but  the  oxide  does 
not  eat  into  the  substance  of  the  metal  as  is  the  case  with  iron  ;  it  seems  rather  to  form 
a  protective  coat.  The  .cost  of  copper  renders  its  use  very  limited,  and  zinc  has  to  a 
large  extent  taken  its  place. 

Zinc  is  also  a  very  light  covering ;  in  fact  its  specific  gravity  is  slightly  less  than 
that  of  copper,  bat  it  has  not  a  good  reputation,  owing  to  the  fact  that  on  its  first  intro- 
duction it  was  used  in  very  thin  sheets,  and  sufficient  care  was  not  taken  in  laying  it. 
Its  expansion  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other  metal,  and  therefore  it  should  always  be 
laid  with  ample  play,  or  it  will  soon  buckle  and  crack.  The  Vieille  Montague  Company 
have  greatly  improved  the  methods  of  laying  zinc,  and  they  have  also  introduced  thicker 
sheets  than  could  previously  be  obtained  ;  if  zinc  is  used  at  all,  it  should  never  be  less 
than  No.  16  gauge,  which  weighs  about  24  oz.  to  the  ft.  super,  and  is  as  nearly  as  pos- 
sible Jj-  in.  thick.  Zinc  resembles  copper  in  the  fact  that  it  oxidizes  on  the  surface  only  ; 
but  in  smoky  districts  it  will  not  last  at  all,  as  sulphuric  acid  completely  destroys  it. 

The  surface  oxidation  only  of  zinc  when  exposed  to  ordinary  atmospheric  influences, 
suggested  the  attempt  to  prevent  the  rusting  of  iron  by  giving  it  a  thin  coating  of  zinc. 
This  led  to  the  production  of  "  galvanized  "  iron  for  roofing  purposes.  This  ''  galvan- 
izing "  process  consists  in  first  precipitating  tin  upon  sheets  of  iron  by  means  of  weak 
galvanic  action,  and  then  placing  the  plates  in  a  bath  of  liquid  zinc.  Iron  thus  treated 
will  last,  under  favourable  circumstances,  for  a  long  time  ;  but  when  used  for  roofing,  it 
is  almost  impossible  to  avoid  nailing  the  sheets  in  some  places,  and  where  the  nail  holes 
occur,  moisture  invariably  makes  its  way  to  the  iron  itself,  which  rusts  internally,  and 
the  tliiu  zinc  coating  then  comes  off  in  flakes.     What  was  previously  stated  as  to  the 


Glazing — Glass. 


627 


1360. 


WoocLnoW 


action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  zinc  will  show  the  utter  uselessnoss  of  galvanized  iron  la 
smoky  districts. 

The  most  durable  metal  covering  for  roofs  is  milled  load.  This  is  lend  which,  after 
being  cast,  is  passed  through  a  mill  between  rollers  adjusted  so  as  to  give  the  requisite 
thickness  to  the  sheets  whicli  are  rolled  out.  This  thickness  varies  from  -075  in.  to 
•  23G  in,,  the  weight  of  these  qualities  being  4  lb.  and  14  lb.  respectively  per  superficial  ft. 
The  qualities  chiefly  used  for  roofing  are  the  5-,  6-,  and  7-lb.  lead,  the  latter  being 
the  lightest  that  should  be  used  for  flats  or  gutters.  In  laying  lead  on  flats,  the  latter 
should  be  close  boarded,  and  care  mv;st  be  taken  to  allow  for  expansion  and  contraction 
of  the  metal ;  consequently  the  joints  of  2  adjacent  sheets  must  not  be  soldered  together. 
In  order  to  prevent  the  water  from  penetrating  at  the  joints,  fillets  of  wood,  1\  in.  by  2  in., 
rounded  at  the  top,  called  rolls,  are  nailed  to  the  boards,  and  one  sheet  of  lead  is  dressed 
close  up  to  and  half-way  over  the  roll,  while  the  next  sheet  is  brought  up  to  the  opposite 
side  of  the  roll,  and  lapped  completely  over  the  roll  and  the  turned-up  portion  of  the 
first  sheet.  If  the  lead  is  closely  hammered  down  with  wooden  mallets,  no  nails  are 
required,  and  they  are  better  omitted.  When  it  is  necessary  to  nail  the  lead  round  sky- 
lights or  in  other  positions,  copper  nails  should  always  be  used. 

Thin  flat  plates  of  iron  rendered  "  rustless  "  by  the  Bower-Barff"  process  have  lately 
been  introduced  for  roofing  purposes  by  Horn,  Black  &  Co.,  and  many  advantages  are 
claimed  for  it  on  the  score  of  cheapness,  durability,  and  appearance,  aa  compared  with 
other  metallic  roofings.  There  are  several 
modifications  in  the  pattern  and  mode 
of  fixing,  but  the  simplest  is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  1360.  Here  plain  flat  plates,  24  in. 
by  12  in.,  are  laid  like  ordinary  slating, 
except  that  oxidized  hoop  iron  is  laid 
over  each  line  of  plates,  through  holes  in 
which,  as  well  as  in  the  slates,  are  driven 
the  nails  which  fasten  both  to  the  boards 
beneath.  The  use  of  this  iron  lath  allows 
any  accidentally  damaged  plates  to  be 
removed  at  any  time,  when  specially-made 
plates  can  be  substituted.  These  special 
"  mending-plates  "  are  so  formed  as  to  hook 
easily  and  securely  upon  the  iron  lath,  and 
to  be  so  fixed  without  the  necessity  of 
cutting  the  nails  which  fasten  the  adjoining 
plates.  All  these  plates,  both  ordinary 
and  special,  are  supplied  ready  bored  with 

the  holes  for  the  nails;   and  suitable  nails,  similarly  protected  with  the  oxide,   are 
furnished  at  a  reasonable  price. 

It  is  only  fair  to  say  that  much  of  the  preceding  information  has  been  gathered  from 
a  paper  on  Building  Materials  by  John  Slater,  B.A.,  in  the  Sanitary  Record. 

GLAZING. — By  this  term  is  here  meant  the  fixing  of  sheets  of  thin  glass  in 
windows  for  the  admission  of  light  to  the  interior  of  structures  while  excluding  the 
weather. 

G?ass.— Glass  is  of  several  kinds.  "  Crown  "  glass  is  made  in  circular  discs  blown 
by  hand ;  these  discs  are  about  4  ft.  diameter,  and  the  glass  averages  about  -jL  in.  thick. 
Owing  to  the  mode  of  manufacture,  there  is  a  thick  boss  in  the  centre,  and  the  glass  is 
throughout  more  or  less  striated  or  channelled  in  concentric  rings,  frequently  curved  in 
surface,  and  thicker  at  the  circumference  of  the  disc.  Consequently,  in  cutting  rectangular 
panes  out  of  a  disc  there  is  a  considerable  loss,  or  at  least  variety  in  quality  :  one  disc 
will  yield  about  10  sq.  ft.  of  good  window  glass,  and  the  largest  pane  that  can  be  cut 

2  s  2 


JloJJ,    \ 


Tingle/ fcriiocmg^idgo 


628  Glazing— Glass ;  Putty. 

from  an  ordinary  disc  is  about  34  X  22  in.  The  qualities  are  classified  into  "  seconds," 
«'  thirds,"  and  "  fourths." 

"  Sheet "  glass  is  also  blown  by  hand,  but  into  hollow  cylinders  about  4  ft.  long  and 
10  in.  diameter,  which  are  cut  off  and  cut  open  longitudinally  while  hot,  and  therefore 
fall  into  flat  sheets.  A  more  perfect  window  glass  can  be  made  by  this  process,  and 
thicker,  and  capable  of  yielding  larger  panes  with  less  waste.  Ordinary  sheet  glass  will 
cut  to  a  pane  of  40  X  30  in.,  and  some  to  50  x  36  in.  It  can  be  made  in  thicknesses 
from  Jfj  in.  to  J  in. 

"  Plate  "  glass  is  cast  on  a  flat  table,  and  rolled  into  a  sheet  of  given  size  and  thick- 
ness by  a  massive  metal  roller.     In  this  form,  when  cool,  it  is  "  rough  plate." 

"  Ribbed  plate  "  is  made  by  using  a  roller  with  grooves  on  its  surface.  Eough  and 
ribbed  plate  are  frequently  made  of  commoner  and  coarser  materials  than  polished  plate, 
being  intended  for  use  in  factories  and  warehouses. 

"  Polished  plate"  is  rough  plate  composed  of  good  material  and  afterwards  polished 
on  both  sides,  which  is  done  by  rubbing  2  plates  together  with  emery  and  other  powders 
between  them.  Plate  glass  can  be  obtained  of  almost  any  thickness  from  i  in.  up  to 
1  in.  thick,  and  of  any  size  up  to  about  12  X  6  ft. 

In  the  glazing  of  a  window  tlie  sizes  of  the  panes,  that  is  to  say,  the  intervals  of  the 
sash-bars,  should  be  arranged,  if  practicable,  to  suit  the  sizes  of  panes  of  glass  which 
can  conveniently  be  obtained,  so  as  to  avoid  waste  in  cutting ;  this  consideration  is  of 
more  consequence  in  using  crown  and  sheet  glass  than  with  plate  glass.  The  woodwork 
of  the  sash  should  receive  its  priming  coat  before  glazing,  the  other  coats  should  be  put 
on  afterwards.  With  crown  glass,  which  is  sometimes  curved,  it  is  usual  to  place  the 
panes  with  the  convexity  outwards.  When  the  glazier  has  fitted  the  pane  to  the  opening 
with  his  diamond,  the  rebate  of  the  sash-bar  facing  the  outside  of  the  window,  he  spreads. 
a  thin  layer  of  putty  on  the  face  of  the  rebate  and  then  presses  the  glass  against  it  into 
its  place,  and  holding  it  there,  spreads  a  layer  of  putty  all  round  the  side  of  the  rebate, 
covering  the  edge  of  the  glass  nearly  as  far  as  the  face  of  the  rebate  extends  on  the  inner 
side  of  the  glass,  and  bevelling  off  the  putty  to  the  outer  edge  of  the  rebate.  The  putty 
is  then  sufficient  to  hold  the  pane  in  its  place,  and  hardens  in  a  few  days.  The  glass 
should  not  touch  the  sash-bar  in  any  part,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  its  being  cracked 
from  an  unusual  pressure  ;  there  should  be  a  layer  of  putty  all  round  the  edges.  This 
precaution  is  especially  necessary  in  glazing  windows  with  iron  or  stone  muUions  or 
bars. 

Putty. — Glaziers'  putty  is  made  of  whiting  and  oil.  The  whiting  should  be  in  the  form 
of  a  very  dry  fine  powder  ;  it  should  be  specially  dried  for  the  purpose,  and  passed  through 
a  sieve  of  45  holes  to  the  inch,  and  then  mixed  with  as  much  raw  linseed  oil  as  will  form 
it  into  stiff  paste  ;  this,  after  being  well  kneaded,  should  be  left  for  12  hours,  and  worked 
up  in  small  pieces  till  quite  smooth.  It  should  be  kept  in  a  glazed  pan  and  covered 
with  a  wet  cloth.  If  putty  becomes  hard  and  dry,  it  can  be  restored  by  heating  it  and 
working  it  up  again  while  hot.  For  special  purposes,  white-lead  is  sometimes  mixed 
with  the  whiting,  or  the  putty  is  made  of  white-lead  and  litharge  entirely. 

Soft  Putty. — 10  lb.  whiting  and  1  lb.  white-lead,  mixed  with  the  necessary  quantity 
of  boiled  linseed  oil,  adding  to  it  |  gill  best  salad  oil.  The  last  prevents  the  white-lead 
from  hardening,  and  preserves  the  putty  in  a  state  sufficiently  soft  to  adhere  at  all  times, 
and  not  get  hard  and  crack  off,  suffering  the  wet  to  enter,  as  is  often  the  case  with 
ordinary  hard  putty. 

To  Soften  Putty. — (a)  1  lb.  American  pearlash,  3  lb.  quick  stone  lime  ;  slake  the  lime 
in  water,  then  add  the  pearlash,  and  make  the  whole  about  the  consistence  of  paint. 
Apply  it  to  both  sides  of  the  glass,  and  let  it  remain  for  12  hours,  when  the  putty  will 
be  so  softened  that  the  glass  may  be  taken  out  of  the  frame  with  the  greatest  facility. 
(h)  A  correspondent  of  the  Garden  says: — After  many  trials,  and  with  a  variety  of 
differently  shaped  tools  with  various  success,  I  at  last  accomplished  my  end  by  the 


Glazing— Putty  ;  Tools  ;  Lead  Glazing. 


629 


simple  application  of  heat.  IMy  first  experiment  was  with  a  soldering  iron,  when  I 
found  the  putty  become  so  soft  that  the  broken  glaas  could  be  removed  by  the  fingers 
and  the  putty  be  easily  scraped  away.  All  that  is  required  is  a  block  of  iron  about 
2J  in.  long  by  IJ  in.  square,  Hat  at  the  bottom,  and  drawn  out  for  a  handle,  with  a 
wooden  end  like  a  soldering  iron.  When  hot  (not  red)  place  this  iron  again.st  the  putty 
or  flat  on  the  broken  glass,  if  any,  and  pass  it  slowly  round  the  sides  of  the  square.  The 
heat  will  so  soften  the  putty  that  it  will  come  away  from  the  wood  without  difiiculty. 
Some  of  it  may  be  so  hard  as  to  require  a  second  application  of  the  hot  iron,  but  ono 
experiment  will  give  sufHcient  instruction  to  meet  all  difTiculties. 

Tools. — The  tools  employed  by  glaziers  comprise  a  rule,  for  measuring  the  glass; 
putty  knives  of  the  form  sliown  in  Fig.   1361  which  needs  no  pressure  but  that  of 


1361. 


1362. 


c 


IT 


the  hands,  and  of  the  form  in  Fig.  1362  which  requires  the  assistance  of  a  hammer  for 
removing  old  hard  putty  ;  and  a  diamond  or  other  contrivance  for  cutting  glass.  The 
diamond  is  unquestionably  the  most  perfect  tool  fo-r  cutting  glass,  but  it  is  often 
replaced  by  the  American    substitute 

illustrated  in  Fig.  1363,  which  consists  1363. 

of  a  stout  blade  carrying  a  small  hard 
steel  wheel  at  the  tip,  with  notches 
in  the  blade  for  breaking  off  projecting 
edges  that  have  not  parted  cleanly. 
Non-professional  glaziers  would  do  well 
to  purchase  their  glass  ready  cut  to 
accurate  dimensions. 

Lead  glazing. —  Several  species  of 
glass  are  employed  for  this  kind  of 
glazing.  Amongst  these  may  be  spe- 
«ified  "  sheet "  and  "  plate  "  glass  of 
various  kinds ;  "  coloured  glass,"  either 
"pot-metal"  or  "flashed"  ("pot- 
metal  "  being  coloured  throughout  its 

substance  by  the  addition  of  metallic  oxide  wliile  the  glass  is  in  a  state  of  fusion,  while 
the  "  flashed  "  glass  is  white,  with  one  surface  covered  by  a  thin  film  of  coloured  glass)  ; 
"flashed  "  glass  being  made  in  ruby,  blue,  opal,  green,  violet,  and  pink.  These  colours 
can  be  also  modified  to  red,  orange,  amber,  and  lemon  colour  by  staining.  Anotlier 
species,  called  "cathedral  glass"  (rolled  and  sheet),  is  generally  applied  to  light  tiuts  of 
a  positive  colour,  and  is  principally  used  for  glazing  the  windows  of  churches. 
"Antique"  glass  is  made  in  various  shades  of  colour,  and  is  usually  employed  in  figure 
work  in  stained-glass  windows.  It  is  an  imitation  of  that  which  is  found  in  old  leaded 
lights,  and  is  rough,  nubbly,  and  of  uneven  thickness.  It  has  recently  been  made  with 
the  colouring  oxides  encased,  and  also  striped  with  various  colours  to  produce  a  more 

"  Avcuturiue  "  is  a  glass  made  in 


striking  efiect  iu  the  fold  of  garments  in  figure  work. 


630 


Glazing — Lead  Glazing. 


slabs,  and  used  occasionally  in  mosaic  fis,'ure  work.  It  is  generally  of  a  brown  semi- 
transparent  colour,  and  has  a  peculiar  striking  eflfect,  caused  by  the  suspension  of  metallic 
particles,  principally  copper  filings,  which  is  the  chief  ingredient.  "  Ambilti "  (single 
and  double)  is  a  sheet  glass,  originally  of  Italian  manufacture,  and  much  prized  by  glass 
painters  on  account  of  its  softness  for  staining,  and  generally  brilliant  appearance. 
"  Quarries  "  is  the  term  applied  to  small  square  pieces  of  stained  glass,  such  as  are  used 
in  the  borders  of  windows ;  and  "  roundels  "  and  "  bullions  "  are  small  discs  of  glass, 
some  made  with  a  knob  in  the  centre,  and  used  in  fretwork  with  cathedral  glass. 

The  use  of  lead  "  calmes  "  for  fixing  window  panes  is  of  venerable  antiquity,  the 
employment  of  wooden  sash-bars  being  quite  a  modern  innovation.  The  calmes  or 
leads  for  the  fretwork  are  slips  prepared  in  the  tool  known  as  the  "  glaziers'  vice," 
wherein  a  slip  of  lead  is  drawn  between  2  horizontal  rollers  of  the  thickness  of  a  piece 
of  glass,  and  the  calme,  as  it  emerges  from  the  mill,  has  a  section  exactly  like  the 
letter  I.  The  German  vices  are  the  best,  and  turn  out  a  variety  of  lead  of  different  sizes. 
There  are  moulds  with  tliese  vices  in  which  bars  of  lead  of  the  proper  sizes  are  easily 
cast.  In  this  form  the  mill  receives  them,  and  turns  them  out  with  2  sides  parallel  with 
each  other,  and  about  f  in.  broad,  and  a  partition  connecting  the  2  sides  together,  about 
i  in.  wide,  forming  on  each  side  a  groove  near  -^  by  ^  in.  and  6  ft.  long.  At  the  present 
day  most  glaziers  buy  their  calmes  at  the  warehouse.  The  ancient  calmes  were 
apparently  cast  in  a  mould.  Antique  calmes  are  nearly  of  one  uniform  width,  and  much 
narrower  in  the  "  leaf"  than  modern  leads.  That  this  was  the  case,  can  be  proved  not 
only  by  the  existence  of  the  original  leads  themselves,  but  more  satisfactorily  perhaps  by 
the  black  lines  drawn  upon  the  glass,  witli  which  the  glass  painters  were  accustomed 
sometimes  to  produce  the  eflect  of  leads  without  unnecessarily  cutting  the  glass.  The 
process  of  compressing  the  modern  calmes  between  rollers  to  the  proper  dimensions 
makes  them  more  rigid  than  the  old  leads. 

The  ordinary  leaded  casement  is  still  to  be  found  plentifully  in  cottage  windows  in 
the  provinces.  These  are  formed  of  every  shape  and  size,  some  glazed  with  rectangular 
and  some  with  diamond-shaped  panes.  The  calmes  in 
■which  these  are  set  are  often  very  broad  in  the  leaf,  much 
more  so  than  could  be  used  for  fretwork.  Glaziers  differ  as 
to  the  best  tool  for  soldering  the  calmes,  some  adhering  to 
the  old  soldering  iron  without  a  handle,  while  others  prefer 
the  ordinary  copper  bit  (see  Soldering,  p.  108).  The  cutting 
knife,  used  for  dividing  the  calmes,  has  sometimes  the  form 
shown  at  a.  Fig  1364,  and  is  sometimes  shaped  as  at  b.  In 
the  latter,  the  blade  has  its  catting  edge  at  c,  and  the 
top  of  the  handle  d  is  usually  formed  of  a  lump  of  solder, 
which  is  handy  for  driving  home  the  panes  in  the  calmes, 
driving  a  brad  or  tack,  &c.  e  is  the  "  ladikin,"  whicli 
is  a  small  tool  of  bone,  box,  or  beech,  about  6  in.  long. 
1  in.  in  width,  and  |  in.  thick,  with  one  end  bevelled  olF 
for  about  5  in.  as  shown.  This  is  used  for  opening  the 
leaves  of  the  calme  as  shown  at/.  The  first  step  in  making 
a  lead-light  of  square  panes  is  to  measure  the  opening  and 
set  out  on  a  board  or  the  work-bench  in  chalk  the  number  of 
panes  decided  on  ;  next  the  glass  can  be  cut,  not  forgetting 
to  allow  for  the  thickness  of  the  calme,  and,  this  being  done, 
proceed  to  put  the  casement  togetlier  as  shown.  Fig.  1365. 

Tack  down  to  the  bench  a  couple  of  laths  at  right  angles  as  shown  at  a  ^,  a  c  (Fig.  1366). 
Take  a  calme,  and  putting  your  foot  on  one  end  to  hold  it  steady,  stretch  it  out,  by 
pulling,  perfectly  straight ;  now  cut  a  piece  of  about  the  depth  of  the  window  and  place  it 
against  the  lath  a  b,  as  shown  at  d  e,  and  secure  it  to  the  bench  by  a  couple  of  brads  as 


13GI. 


Glazing —Lead  Glazing. 


G31 


shown.  Next  cut  tinother  length  of  the  calme  the  breaiUh  of  tho  cascmcnfs ;  open  the  end 
of  the  calme  d  e  with  the  ladikin,  as  shown  at  /,  Fig.  I'M-i,  insiTt  the  eml  of  the  calme  lust 
cut  in  the  one  already  fixed  at  d,  taking  care  to  see  that  this  end  is  bright,  and  brad  this 
second  calme  down,  as  at  df,  at  right  angles  to  the  former,  and  along  the  lath  a  c.     The 


1365. 


1366. 


TW 


calmes  are  cut  with  the  cutting  knife.  The  pane  of  glass  1  is  now  taken,  the  ends  of  the 
calmes  de  and  d/opeued  out  with  the  ladikin,  the  squan?  of  glass  is  placed  in  and  tapped 
up  home  with  the  heavy  handle  of  the  cutting  knife.  Having  set  pane  No.  1,  cut  with  the 
knife  a  piece  of  calme  of  the  exact  length  of  the  side  of  the  square,  faking  care  to  see 
that  the  end  is  bright ;  open  both  sides  with  the  ladikin,  then  place  the  end  in  the  calme 
d  f,  as  shown  at  g  ;  pane  2  is  now  placed  in  this,  and  carefully  tapped  home  with  the 
handle  of  the  knife  ;  then  the  lead  h  is  cut  and  placed  ;  next  fdlow  pane  3,  calme  /and 
pane  4,  &c.,  and  the  first  row  is  glazed.  Take  especial  care  that  each  pane  has  been 
knocked  in  home  and  that  the  whole  row  is  tight.  Now  comes  the  cross  calme  Im. 
Stretch  another  calme  and  cut  it  to  the  proper  length  and  open  it  up  with  the  ladikin. 
Insert  the  end  of  this  in  the  vertical  calme  d  e,  and  place  the  ends  of  the  spurs  g  h  i  k  in 
it.  Now  begin  another  row  with  the  pane  6,  follow  this  with  the  short  lead  n  ;  then  the 
pane  7,  lead  o,  pane  8,  and  till  the  second  row  is  complete.  When  all  the  panes  are  fixed 
in  and  the  casement  is  complete,  the  end  calme  is  fixed,  and  then  the  side  one  r  s.  All 
is  now  ready  for  the  soldering.  The  bit  or  soldering-iron  is  heated,  and  the  operator 
takes  a  strip  of  fine  solder,  in  his  left  hand,  of  an  easily  fusible  kind.  He  then  siirinkles 
a  small  quantity  of  black  rosin  at  the  place  to  bo  soldered,  places  the  end  of  the  solder 
strip  to  the  first  and  applies  the  heated  bit  until  a  good  joint  is  made,  and  the  solder 
makes  a  neat  little  raised  circle  at  the  place.  This  operation  is  repeated  at  each  joint 
until  all  are  secured.  Some  workmen  prefer  "killed"  spirits  of  salts  (see  p.  101)  to 
rosin  for  tho  flux.  The  bit  or  iron  should  not  be  too  hot,  and  should  not  be  held  in 
confcict  with  the  calmes  too  long.  It  is  important  that  the  ends  of  the  lead  be  bright,  or  a 
good  joint  cannot  be  secured.  The  bands  which  secured  calmes  abd,heto  the  brads  must 
now  be  loosened,  the  light  turned  over,  and  the  other  side  be  soldered  in  a  similar  manner. 
Next  the  "  bands  "  or  "  ties  "  have  to  bo  fixed.  These  are  small  strips  of  kad  or  little 
bits  of  copper  wire,  intended  to  secure  the  lights  to  the  "saddle-bars"  of  the  \\indow. 
The  saddle-bars  are  horizontal  bars  of  small  iron  rod  crossing  the  wmdow-opening,  their 
ends  being  set  in  the  stonework  or  wood,  and  are  intended  to  support  the  glass.  As  many 
bands  should  bo  soldered  on  as  the  glazier  deems  requisite.  Copper  wire  ties  are  gene- 
rally preferred  for  fretwork.  In  the  rectangular  iron  frame  fur  opening  casements,  to 
which  the  lead  light  is  fitted,  the  smith  generally  drills  small  holes  all  round,  and  the 


632 


Glazing — Lead  Glazinc: ; 


Special  metliods. 


glazier  will  require  to  solder  his  tics  around  the  lead  light  at  such  places  as  will  corre- 
siwnd  with  these  holes  and  in  such  a  manner  tliat  the  ties  stand  up  at  riglit  angles  to  the 
calme  to  which  they  are  soldered.  They  must  also  be  of  such  size  that  they  will  pass 
through  the  holes.  These  ties  are  put  through  the  holes  in  the  casement  frame,  cut  off 
flush  with  the  top  surface  of  the  irun.  A  bead  of  solder  is  now  dropped  on  the  end  of  the 
tie,  well  spread  with  the  bit,  and  fiijally  pressed  down  into  a  nice  flat  round  bottom  by 
the  sudden  and  momentary  application  of  the  thumb,  well  wetted  with  saliva. 

The  lead-light  is  now  finished  all  but  the  "  cementing."  Tijis  process  is  adopted  for 
several  reasons.  In  the  first  place  it  helps  to  secure  the  glass  in  the  lead-work,  some- 
thing as  putty  does  in  sash-windows,  then  it  keeps  the  whole  window  watertight  and 
windtight,  &c.  Proceed  thus  .-—Take  an  old  sash-tool  and  a  little  stifi"  lead-coloured 
paint,  and  rub  the  joints  and  calmes  therewith.  Then  take  a  small  blacklead  brush  and 
a  small  quantity  of  whiting,  and  with  tin's  brush  rub  the  paint  until  it  appears  all  brushed 
out  of  the  crevices,  brush  off  the  whiting,  and  repeat  the  process  with  some  lampblack, 
and  brush  away  until  the  joints  become  as  lustrous  as  if  blackleaded.  Finally  clear  off 
and  clean  the  glass  in  the  usual  way. 

Special  methods. — Recently  have  been  introduced  a  number  of  methods  of  glazing 
not  depending  on  putty,  thereby  simplifying  the  operation  of  fi.^:ing  and  replacing  the 
glass,  though  probably  in  all  cases  also  facilitating  the  operations  of  the  burglar,  which 
must  limit  .their  application  for  domestic  purposes.  They  may  be  described  in  alphabetic 
order. 

1367. 


1368. 


13C9. 


13T0. 


Braby's. — This  is  shown  in  Fig.  13G7  :  a,  wooden  core ;  h,  oiled  packing  ;  c,  zinc  bar 
and  capping.  The  glass  d  is  clipped  between  the  zinc  bars  with  the  intervention  of  the 
oiled  packing. 

Drummoud'd. — This  requires  a  specially  prepared  putty,  and  is  illustrated  in  Figs. 
1368,  1369;  a,  side  sli^^s  fitting  close  on  the  edges  of  the  glass  h,  and  filled  with  a  putty 


Glazing — Special  methods. 


G33 


that  will  not  dry  nor  harden  ;  c,  cap  of  zinc,  copper  or  lead,  with  allowance  for  side  slips 
to  expand  or  contract  with  the  glass  ;  d,  wooden  or  T-iron  bar;  c,  hc;id  llanses  foUhil 
down  on  glass  b ;  /,  chair  for  fixing  bars  to  purlins  g  when  required  ;  h,  bolt  and  nut  to 
secure  had  flange  inside  at  bottom  ;  i,  water  gutter. 

Lawrance's.— This  plan  is  adapted  for  greenhouses  and  similar  structures,  entailing 
the  use  of  special  metallic  sash  bars.  It  is  light,  strong,  watertight,  free  from  drip,  a  .d 
durable. 

Mackenzie's. — This  is  essentially  a  malkable  iron  glazing  bar  sheathed  in  lead 
(Fig.  1370).  The  glass  a  rests  upon  the  lead  sheath  h  surrounding  the  iron  bar  c,  and  is 
held  in  place  by  a  fold  of  the  lead  above.     Condensed  moisture  collects  in  the  gutter  d. 

Messenger's. — This  is  a  system  of  glazing  with  leaden  bars,  which  may  be  desfribed 
thus.  Purlins  about  2  to  3  ft.  apart  are  placed  over  the  rafters,  which  as  in  ordinary 
construction  arc  4  to  5  ft.  apart.    These  purlins  are  grooved  to  receive  the  top  edge  of 


1371. 


1372. 


1373. 


1374. 


one  square  of  glass,  the  bottom  edge  of  the  square  above  it  projecting  over  it,  and  entirely 
covering  it  from  the  weather.  On  these  purlins  are  placed  lead  bars  of  a  stout  I  section 
running  vertically ;  the  recesses  of  these  lead  bars  are  filled  with  putty,  into  which  the 
glass  is  bedded ;  the  bars  are  screwed  to  the  purlins  at  the  bottom,  and  the  core  and 
bottom  table  are  cut  away  and  the  top  tablo  turned  down  and  nailed,  forming  a  clip  to 
Hold  up  the  glass.  The  woodwork,  not  covered  by  the  lead  bars,  such  as  the  ndge,  end- 
rafters,  &c.,  is  flashed  with  thin  sheet  lead. 

Peunycook.— This  system.  Fig.  1371,  consists  of  a  series  of  sash  bars  constructed  of 
sheet  zinc,  copper,  or  other  metal,  forming  a  double  gutter  on  each  sash  bar  fur  carrying 
off  condensed  moisture.  The  glass  is  held  in  position  by  folding  down  narrow  flanges  of 
sheet  lead.     The  sash  bars  are  fixed  to  the  wooden  or  iron  roof  by  shoes  or  clips,  and 


634 


Glazing — Special  methods. 


the  upper  and  lower  edges  of  the  glazing  are  protected  by  flashings  of  sheet  lead  or 
zinc,    a  is  the  glass  ;  b,  lead ;  c,  metallic  sash  bar ;  d,  internal  gutter. 

Rendle's. — Fig.  1372  represents  the  "  acme  "  system :    a,  glass ;   h,  wooden  purlin ; 

c,  horizontal  bar  with  perforated  channel  to  carry  off  condensed  moisture  from  inside  ; 

d,  vertical  bar  forming  junction  of  2  squares  of  glass.  Fig.  1373  represents  the 
"  invincible  "  system :  a,  glass  ;  b,  capping ;  c,  screw  bolt  and  nut ;  d,  washer  ;  e,  water 
channel ;  /,  condensation  gutters. 

Shelley's. — Fig.  1374  :  a,  upper  square  of  glass ;  b,  lower  square  of  glass  ;  c,  metallic 
channel  to  convey  condensed  moisture  from  top  to  outside  of  under  square,  if  considered 
necessary  ;  d,  channels  to  convey  away  water  that  may  get  in ;  e,  hollow  vulcanite  tube 
or  other  packing  as  bed  for  glass ;  /,  movable  stop  to  prevent  upper  square  sliding 
down ;  g,  locking  stud  for  securing  capping  on  glass ;  h,  movable  saddle  secured  to  bar 
to  which  locking  stud  is  made  fast. 


1375. 


^/MM/M///.^':''f:>=^'''^ 


Simplex. — This  is  composed  solely  of  strips  of  sheet  lead.  Fig.  1375  shows  a  section 
of  a  sash  bar  before  and  after  glazing,  and  Fig.  1376  of  a  window  bar  :  a,  glass ;  b,  lead ; 
c,  woodwork. 

BELL-HANGING. — The  art  of  domestic  bell-hanging  is  quite  modern,  and 
was  but  little  in  practice  before  the  present  century.  At  first  it  was  usual  to  expose  the 
wires  to  view  along  the  walls  and  ceilings,  even  in  the  best  houses,  until  the  "  secret 
system  "  was  introduced,  which  consists  in  carrying  the  wires  and  cranks  in  tubes  and 
boxes  concealed  by  the  finishings  of  the  walls.  The  tubes  are  generally  of  tinned  iron 
or  zinc ;  but  they  ought  to  be  either  of  brass  or  strong  galvanized  iron.  Zinc  cannot  be 
depended  upon :  in  some  places  it  will  moulder  away ;  if  not  soldered,  it  opens,  and 
the  wires  work  into  the  joinings  of  the  tube,  which  stops  their  movement.  The  proper 
time  to  commence  bell-hanging  is  when  the  work  is  ready  for  lathing ;  but  it  should 
not  be  delayed  till  after  the  rough-cast  plastering  has  commenced.  If  the  work  be 
performed  at  this  period,  it  enables  the  bell-hanger  to  see  his  way  more  clearly,  and 
prevents  much  cutting  away  of  the  plasterers'  work  afterwards. 

The  bells  are  usually  hung  in  a  row  on  a  board  placed  in  a  convenient  position  for 
being  seen  and  heard  by  the  attendant;  each  bell  having  some  mark  by  which  to 
distinguish  the  room  whence  the  summons  proceeds.  Each  bell  is  connected  by  a 
separate  wire  with  a  handle  fixed  in  the  room  to  which  it  relates.  The  wire  of 
communication,  which  transfers  the  jerk  of  the  handle  of  the  bell-pull  to  the  bell,  can 
only  travel  in  straight  lines  following  the  walls  of  the  rooms  or  passages  traversed, 
consequently  at  each  change  of  direction  the  continuity  of  the  wire  must  be  broken,  and 


Bell-hanging — Electric  Bells. 


G3i 


137S. 


1377. 


A 


I 


k 


the  ends  attached  to  the  arms  of  a  suitable  crank.  These  arc  made  in  several  fomia  to 
suit  the  situations  which  occur,  and  must  bo  chosen  accordingly.  It  is  important 
to  have  as  few  cranks  as  possible,  because  tluy  all  help  to  increase  tin:  wear  on  the 
wires,  tubes,  &c.  In  some  houses  no  provision  is  made  for  bells.  Where  it  is  desired  to 
remedy  this  defect,  a  very  long  handled  (2-3  ft.)  gimlet,  called  a  '■  belUianger's  gimlet," 
Fig.  1377,  is  needed  for  boring  passages  for  the  wires,  unless  the  adilitionul 
expense  is  incurred  of  letting  in  tubes  for  the  wires  to  run  in.  The  wire 
used  is  of  copper,  Nos.  16,  17,  or  18  gauge  for  indoor  work,  and  14  or  15  for 
outdoor.  The  wire  should  be  strained  quite  tight  when  put  up,  and  secured 
at  one  end  to  the  chain  on  the  bell-pull,  and  at  the  other  to  the  lower  arm 
on  the  bell,  allowing  the  latter  to  hang  perpendicularly.  The  bell-pull,  bell, 
and  cranks  must  be  very  firmly  secured  in  their  places ;  joints  in  the  wire 
are  always  made  by  looping  and  twisting,  with  the  aid  of  a  pair  of  pliers 
which  also  cut  off  the  ends.  The  whole  system  is  very  crude  as  compared 
with  the  electric  system,  which  is  now  coming  into  general  use. 

Electric  Bells. — An  ordinary  electric  bell  is  merely  a  vibrating  contact- 
breaker  carrying  a  small  hammer  on  its  spring,  which  hammer  strikes  a  bell 
placed  within  its  reach  as  long  as  the  vibration  of  the  spring  continues. 
The  necessary  apparatus  comprises  a  battery  to  supply  the  force,  wires  to 
conduct  it,  circuit-closers  to  apply  it,  and  bells  to  give  it  expression. 

The  Leclanche  battery  (Fig.  1378)  is  the  best  for  all  electric  bell  systems, 
its   great   recommendation  being  that,  once    charged,  it    retains    its  power 
without  attention  for  several  years.     2  jars  are  employed  in  its  construction : 
the  outer  one  is  of  glass,   contains   a  zinc  rod,    and   is   charged  with   a 
solution  of  ammonium  chloride  (sal-ammoniac).    The  inner  jar  is  of  porous 
earthenware,  contains   a  carbon  plate,  and  is  filled   up  with   a  mixture  of 
manganese  peroxide  and  broken  gas  carbon.      When  the  carbon   plate  and 
the  zinc   rod  are  connected,  a   steady  current  of  electricity  is  set  up,  the 
chemical  reaction   which  takes  place  being  as  follows: — The  zinc  becomes 
oxidized  by  the  oxygen  from  the  manganese  peroxide,  and  is  subsequently 
converted  into  zinc  chloride  by  the  action  of  the  sal-ammoniac.    After  the 
battery  has  been  in  continuous  use  for  some  hours,  the  manganese  becomes 
exhausted   of   oxygen,   and  the  force   of   the   electrical   current   is   greatly 
diminished ;  but  if  the  battery  be  allowed  to  rest  for  a  short  time,  the  man- 
ganese obtains  a  fresh  supply  of  oxygen  from  the  atmosphere,  and  is  again  fit 
for  use.     After  about  18  months'  work,  the  glass  cell 
will  probably  require  recharging  with  sal-ammoniac,  and 
the  zinc  rod  may  also  need  renewing ;  but  should  the 
porous  cell  get  out  of  order,  it  is  better  to  get  a  new 
one  entirely,  than  to  attempt  to  recharge  it. 

On  short  circuits,  2  cells  may  sufiice,  increasing  up  to 
4  or  6  as  required.  It  is  false  economy  to  use  a  battery 
too  weak  to  do  its  work  properly.  The  battery  should 
be  placed  where  it  will  not  be  subject  to  changes  o*" 
temperature,  e.  g.  in  an  underground  cellar. 

The  circuit  wire  used  in  England  for  indoor  situa- 
tions is  "  No.  20  "  copper  wire,  covered  with  guttapercha 
and  cotton.     In  America,  "No.  18,  first-class,  braided, 

cotton-covered,  office  wire  "  is  recommended,  though  smaller  and  cheaper  kinds  are  often 
used.  The  wire  should  be  laid  with  great  regard  to  keeping  it  from  damp,  and  ensuring 
its  perfect  insulation.  Out  of  doors,  for  carrying  long  distances  overhead,  ordinary 
galvanized  iron  wire  is  well  adapted,  the  gauge  running  from  '•  No.  4  "  to  "  No.  14," 
according  to  conditions.      Proper  insulators  on  poles  must  be  provided,  avoidin 


c 


> 


^ 


11 


636  Bell-hanging — Electric  Bells. 

contact  with  foreign  bodies ;  or  a  rubber-covered  wire  encased  in  lead  may  bo  run 
unJergronnd. 

The  circuit-cloger,  or  means  of  instantaneously  completing  and  interrupting  the 
circuit,  is  generally  a  simple  press-button.  This  consists  of  a  little  cylindrical  box, 
provided  in  the  centre  witli  an  ivory  button,  which  is  either  (1)  attached  to  a  brass 
spring  that  is  brought  into  contact  with  a  brass  plate  at  the  back  of  the  box  on  pressing 
the  button,  or  (2)  is  capable  of  pressing  together  2  springs  in  the  box.  A  wire  from  the 
battery  is  attached  to  the  spring  of  the  press-button,  and  another  from  the  bell  is 
secured  to  the  brass  plate.  Platinum  points  should  be  provided  on  the  spring  and  plate 
where  the  contact  takes  place.  While  the  button  is  at  rest,  or  out,  the  electric  circuit  is 
broken  ;  but  on  being  pressed  in,  it  completes  the  circuit,  and  the  bell  rings. 

The  relative  arrangement  and  connection  of  the  several  parts  is  shown  in  Fig.  1379  : 
a,  Leclanche'  cell;  h,  wire;  c,  press-button;  d,  bell.  When  the  distance  traversed  is 
great,  say    J  mile,   the  return  wire  e  may  be 

dispensed  with,  and  replaced  by  what  is  known  i^"^- 

as  the  "  earth  circuit,"  established  by  attaching 
the  terminals  at  /  and  g  to  copper  plates  sunk 
in  the  ground. 

The  bells  used  are  generally  vibrating  ones, 
and  those  intended  for  internal  house  use  need 
not  have  a  higher  resistance  than  2  or  3  ohms. 

At  other  times,  single-stroke  and  continuous-ringer  bells  have  to  be  provided,  the  latter 
being  arranged  to  continue  ringing  until  specially  stopped.  The  bell  may  or  may  not 
be  fitted  with  an  annunciator  system ;  the  latter  is  almost  a  necessity  when  many 
bells  have  to  ring  to  the  same  place,  as  then  1  bell  only  is  requisite.  A  single- 
stroke  bell  is  simply  a  gong  fixed  to  a  board  or  frame,  an  electro-magnet,  and  an 
armature  with  a  hammer  at  the  end,  arranged  to  strike  the  gong  when  the  armature  is 
attracted  by  the  magnet.  A  vibrating  bell  has  its  armature  fixed  to  a  spring  which 
presses  against  a  contact-screw ;  the  wire  forming  the  circuit,  entering  at  one  binding- 
screw,  goes  to  the  magnet,  which  in  turn  is  connected  with  the  armature  ;  thence 
the  circuit  continues  througli  the  contact-screw  to  the  other  binding-screw,  and  out. 
When  set  in  motion  by  electricity,  the  magnet  attracts  the  armature,  and  the  hammer 
strikes  the  bell ;  but  in  its  forward  motion,  the  spring  leaves  the  contact-screw,  and 
thus  the  circuit  is  broken ;  the  hammer  then  falls  back,  closing  the  circuit  again, 
and  so  the  action  is  continued  ad  libitum,  and  a  rapid  vibratory  motion  is  produced, 
which  makes  a  ringing  by  the  action  of  the  successive  blows  of  the  hammer  on  the 
gong. 

The  following  useful  hints  on  electric  bell  systems  are  condensed  from  Lockwood's 
handy  little  volume  on  telephones. 

With  regard  to  the  battery,  he  advises  to  keep  the  sal-ammoniac  solution  strong,  yet 
not  to  put  so  much  in  that  it  cannot  dissolve.  Be  extremely  careful  to  have  all  battery 
connections  clean,  bright,  and  mechanically  tight,  and  to  have  no  leak  or  short  circuit. 
The  batteries  should  last  a  year  without  further  attention,  and  the  glass  jars  never 
ought  to  be  filled  more  than  f  full. 

(a)  1  Bell  and  1  Press-button. — The  simplest  system  is  1  bell  operated  by  1  press- 
button.  The  arrangement  of  this  is  the  same  whether  the  line  be  long  or  short.  Set  up 
the  bell  in  the  required  place,  with  the  gong  down  or  up  as  may  be  chosen  ;  fix  press- 
button  where  wanted,  taking  all  advantages  ofiered  by  the  plan  of  the  house ;  e.  g.  a 
wall  behind  which  is  a  closet  is  an  excellent  place  to  attach  electrical  fixtures,  because 
then  it  is  easy  to  run  all  the  wires  in  the  closets,  and  out  of  sight.  Set  up  the  battery 
in  a  convenient  place,  and,  if  possible,  in  an  air-tight  box.  Calculate  how  much  wire 
will  be  requisite,  and  measure  it  oiT,  giving  a  liberal  supply ;  joints  in  inside  work  are 
very  objectionable,  and  only  admissible  where  absolutely  necessary.    Cut  off  insulation 


Bell-hanging — Electric  Bells.  637 

from  ends  of  wire  wliere  contact  is  to  be  made  to  a  screw.  Only  3  wires  are  necessary, 
i.  c.  (1)  from  1  spring  of  the  press-button  to  1  polo  of  the  battery,  say  the  carbon,  (2)  from 
the  other  spring  of  the  button  to  1  binding-screw  of  the  bell,  (3)  from  the  other  [)olc  of 
the  battery  to  the  other  binding-screw  of  the  bell.  In  stripping  wires,  leave  no  ragged 
threads  hanging ;  they  get  caught  in  the  binding-screw,  and  interfere  with  tiio  con- 
nection of  the  parts.  Alter  stripping  the  wire  sufficiently,  make  the  ends  not  only  clean 
but  bright.  Never  run  2  wires  under  1  staple.  A  button-switch  should  bo  placed  in 
the  battery-circuit,  and  close  to  the  battery,  so  that,  to  avoid  leakage  and  accidental 
short  circuiting  when  the  bells  are  not  used  for  some  time,  it  may  bo  opened. 

(6)  1  Bell  and  2  Press-buttons. — The  next  system  is  an  arrangement  of  2  press- 
buttons  in  different  places  to  ring  the  same  bell.  Having  fixed  the  kll  and  battery, 
and  decided  upon  the  position  of  the  2  buttons,  run  the  wires  as  follows  : — 1  long 
covered  wire  is  run  from  1  pole  of  the  battery  to  I  of  the  springs  of  the  most  distant 
press-button,  and  where  this  long  wire  approaches  nearest  to  the  other  press-button  it  is 
stripped  for  about  1  in.  and  scraped  clean ;  anotlier  wire,  also  stripped  at  its  end,  is 
wound  carefully  around  the  bared  place,  and  the  joint  is  covered  with  kerite  tape ;  the 
other  end  of  the  piece  of  wire  thus  branched  on  is  carried  over  and  fastened  to  the 
spring  of  the  second  press-button.  This  constitutes  a  battery  wire  branching  to  1 
spring  of  each  press-button.  Then  run  a  second  wire  from  1  of  the  bell  binding-screws 
to  the  other  spring  of  the  most  distant  press-button,  branching  it  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  battery-wire  to  the  other  spring  of  the  second  button ;  connect  the  other  pole  of 
the  battery  to  the  second  binding-screw  of  the  bell,  and  the  arrangement  is  com- 
plete— a  continuous  battery-circuit  througli  the  bell  when  either  of  the  buttons  is 
pressed.  Before  covering  the  joints  with  tape,  it  is  well  to  solder  them,  using  rosin  as 
a  flux. 

(c)  2  Bells  and  1  Press-button. — When  it  is  required  to  have  2  bolls  in  different 
places,  to  ring  from  1  press-button  at  the  same  time,  after  erecting  the  bells,  button, 
and  battery,  run  a  wire  from  the  carbon  pole  of  the  battery  and  branch  it  in  tlie  manner 
described  to  1  binding-screw  of  each  bell ;  run  a  second  wire  from  the  zinc  pole  of  the 
battery  to  1  spring  of  the  button,  and  a  third  wire  from  the  other  spring,  branching  it  to 
the  remaining  binding-screw  of  both  bells.  It  will  not  answer  to  connect  2  or  more 
vibrating  bells  in  circuit  one  after  another,  as  the  2  circuit-breakers  will  not  work  in 
unison  ;  they  must  always  be  branched,  i.  e.  a  portion  of  the  main  wire  must  be  stripped, 
and  another  piece  spliced  to  it,  so  as  to  make  2  ends. 

(d)  There  are  other  methods,  one  of  which  is,  if  more  than  1  bell  is  designed  to  ring 
steadily  when  the  button  is  pressed,  to  let  only  1  of  the  series  be  a  vibrating  bell,  and 
the  others  single-strokes ;  these,  if  properly  set  up  and  adjusted,  will  continuously  ring, 
because  they  are  controlled  by  the  rapid  make  and  break  of  the  1  vibrator. 

(e)  Annunciator  system. — To  connect  an  indicating  annunciator  of  any  number  of 
drops  with  a  common  bell,  to  be  operated  by  press-buttons  in  different  parts  of  a  house, 
is  a  handy  arrangement,  as  one  drop  may  be  operated  from  the  front  door,  another  from 
the  drawing-room,  a  third  from  the  dining-room,  and  so  on.  The  annunciator  is  fastened 
up  with  the  bell  near  it.  All  the  electro-magnets  in  the  annunciator  are  connected  by 
1  wire  with  1  binding-screw  of  the  bell,  and  the  other  binding-screw  of  the  bell  is  con- 
nected with  the  zinc  of  the  battery.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  run  a  wire  through  the  building 
from  top  to  bottom,  at  one  end  connecting  it  with  the  carbon  pole  of  the  battery.  It  ouglit 
to  be  covered  with  a  different  coloured  cotton  from  any  other,  so  as  to  be  readily  iden- 
tified as  the  wire  from  the  carbon.  Supposing  there  are  G  press-buttons,  1  in  each  room, 
run  a  wire  from  1  of  the  springs  of  each  of  the  press-buttons  to  the  main  wire  from  the 
carbon  pole,  and  at  the  point  of  meeting  strip  the  covering  from  both  the  main  wire 
and  the  ends  of  the  branch  wires  from  the  press-buttons,  and  fasten  each  branch  wire  to 
the  main  wire,  virtually  bringing  the  carbon  pole  of  the  battery  into  every  press-button. 
Next,  lead  a  second  wire  from  the  other  spring  of  each  press-buttoa  to  the  annunciator 


638  Bell-hanging — Electric  Bells. 

screw-post  belonging  to  the  special  drop  desired.  This  -will  complete  the  circuit  ■when 
any  of  the  press-buttons  is  pushed ;  for,  as  each  annunciator  magnet  is  connected  on 
1  side  to  its  own  press-button,  and  on  the  other  side  to  the  common  bell,  it  follows  that 
when  any  button  is  pressed,  the  line  of  the  current  is  from  the  carbon  pole  of  the  battery, 
through  the  points  of  the  press-button,  back  to  the  annunciator,  thence  through  the  bell 
to  the  zinc  pole  of  the  battery ;  and  that,  therefore,  the  right  annunciator  must  drop  and 
the  bell  must  ring.  In  handsome  houses,  run  the  wires  under  the  floor  as  much  as 
possible,  and  adopt  such  colours  for  wire  covering  as  may  be  harmonious  with  the  paper 
and  paintings.    Also  test  each  wire  separately,  as  soon  as  the  connection  is  made. 

(/)  Double  system. — A  system  of  bells  in  which  the  signalling  is  done  both  ways,  that 
is,  in  addition  to  the  annunciator  and  bell  located  at  one  point,  to  be  signalled  by 
pressing  the  bottom  in  each  room,  a  bell  is  likewise  placed  in  each  room,  or  in  a  certain 
room,  whereon  a  return  signal  may  be  received — transmitted  from  a  press-button 
near  the  annunciator.  This  is  a  double  system,  and  involves  additional  wires.  One 
battery  may  furnish  all  the  current.  Kun  the  main  carbon  through  the  house,  as 
before,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  admit  of  branch  wires  being  easily  attached  to  it.  Kun 
a  branch  wire  from  it  to  the  spring  of  one  of  the  press-buttons,  a  second  wire  from  the 
other  spring  of  the  same  button  to  the  screw-post  of  the  bell  in  room  No.  2,  and  from 
the  other  screw-post  of  the  said  bell  to  the  zinc  pole  of  the  battery.  This  completes 
one  circuit.  The  other  is  then  arranged  as  follows : — The  main  carbon,  besides  being 
led,  as  already  described,  to  the  spring  of  the  press-button  in  room  No.  1,  is  continued 
to  one  of  the  binding-screws  of  the  bell  in  the  same  room  ;  the  other  terminal  of  that 
bell  is  carried  to  one  spring  of  the  press-button  in  room  No.  2 ;  the  complementary 
spring  of  that  press-button  is  then  connected  by  a  special  and  separate  wire  with  the  zinc 
of  the  battery,  and  the  second  circuit  is  then  also  completed. 

An  alternative  method  is  to  run  branches  from  the  main  carbon  wire  to  all  the 
press-buttons,  and  from  the  main  zinc  wire  to  all  the  bells,  connecting  by  separate  wires 
the  remaining  bell  terminals  with  the  remaining  press-button  springs.  In  the  latter 
plan,  more  wires  are  necessary.  Although  the  connections  of  but  one  bell  either  way 
have  been  described,  every  addition  must  be  carried  out  on  the  same  principle. 

When  2  points  at  some  distance  from  one  another,  e.  g.  the  house  and  a  stable  100  yd. 
distant,  are  to  be  connected,  it  is  easy  to  run  1  wire,  and  use  an  earth  return.  If  gas 
or  water  pipes  are  in  use  at  both  points,  no  difficulty  will  be  found  in  accomplishing 
this.  A  strap-key  will  in  this  case  be  found  advantageous  as  a  substitute  for  a  press- 
button.  The  connecting  wire  at  each  end  is  fastened  to  the  stem  of  the  key ;  the  back 
contact  or  bridge  of  the  key,  against  which  when  at  rest  the  key  presses,  is  connected  at 
each  end  with  one  terminal  of  the  bell,  the  other  terminal  of  each  bell  being  connected 
by  wire  with  the  ground.  A  sufficient  amount  of  battery  is  placed  at  each  point,  and 
1  pole  of  each  battery  is  connected  with  the  earth,  the  other  pole  being  attached  to  the 
front  contact  of  the  strap-key.  If  impossible  to  get  a  ground,  the  second  terminal  of  both 
bell  and  battery  at  each  end  must  be  connected  by  a  return  wire. 

(g)  Bell  and  Telephone. — It  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  add  telephones  to  bell-signalling 
appliances,  when  constructed  as  here  described.  The  only  additions  necessary  are  a 
branch  or  return  circuit  for  the  telephones,  and  a  switch  operated  by  hand,  whereby  the 
main  wire  is  switched  from  the  bell  return  wire  to  the  telephone  return  wire.  A  very 
simple  plan  for  a  bell-call  and  telephone  line  from  one  room  to  another,  can  be  made  as 
follows:  Apparatus  required — 2  bells,  2  telephones,  2  3-point  switches,  2  strap-keys 
with  back  and  front  contacts,  and  1  battery.  Run  1  wire  from  the  stem  of  the  key  in 
room  No.  1  to  the  stem  of  the  key  in  room  No.  2.  This  is  the  main  wire.  Fix  the  bell 
and  3-point  switch  below  it  in  each  room.  Connect  the  back  contact  of  each  key  by 
wire  to  the  lever  of  he  3-point  switch,  attach  1  of  the  points  of  the  switch  to  1  of  the 
bell  terminals,  and  the  other  bell  terminal  to  a  return  wire.  The  return  wire  will  now 
connect  the  second  bell  terminal  in  one  room  with  the  second  bell  in  the  other  room. 


Bell-hanging — Electric  Bells. 


G39 


The  other  point  of  tho  switch  in  each  room  is  now  connected  hy  a  wire  with  1  biiidiiig- 
screw  of  a  telephone,  and  the  other  telephone  screw  is  attached  by  another  wire  to 
the  bell  return.  Connecting  1  pole  of  tho  battery  also  to  tho  return  wire,  and  the 
other  pole  to  each  of  the  front  contacts  of  the  keys,  the  system  is  complete.  When 
at  rest,  each  switch  is  turned  on  to  tho  bell.  To  ring  the  bell  in  the  otlier  room,  the 
key  is  pressed.  The  battery  circuit  is  then  from  battery,  front  contact  of  tlio  pressed 
key,  stem  of  key,  main  wire,  stem  of  distant  key,  switch,  bell,  and  through  return  wire 
to  the  other  pole  of  the  battery.  After  bell  signals  are  interchanged,  the  3-point 
switches  are  transferred  to  the  telephone  joint,  and  conversation  can  bo  maintained. 
(Lockwood.) 

Milking  an  Electric  Bell.— The  following  description  applies  to  ?,  sizes — viz.  for  a 
2-in.  bell,  hereafter  called  No.  1 ;  2|-in.,  or  No.  2 ;  4-iu.,  or  No.  3,  which  sizes  are 
sufficient  for  most  amateurs'  purposes,  and,  if  properly  made,  a  No.  3  Leclanche  cell 
will  ring  the  largest  2  through  over  100  yd.  No.  24  (B.  W.  G.)  wire. 

The  Backboard  and  Cover. — This  may  be  of  any  hard  wood,  by  preference  teak,  oak, 
or  mahogany,  and  if  polished,  so  much  the  better  ;  the  size  required  will  be — 

No.  1,  5 J  in.  long,  3|  in.  wide,  §  in.  thick. 
No.  2,  7    in.     „      3f  in. 


No.  3,  Sh  in. 


m. 


)5 


f  in. 

f  in. 


The  cover  must  be  deep  enough  to  cover  all  the  work,  and  reach  to  within  about  }  in. 
of  the  top  and  sides  of  back,  and  allow  |  in.  to  J  in.  between  the  edge  of  bell  and  cover; 
the  making  of  this  had  better  be  deferred  until  the  bell  is  nearly  complete. 

The  Electro-Magnet.— This  should  be  of  good  round  iron,  and  bent  into  a  horse- 
shoe shape  (Fig.  1380).  The  part  o  b  must  be  quite  straight,  and  not  damaged  by 
the  forging  ;  the  bend  should  be  as  flat  as  possible,  so  as  to  make  the  magnet  as  sliort 
as  may  be  (to  save  space).  When  made,  the  magnet  is  put  into  a  clear  fire,  and  when  red 
hot,  taken  out  and  laid  in  the  ashes  to  slowly  cool ;  care  must  be  taken  not  to  burn 
it.     Lastly,  2  small  holes  are  drilled  in  the  centre  of  the  ends  at  c,  about  -^  in.  deep ; 


<ti 


1380. 

(Z         er-^^ 


1381. 


drive  a  piece  of  brass  wire  tightly  into  the  holes,  and  allow  the  wire  to  project  suflB- 
ciently  to  allow  a  piece  of  thin  paper  between  tho  iron  and  tlie  table  when  the  iron 
is  standing  upon  it ;    this  is  to  prevent    the   armature  adhering  to  the   magnet  from 
residuary  magnetism,  which  always  exists  more  or  less.    The  measurements  are- 
No.  1  size  iron  |  in.,  d  to  e  ^  in.,  a  to  h  1^  in. 
No.  2         „      j\^  in.,     ..      9  in..      ..      U  in. 


No.  3 


-iV  "1-. 


I  in., 
5  in-> 


li  in. 


The  Bobbins  or  Coils.— These  are  made  by  bending  thin  sheet  copper  round  the 
part  a  b  of  the  magnet ;  the  edges  at  a  (Fig.  1381)  must  not  quite  meet.  The  thickness 
of  this  copper  must  be  such  that  4  pieces  just  equal  in  thickness  the  edge  of  a  new 


640 


Bell-hanging — Electric  Bells.    Gas-fitting. 


threepenny-piece  (this  is  rather  an  original  gauge,  but  then  all  can  get  at  the  thickness 
this  way).  The  hole  in  the  brass  end  h  must  be  just  large  enough  to  push  on  firmly  over 
the  copper  when  on  the  iron;  they  must  then  be  set  true,  and  soldered  on.  The  brass 
for  the  end  s  may  be  about  as  thick  as  a  sixpence ;  a  yV^"^-  ^o^Q  must  be  drilled  at  c 
close  to  the  copper.     The  other  measurements  are  as  follows : — 


No.  1,  diameter  f  in.,  length  over  all  li  in. 
No.  2,        „        f  in.,  „  li  in. 

No.  3,        „        1  in.,  „ 


l|in. 


ns? 


The  brass  ends  should  be  neatly  turned  true  and  lacquered. 

To  fill  the  Bobbins  with  Wire. — For  this  purpose.  No.  28  wire  should  be  used,  which 
is  better  if  varnished  or  paraffined.  The  bobbins  should  be  neatly  covered  with  paper 
over  the  copper  tube  and  inside  of  ends,  to  prevent  any  possibility  of  the  wire  touching 
the  bobbin  itself;  the  bobbin  is  best  filled  by  chucking  it  on  a  mandrel  in  the  lathe,  or 
a  primitive  winding  apparatus  may  be  made  by  boring  a  hole  through  the  sides  of  a 
small  box,  fit  a  wire  crank  and  wooden  axle  to  this,  and  push  the  bobbin  on  the 
projecting  end — thus  (Fig.  1382)  :  a,  crank  ;  b,  box  ;  c,  bobbin  ;  d,  axle.  The  box  may 
be  loaded  to  keep  it  steady  ;  on  any  account  do  not  attempt 
to  wind  the  wire  on  by  hand — the  bobbin  must  revolve. 
Leave  about  1|  in.  of  wire  projecting  outside  the  hole  d, 
iu  end  of  bobbin,  and  wind  the  wire  on  carefully  and  quite 
evenly,  the  number  of  layers  being  respectively  6,  8,  and 
10  ;  the  last  layer  must  finish  at  the  same  end  as  the  first 
began,  and  is  best  fastened  off  by  a  silk  or  thread  binding, 
leaving  about  a  3-in.  piece  projecting.  Botli  bobbins  must 
be  wound  in  the  same  direction,  turning  the  crank  from 

you,  and  commencing  at  the  end  nearest  the  box.  The  bobbins  must  now  be  firmly 
pushed  on  the  part  a  6  of  the  magnet,  and  the  two  pieces  of  wire  projecting  through 
the  hole  c  soldered  together. 

To  put  the  Bell  together. — First  screw  on  the  bell.  This  should  be  supported 
underneath  by  a  piece  of  J-in,  iron  tube,  long  enough  to  keep  the  edge  of  the  bell 
1  to  4  in.  above  the  backboard.  Cut  off  the  hammer-rod,  so  that  when  the  head  is  on  it 
will  come  nearly  as  low  as  the  bell  screw,  and  in  a  line  with  it.  Make  a  hole  in  the 
backboard,  and  drive  the  armature  post  in  tightly — it  must  be  driven  in  so  far  that 
when  the  magnet  is  laid  upon  the  backboard,  the  centre  of  the  magnet  iron  and  the 
armature  are  the  same  height.  Place  the  magnet  so  that  when  the  armature  is  pressed 
against  it,  the  hammer-head  all  but  touches  the  bell ;  screw  it  into  its  place  by  a  wooden 
bridge  across  the  screw  passing  between  the  bobbins.  By  afterwards  easing  this  screw, 
any  little  adjustment  can  be  made.  The  armature  spring  should  tend  to  throw 
the  hammer-head  about  |  in.  from  the  bell.  The  contact-post  should  be  so  placed  that 
when  the  armature  touches  the  magnet,  there  is  a  slight  space  between  the  platinum 
point  on  the  screw  and  the  platinum  on  the  spring.  In  putting  iu  the  posts,  a  piece  of 
coj^per  wire  must  be  driven  in  with  them  to  attach  the  wire  to.  One  post  can  be  moved 
round  a  little  either  way  to  alter  the  tension  of  the  spring ;  the  screw  in  the  other  post 
can  be  turned  in  or  out,  to  just  allow  the  proper  break  to  take  place.  By  screwing  it  in 
and  out,  the  ear  will  soon  judge  where  the  bell  rings  best.    (Volk.) 

Those  desiring  further  information  on  batteries,  telephones,  and  all  electrical  matters, 
are  referred  to  the  Third  Series  of  '  Workshop  Receipts,'  where  diffuse  instructions 
are  given. 

GAS-FITTING.  —  This  is  an  eminently  simple  operation,  capable  of  being 
performed  by  any  one  who  has  had  any  practice  in  soldering  joints  (see  p.  1 14).  It 
consists  merely  in  making  connections  between  a  series  of  iron  and  "  compo  "  pipes  and 


Gasfittino. 


641 


1383. 


tho  "burners,"  as  well  as  fixing  the  latter.  The  ordinary  arrangement  of  the  pas 
supply  of  a  house  is  as  follows.  An  inlst  pipe  of  iron  brings  the  gas  from  the  street 
main  to  the  meter.  This  Litter  belongs  to  the  Gas  Company,  and  is  of  a  size  to  supply 
a  certain  number  of  burners.  It  is  plared  in  an  out-of-the-way  eituntion,  generally  a 
cellar,  as  near  the  street  as  ni:iy  be.  From  it  an  iron  pipe  passes  up  to  tho  level  of  the 
first  floor  requiring  a  supply  of  gas  ;  here  branch  pipes  are  led  off  to  tlio  various  rooms, 
while  the  principal  pipe  is  continued  upwards  through  the  other  stories  as  fur  as 
desired. 

The  mode  of  procedure  is  first  to  fix  the  burner  in  place,  and  then  to  lead  a  pipe 
from  it  to  tho  nearest  point  on  the  supply  pipe,  and  there  to  make  a  joint.  Burners  may 
be  broadly  classed  in  two  divisions,  brackets  and  pendants;  the  former  are  placed  against 
a  wall,  the  latter  hang  from  a  ceiling.  In  choosing  a  situation  for  a  bracket,  care  must 
be  taken  that  it  docs  not  reach  any  movable  article  of  an  inflammable  nature,  e.  g.  cur- 
tains, cupboard-doors,  &c. ;  in  the  case  of  a  pendant,  the  chief  care  will  be  to  let  it  bo 
out  of  the  way  of  persons  occupying  the  room :  of  course  there  is  a  great  variety  in 
both  brackets  and  pendants,  but  this  has  no  influence  on  the  mode  of  fixing,  except  in 
the  case  of  the  chandelier  with  universal  joint. 

Commencing  with  a  bracket,  as  being  simplest,  a  spot  on  a  wall  having  been  chosen 
for  its  site,  the  first  step  is  to  prepare  the  wall  for  its  reception.     The  pipe  to  supply  the 
bracket  should  be  carried  as  directly  and  as  secretly  as  possible  to  the  main  supply, 
which  may  be  in  the  ceiling  above  the  room 
or  in  the  floor  beneath  it,  or  in  the  wall  of 
an  adjoining  room   or   passage.      Secrecy    is 
secured  by  chiselling  out  a  small  recess  in  the 
brick  wall  sufficient  to  admit  the  pipe,  carry- 
ing it   behind   skirting-boards,   or   in   angles 
where  it  can  be  papered  over,  and  in  other 
ways  that  suggest   themselves   according  to 
the  circumstances  of  the  case.      Everything 
being  ready  for  laying  the  new  pipe,  one  end 
of  it  is  "  blown  on  "  (see  Soldering,  p.  114)  to 
an  "  elbow  nose-piece  "  or  piece  of  |-in.  brass 
tube,  bent  at  right  angles,  tinned  ready  for 
soldering  at  one  end  and  having  a  screw-thread 
on  the  other,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,S83,  a  being 
the  elbow  nose-piece  and  b  the  blown  joint. 
^Vhilst  the  pipe  is  held  securely 
in  place,  the  mahogany  block  c 
is    slipped   over  the   nose-piece 
and  nailed,  screwed,  or  plugged 
to  the  wall/,  leaving  the  thread 
end  of  the  nose-piece  projecting. 
Having  well   luted   the   thread 
with  white-lead,  proceed  to  screw 
on  the  bracket  d  till  its  flange 
e  is  tight  against  the  mahogany 
block,  when  it  is  fastened  there 

by  3  screws.  Be  very  careful  that  the  joint  between  the  bracket  and  the  nose-piece  is  a 
good  sound  one.  The  burner  being  fixed,  it  only  remains  to  lead  the  pipe  away  to  the 
main  supply,  and  "  blow  "  it  on  by  means  of  a  union  suited  to  the  case. 

In  hanging  a  pendant,  the  supply  pipe  is  brought  between  the  joists  of  the  ceiling  of 
the  room,  asin  Fig.  1384,  where  a  are  the  joists ;  b,  the  floor  of  the  room  above;  c,  tho 
d,  a  piece  of  board  nailed  to  the  joists  a  for  supporting  the  mahogany  block  e ; 


1384. 


fa^-^v-^^^v-^-^^-^----^^^^^^  ^^^'^^'t^^^-^V'^'''^ 


ceiling 


2  T 


642  Gasfitting — Paperhanging. 

f,  the  supply  pipe;  f/,  a  straight  nose-piece  carrying  a  thread  on  which  the  pendant  is 
screwed  as  before.  The  pendant  may  either  be  a  stationary  one  incapable  of  being 
moved  in  any  direction,  or  one  having  a  swing  joint  to  permit  its  being  hitched  up  out 
of  the  way  flat  against  the  ceiling.  Care  must  be  taken  during  the  fixing  of  the  pendant 
that  it  does  not  rest  its  unsupported  weight  on  the  nose-piece  (j,  or  there  is  danger  of 
straining  tlie  blown  joint  between /and  g. 

Chandeliers  being  much  heavier  are  attached  to  iron  pipe  instead  of  the  weak  compo 
tubing  used  in  other  cases,  and  this  iron  pipe  is  allowed  to  rest  across  2  joists,  iu  notches 
cut  for  the  purpose.  A  short  section  of  iron  pipe,  attached  to  the  supply  by  a  T-piece, 
comes  sufficiently  far  through  the  ceiling  for  the  cup  and  ball  of  the  chandelier  to  screw 
on  to  it. 

Plugs  for  stopping  the  ends  of  pipes,  bends,  T-pieces,  equal  sockets,  elbow  sockets, 
diminished  sockets  for  joining  pipes  of  unequal  sizes,  can  easily  be  procured  of  standard 
dimensions.     The  only  tools  required  are  the  gas  tongs  shown  in  Fig.  1385  for  screwing 


1333. 


133C. 


the  joints  tight.  Iron  piping  required  should  be  bought  ready  cut  to  length  and  with 
the  necessary  threads  cut  on  the  ends,  unless  the  operator  is  possessed  of  a  set  of  thread 
cutting  tools,  as  described  on  p.  60.     Patent  gas  tongs  are  shown  in  Fig.  1386. 

PAPERHANGING.— Wall  papers  may  be  divided  into  3  classes :  — (1) 
"Common  "  or  "pulp  "'  papers,  in  which  the  ground  is  the  natural  colour  of  the  paper 
as  first  made,  the  pattern  being  printed  upon  it.  (2)  "  Satin  "  papers,  of  which  either  the 
whole  ground,  or  the  pattern,  or  both,  are  of  a  polished  lustre,  having  somewhat  the 
appearance  of  satin.  They  are  made  by  painting  the  paper  over  with  the  required 
colour,  mixed  with  Spanish  white,  &c.,  after  whicli  it  is  polished  with  a  burnisher.  Or 
the  colour  is  mixed  with  plaster  of  Paris,  laid  on,  sprinkled  with  powdered  French 
chalk,  and  then  rubbed  over  with  a  hard  brush  to  give  the  appearance  of  satin.  Satin 
papers  are  very  susceptible  to  damp,  even  from  the  paste  used  in  hanging  them  ,•  they 
require  to  be  hung  with  care,  on  dry  walls,  and  should  be  protected  by  a  lining  paper. 
"When  once  hung,  if  thoroughly  dry,  they  can  be  kept  clean  for  a  long  time,  as  the 
smooth  surface  of  the  paper  prevents  dust  and  dirt  from  adhering  to  it.  (3)  Flock 
papers,  the  design  on  which  is  formed  by  the  adhesion  of  flock  sheared  off  from  the 
surface  of  woollen  cloth.  The  pattern  is  first  printed  on  the  paper  in  size,  next  in 
varnish,  the  flock  is  then  thickly  sprinkled  on,  and  adheres  to  the  varnish,  thus  forming 
the  pattern. 

The  pattern  on  the  best  papers  is  printed  from  wooden  blocks.  The  position  of 
each  block  is  guided  by  4  pins  in  its  corners,  and  a  separate  block  is  required  for  each 
colour.  Wall  papers  are  printed  also  in  large  quantities,  and  very  cheaply,  by  machinery, 
the  patterns  being  engraved  on  metallic  rollers,  one  for  each  colour  required,  and  printed 
on  continuous  bands  of  paper  several  100  yd.  long.  Machine-printed  papers  are  inferior 
to  those  printed  by  hand ;  the  colours  of  the  former  often  wear  off  from  not  being  properly 


Paperhanging.  G43 

set.  Some  of  the  common  grained,  marbled,  and  granite  papers  are  rouglily  coloured  by 
hand,  and  elaborate  papers  of  the  highest  class  are  painted  by  artists. 

"  Pulp"  papers  can  easily  be  recognized,  as  the  back  is  of  the  same  colour  as  the 
ground  of  the  front.  Hand-printed  papers  can  be  distinguished  from  machine-printed, 
as  the  former  retain  the  marks  of  the  pins  used  as  guides  for  the  position  of  the  wood 
blocks. 

Wall  papers  are  sold  by  the  "  piece,"  except  in  the  case  of  borders,  •which  are  sold  liy 
the  yd.,  or  12  yd.  run.  The  prices  vary  according  to  the  description  and  quality  of  tin; 
paper,  and  the  nature  of  the  pattern,  extra  being  charged  for  every  additional  colour. 
The  introduction  of  gold  or  silver  in  the  pattern  also  enhances  the  priijo  considerably,  in 
proportion  to  the  amount  used.  Down  each  side  of  the  paper  is  a  blank  margin  about 
■i  in.  wide.  In  hanging  good  papers,  both  these  margins  are  cut  off,  and  the  adjacent 
pieces  are  placed  edge  to  edge.  In  common  papers,  however,  only  one  margin  is  cut  off, 
and  the  cut  edge  of  one  piece  of  paper  overlaps  the  margin  of  the  next.  In  English 
papers,  each  "piece"  is  12  yd.  long  and  21  in.  wide;  it  therefore  contains  7  sq.  yd. 
After  the  margins  are  removed,  the  paper  is  20  in.  wide.  Each  yard  in  length  of  the 
paper  then  contains  36  x  20  in.  =  5  ft.  super.,  and  each  piece  12  x  5  =  GO  ft.  super.  The 
number  of  pieces  of  paper  required  for  a  room  is  therefore  equal  to  the  number  of  super, 
ft.  to  be  covered  divided  by  60.  An  allowance  of  i— jij  must  be  made  for  waste :  more 
for  good  papers  and  large  patterns  than  for  common  papers  and  small  patterns.  French 
papers  are  made  in  "  pieces  "  containing  4>-  sq.  yd.  The  length  and  breadth  of  a  piece 
vary  considerably,  according  to  quality,  but  they  often  run  about  9  yd.  long  and  IS  in. 
wide.  Borders  are  sold  in  pieces  containing  12  yd.,  technically  known  as  "  dozens." 
Lining  paper  is  common  uncoloured  paper  placed  under  the  better  classes  of  paper,  in 
order  to  protect  them  against  damp  and  stains  from  the  wall  below,  and  to  obtain  a 
smoother  surface  to  work  upon. 

The  colouring  pigments  used  for  wall  papers  are  as  a  rule  harmless  ;  some  of  the  white 
grounds  contain,  however,  a  proportion  of  white-lead,  and  in  some  red  papers  arsenic  is 
used  to  fix  the  dye.  Papers  containing  green  are  as  a  rule  very  objectionable,  because 
they  are  often  coloured  with  pigments  containing  arsenic,  mercury,  copper,  copper  arsenite 
(Scheele's  green),  and  other  deleterious  substances.  These  fly  off  in  the  form  of  dust, 
and  may  poison  the  occupants  of  the  room  in  which  the  paper  is  hung. 

Damp  walls  should  be  covered  with  a  thin  sheet  of  some  waterproof  material  before 
the  wall  paper  is  hung.  Thin  sheet  lead,  tinfoil,  indiarubber,  guttapercha,  and  thick 
brown  paper  have  all  been  used  for  this  purpose,  the  metals  being  the  best  but  most 
expensive.     The  foil  is  made  so  thin  that  it  may  be  fastened  to  the  wall  with  paste. 

For  hanging  paper  on  damp  walls  the  Germans  coat  a  lining  paper  on  one  side  with 
a  solution  of  shellac  spirit,  of  somewhat  greater  consistency  than  the  ordinary  "  French 
polish,"  and  then  hang  it  with  the  side  thus  treated  to  the  damp  wall.  The  paper- 
hanging  is  then  performed  in  the  usual  manner  with  jjaste.  Any  other  resin  that  is 
equally  soluble  in  spirits  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  shellac. 

Wall  papers  (except  the  most  delicate)  may  be  finished  with  good  copal  varnish  over 
2  coats  of  size,  or  they  may  be  bought  ready  varnished.  Flock  papers  may  be  painted 
(after  well  sizing)  when  they  become  shabby.  In  some  cases  they  have  a  roller  covered 
with  wet  paint  passed  over  them,  so  that  the  raised  pattern  only  receives  the  paint. 
Washable  paperhangings,  made  by  Wilkinson  and  Son,  of  London,  are  said  to  become 
as  hard  as  stone  when  hung,  to  withstand  washing,  and  to  be  non-absorbent  of  the  con- 
tagion of  infectious  disorders.  Such  papers  would  of  course  be  better  than  those  of  the 
ordinary  description  for  a  sick-room.  The  walls  of  hospital  wards,  however,  are  generally 
rendered  in  cement,  and  brought  to  a  highly  polished  nou-absorbeut  surface,  thus  avoid- 
ing the  use  of  pajjer  altogether. 

Wall  papers  are  intended  chiefly  for  ornament ;  they  relieve  the  bareness  of  the 
walls,  and  give  the  room  a  bright  cheerful  appearance.    A  plain  white  paper  may  some- 

2  T  2 


64i  Paperhanging. 

times  be  applied  with  advantage  to  ceilings,  especially  where,  from  want  of  stiflfness  in 
the  floor  above,  or  from  some  defect  in  the  iilasteriiig,  the  ceiling  is  inclined  to  crack. 

With  regard  to  the  choice  of  paper,  Edis  has  lately  offered  some  well-considered 
remarks.  The  sizes  of  rooms  should  first  be  thought  of,  for  papers  with  large  patterns 
and  wide  dadoes  are  not  generally  adapted  for  small  rooms,  and  vice  versa,  insignificant 
designs  do  not  suit  spacious  rooms.  In  the  first  instance,  a  cramped  effect  is  obtained 
where  there  should  be  freedom  and  expanse,  and  in  the  second  a  feeling  of  vacuity  is 
produced,  and  the  intention  of  the  design  is  lost,  owing  to  the  vast  extent  of  wall 
exposed  to  view.  A  good  deal  also  depends  on  the  design.  No  strongly  marked  patterns 
should  be  accepted — such  as  birds  seemingly  in  flight,  or  cherubs  holding  festoons, 
frozen  into  rest,  or  bunches  of  flowers  fossilized  into  unnatural  forms,  so  as  to  present 
longways  and  crossways,  or  aiiy  way  they  are  looked  at,  clearly  marked  lines  or  spots  on 
the  general  surface,  at  all  times  fatiguing  to  the  eye,  and  tending  to  discomfort  and 
mental  annoyance.  In  the  main,  broad,  free  designs  suit  nearly  all  classes  of  rooms, 
and  plant-life  offers  most  opportunities  for  producing  pleasing  and  elegant  figures 
embodying  these  qualifications,  which  possess  the  advantages  of  a  simplicity  and  purity 
of  form  that  never  wearies  or  grows  tame  and  conventional.  Jloreover,  with  careful 
treatment,  and  an  observance  of  natural  conformation,  floral  designs  may  be  rendered 
far  more  consonant  to  nature  and  adapted  to  harmonize  more  thoroughly  with  surround- 
ings than  birds  or  figure  subjects.  Squares  or  circles  at  regular  distances,  or  conglomer- 
ations of  mathematical  or  architectural  figures  are  to  be  avoided,  for  they  invest  a  room 
with  a  solidity  and  formality  that  can  only  be  wearisome,  and  the  sameness  of  pattern, 
which  is  rendered  doubly  apparent  by  the  methodical  arrangement  of  lines,  angles,  and 
circles,  tends  to  tire  both  the  eye  and  brain. 

As  to  colour,  drawing-rooms  are  usually  furnished  with  lighter  tinted  paper  than 
morning  rooms.  It  is  not  advisable,  however,  to  select  a  monochromatic  paper,  for 
although  when  first  put  up  it  may  present  a  very  clean  and  light  appearance,  yet  the 
absence  of  variety,  more  especially  in  dull  weather,  invests  it,  after  a  time,  with  cold 
and  commonplace  appearance.  A  paper  should  be  selected,  therefore,  that  appears  to 
contain  to  the  most  advantage  pleasing  diversity  of  colour  without  gorgeousness,  and 
easy  and  natural  outlines  without  formality.  Papers  with  considerable  gold  in  them  are 
suitable  for  drawing-rooms,  because  gold  is  in  itself  warm  and  at  the  same  time  light. 
Cheap  gold  papers  unfortunately  soon  lose  their  gloss  and  look  dull,  but  generally 
speaking,  gold,  if  used  sparingly  and  discreetly,  forms  a  rich  addition,  and  combines 
agreeably  with  ordinary  tints. 

The  dado  is  an  indispensable  addition  to  a  modern  room,  and  should  be  of  a  slightly 
darker  colour  than  the  wall  paper ;  this  arrangement  serves  to  show  the  paper  to  greater 
advantage  than  if  the  whole  were  of  the  same  tint.  The  top  of  the  dado  is  usually 
finished  off  with  a  narrow  strip  of  printed  paper,  and  though  this  is  apparently  of  minor 
importance,  it  will  if  properly  treated  form  a  pleasing  bond  or  connecting  link  between 
the  dado  and  paper.  The  frieze  is  also  an  important  item,  and  this  Edis  suggests 
should  be  treated  in  good  decorative  subjects  of  figures,  birds,  or  natural  flowers :  but 
papers  modelled  on  the  latter  are,  as  already  pointed  out,  the  simplest  if  not  the  best 
suited  for  ordinary  decorative  purposes,  where  agreeable  effects  are  sought  without  any 
great  expenditure  of  money  or  artistic  skill.  A  frieze  may  also  be  formed  of  thick  flock 
paper,  stamped  leather,  or  raised  plaster-work  slightly  tinted  or  gilded.  This  destroys 
the  deadness  of  the  wall,  and  conceals  the  junction  of  the  paper  with  the  ceiling. 

As  regards  the  dining-rooms,  and  other  rooms  of  a  similar  nature,  it  is  advisable 
that  the  paper  selected  be  of  a  dark,  warm  hue,  not  necessarily  elaborate,  but 
simple  and  appropriate.  Here  the  dado  may  be  finished  at  top  with  a  small  oak  or  deal 
moulding,  in  lieu  of  the  narrow  paper  band  before  mentioned ;  this  prevents  the  walls 
being  broken  by  chairs  or  other  furniture  pushed  against  them.  In  choosing  colours  it 
should  be  remembered  that  gaslight  completely  changes  the  effects  of  some  tints,  such 


Paperhanging.  G45 

as  blue,  green,  and  j'ellow,  and  the  2  former  also,  in  a  measure,  absorb  light,  and  thus, 
unless  employed  with  discretion,  render  a  rooiu  somewhat  darker  than  otiur  colours. 
The  so-called  aesthetic  "  washed  out"  colours  rarely  suit  the  surroundings  of  ordinary- 
life.  Kespecting  bedroom  papers,  much  might  bo  written  iu  condemnation  of  the  hideous 
and  artiiiciul  productions  that  pass  by  this  name,  and  it  is  really  surprising,  considering 
how  essential  to  health  and  comfort  a  light  and  cheerful  sleeping  apartment  is,  bedroom 
wall  papers  have  not  sutiered  greater  improvements  in  accordance  with  the  require- 
ments of  the  age. 

The  papering  of  halls,  staircases,  and  passages  are  points  that  require  very  careful 
deliberation  if  we  wish  to  render  them  iiomething  more  than  long  vaults  walled  in  with 
blocks  of  imitatiou  marble.  As  a  rule  we  find  varnished  marble  paper  selected  for  these 
places,  and  the  plea  for  its  adoption  usually  hinges  on  the  sujiposition  that  it  renders 
passages  "  light,"  and  possesses  the  property  of  being  clean.  Now  it  does  not  require 
much  deep  thought  to  arrive  at  the  fact  that  there  are  50  papers  at  least  in  existence 
that  will  bear  varnishing,  prove  equally  "  light,"  and  yet  be  more  appropriate  to  every- 
day life  and  every-day  surroundings. 

The  entrance  hall  should  present  a  comfortable  appearance,  and  a  dark,  rich  paper 
with  Indian  matting  dado  is  very  suitable  for  coveiingthe  walls.  Liglit  coloured  papers 
tire  not  adapted  for  this  purpose,  as  they  show  the  smallest  particle  of  dirt  or  the  faintest 
trace  of  a  fingermark  with  alarming  distinctness.  And  apropos  of  this  point,  it  may  not 
be  out  of  place  to  suggest  that  hanghig  a  few  etchings,  drawings,  or  pauitings  on  the 
walls  of  landings,  stairways,  and  halls  will  prove  a  simple  and  effective  way  of  intro- 
ducing a  little  "  portable  "  decoration  in  places  where  the  eye  usually  finds  merely  an 
infinite  deal  of  nothingness. 

Kespecting  wall  coverings  for  kitchens  and  similar  apartments,  plain,  washed  walls 
are  undoubtedly  cleaner  than  any  papers,  but  if  the  latter  are  to  be  employed,  a  plain, 
white  tile  paper  is  perhaps  mo^t  in  keeping  with  the  fittings  and  furniture.  If  varnished, 
such  papers  may  be  ea:<ily  waslied,  and  thus  rendered  always  clean  and  fresh. 

Expensive  papers  require  to  be  hung  with  the  most  skill  and  care.  At  the  same 
time,  common  papers  are  more  difficult  to  hang  well,  as  they  are  very  apt  to  tear 
with  their  own  weight  when  saturated  with  paste.  In  hanging  flock  or  other  thick 
papers,  the  paste  should  be  applied  some  time  before  they  are  hung,  in  order  that  it 
may  soak  well  into  them.  The  ceilings  should  be  finished  before  the  paperhanging 
begins. 

Before  commencing  to  paper  a  wall,  it  is  essential  to  see  that  the  plaster  is  in  a  per- 
fect condition  and  free  from  holes  ;  if  not,  these  must  be  made  good  and  allowed  to  dry. 
If  the  wall  is  being  repapered,  the  old  paper  must  first  be  stripped  ofl'  thoroughly  and  all 
hidden  defects  remedied.  The  stripping  is  accomplished  by  well  wetting  the  paper  with 
a  whitewash  brush  dipped  into  hot  water.  "When  soft  enough,  it  is  pulled  away  from 
the  wall  in  a  careful  manner  by  the  aid  of  a  broad  so-called  chisel  knife,  or  any  smooth  and 
square  edged  substitute,  repeating  the  operation  on  obstinate  spots.  It  is  best  to  burn  at 
once  the  paper  scraped  oS",  especially  when  there  has  been  illness  in  the  room. 

The  walls  being  in  a  fit  condition  to  receive  the  paper,  a  point  is  chosen  at  wliich 
the  hanging  shall  begin,  and,  if  necessary,  a  perpendicular  line  to  work  by  is  drawn  in 
pencil  by  the  aid  of  a  plumb-level.  A  line  in  the  pottern  is  decided  on  for  the  top 
margin,  where  it  meets  the  ceiling  or  frieze,  and  this  must  be  carefully  adhered  to  all 
round  the  room.  In  unrolling  a  piece  of  wall-paper,  it  will  be  found  that  it  commences 
at  the  top  of  the  pattern  ;  consequently,  as  the  papering  should  proceed  townrds  the 
right,  commencing  at  tiie  left  corner  of  the  room  farthest  from  tlie  window,  the  right 
blank  margin  will  be  the  one  to  cut  otf,  and  this  can  be  conveniently  done  as  the 
unrolling  progresses.  Bearing  in  mind  the  top  margin,  strips  are  next  cut  off,  of  the 
required  length,  in  succession,  always  allowing  a  small  margin  in  excess  to  be  cut  oft' at 
the  bottom.     Each  strip  is  pasted  by  laying  it  face  downwards  on  a  long  smooth  table 


646 


Paperhangtng.    Lighting. 


1387. 


(3  yd.  long  if  obtainable)  at  least  a  few  in.  wider  than  the  paper.  The  paste  is  made  by 
mixing  old  flour  with  lukewarm  water  to  a  smooth  consistence,  then  stirring  and  pouring 
in  boiling  water  till  the  paste  is  complete  ;  to  this  may  be  added,  while  hot,  a  solution 
of  ahim,  at  the  rate  of  1  oz.  alum  in  1  pint  water,  say  h  pint  of  the  solution  to  the 
pail  of  paste,  or  J  oz.  dissolved  mercury  bichloride  if  vermin  abound. 

The  paste  is  allowed  to  cool,  and  is  applied  in  a  thin  even  coat  by  a  small  whitewash 
brush,  avoiding  splashes  and  careless  strokes.  Some  care  is  needed  in  lifting  the  pasted 
strip  from  the  table  fo  the  wall,  as  it  is  rendered  rotten  by  the  moisture.  There  are 
2  ways  of  folding  the  paper  to  facilitate  its  trans- 
port, as  follows: — (1)  Double  back  about  2  ft.  of 
the  lower  end  of  the  pasted  paper  and  form  a  loop 
of  it ;  then  fold  about  1  ft.  of  the  top  back  on  the 
unpasted  side,  so  as  to  form  a  loop  for  the  hands ; 
lift  the  paper  by  this  loop,  attach  it  to  the  wall  a 
little  high  but  square  in  place,  adjust  the  top  edge 
accurately  and  pull  off  the  first  patch  which  adhered, 
letting  it  fall  smoothly  back  into  place;  press  it 
sufficiently  to  liold,  and  then  proceed  to  unloop  the 
bottom  fold,  and  allow  it  to  fall  into  place.  Finally, 
from  the  top,  gently  press  down  the  centre  of  tho 
piece  with  a  soft  clean  duster,  and  from  the  central 
line  perform  the  same  operation  sideways,  till  the 
■whole  has  been  gone  over.  (2)  This  plan  is  better 
when  the  strip  is  very  long,  and  is  shown  in  Fig. 
1387,  which  almost  explains  itself:  18  in.  at  the 
bottom  is  folded  paste  to  paste;  a  treble  fold  the 
same  depth  is  made  at  the  top,  leaving  enough  for 
the  hands  to  hold  by,  the  thumbs  being  put  under  a 
and  the  fingers  under  b.  The  same  mode  of  pro- 
cedure is  followed,  always  avoiding  anything  like 
rubbing  the  paper,  but  rather  patting  it  flat.  Excess 
of  paste  should  be  wiped  off"  immediately  from  the 
edges  with  a  damp  rag,  renewed  as  soon  as  it  gets 
dirty,  and  the  top  and  bottom  margins  are  pressed  in 
close  with  the  scissors,  and  cut  off  to  pattern  while 
damp.  Soft  brushes  and  padded  rollers  sometimes 
replace  the  simple  clean  duster  for  patting  close. 
The  scissors  should  have  very  long  blades. 

LIGHTING.— The  lighting  of  a  dwelling  is 
a  most  important  consideration,  as  regards  comfort 

and  health.  Natural  lighting  is  provided  for  by  windows,  the  construction  of  which 
has  been  described  under  Carpentry  (pp.  348-50)  and  Glazing  (pp.  G27-34).  The  window 
area  of  a  room  should  be  well  proportioned.  In  dwelling  rooms  it  may  amount 
to  half  the  area  of  the  external  wall  containing  the  windows;  in  churches,  &c.,  i  will 
suffice.  Artificial  lighting  may  be  effected  by  means  of  candles,  oil-lamps,  gas,  or 
electricity.  Candles  will  always  retain  a  place  in  domestic  illumination  from  their  safety 
and  convenience ;  they  need  no  description.  Oil-lamps  cannot  be  passed  over  without  a 
few  lines  concerning  their  principles  and  management,  though  their  necessarily  dangerous 
character  and  generally  unpleasant  odour  are  great  drawbacks  to  their  adoption  in  the 
house.  Gas-fitting  has  been  described  in  a  previous  section  (pp.  G40-2),  but  mainly  from 
the  mechanic's  point  of  view;  something  remains  to  be  said,about  burners  and  the  employ-* 
ment  of  gas.  Electric  lighting,  which  will  one  day  be  almost  universal,  is  as  yet  unsuited  to 
dcraestic  application,  except  imder  unusual  conditions,  and  requires  many  precautions  to 


Lighting — Oil-lamps.  CI  7 

prevent  fires  and  serious  accidents.    The  aid  of  a  skilled  electrician  is  necessary  in  filting 
up  an  electric  lighting  system,  or  mischief  is  sure  to  ari.se. 

Oil-lamps.— Thti  first  Inmp  worthy  of  notice  is  that  iutruduccd  by  Argand  ;  it  conbistcd 
of  an  annular  tube,  on  which  the  wick  was  stretched;  of  a  reservoir  containin"-  the  oil; 
of  a  pipe  leading  from  the  reservoir  to  the  wick;  and  of  a  hohkr  for  the  glass,  which 
imparted,  on  turning,  a  spiral  motion  to  the  wick  and  thereby  adjii.stud  the  fiumc.  'J'ho 
reservoir  was  of  the  kind  known  as  the  "  bird  fountain,"  whereby  a  bubble  of  air  cnteriu" 
the  small  orifice  at  the  base  allows  the  egress  of  a  small  quantity  of  oil.  This  priiiciplo 
has  since  been  applied  to  a  very  numerous  class  of  lamps,  especially  those  known  as 
"reading  lamps,"  where  the  reservoir  is  higher  than  the  wick.  Argand's  lamp  was 
suitable  for  both  colza  and  sperm  oils.  As  the  shape  was  ungaiidy,  many  e.xpcdidits 
were  devised  whereby  the  flame  could  be  fed  from  a  reservoir  below.  Carcel,  in  1708, 
brought  out  a  lamp  which  was  almost  universally  used  for  many  years  in  France.  The 
principle  of  this  was  pumping,  by  2  little  clockwork  pumps,  a  supply  of  combustible  to 
the  wick.  The  only  objection  to  this  is  the  constant  need  of  repair  to  which  the  delicate 
mechanism  is  liable.  The  supply,  when  in  good  order,  however,  was  so  extremely  steady 
as  to  cause  this  lamp  to  be  taken  on  the  Continent  as  a  standard  of  illumination.  The 
problem  of  securing  an  unvarying  supply  of  oil  without  such  complicated  mechanism 
was  one  which  taxed  the  ingenuity  of  many  makers.  A  very  favourite  means  was  that 
of  hydrostatic  power,  whereby  a  heavier  liquid  solution  was  made  to  raise  the  lighter  oil 
equably,  as  it  consumed. 

Keir,  in  1787,  made  a  very  ingenious  lamp,  consisting  of  2  cylinders,  the  smaller 
floating  in  the  larger.  The  wick  was  attached  to  the  apex  of  the  interior  cylinder  which 
contained  the  oil,  and  was  open  at  the  base,  the  exterior  being  filled  with  salt  water. 
As  the  oil  diminished,  the  salt  water  rose  in  the  interior,  and  sank  in  the  exteiior 
reservoir,  while  the  height  of  the  interior  cylinder  was  adjusted  by  means  of  a  wooden 
float.  Porter,  in  1804,  invented  a  lamp  whicli  deserves  mention,  and  which  consisted  of 
a  rectangular  box,  balanced  eccentrically,  so  that  the  position — horizontal  at  the  com- 
mencement— during  burning,  gradually  approached  the  vertical.  A  larger  amount  of 
oil  being  removed  from  the  posterior,  cau.scd  this  to  lose  weight  more  rapidly  than  the 
anterior,  the  oil  in  which  was  thereby  maintained  at  a  level.  The  name  of  Smethur.st  is 
closely  associated  with  lamps.  He  was  the  first  to  give  a  slope  to  the  chimney,  which 
Argand  had  left  straiglit,  thus  directing  the  air-current  more  accurately,  and  thereby 
increasing  the  draught  and  the  brilliancy  of  the  flame.  Tiie  next  invention  of  importance 
took  placi!  in  183(3,  when  Fanchot  invented  the  moderator  lamp  as  at  present  used.  This 
had  already  been  foreshadowed  in  the  inventions  of  Stokes  (1787),  Allcock  (1807),  and 
Fayre  (1825),  all  of  whom  used  pistons  which  forced  the  oil  up  under  pressure.  Fanchot 
gave  the  lamp  its  present  form,  which  is,  briefly,  as  follows : — The  piston  fits  tightly  in 
the  reservoir,  being  provided  with  a  leather  collar,  which  admits  of  being  raised  with 
ease  while  the  reservoir  is  full,  but  the  descent  is  impeded  by  the  collar  being  pressed 
against  the  sides  by  the  liquid.  There  is,  therefore,  no  outlet  for  the  oil  but  by  a  fine 
tube  passing  through  the  piston  up  to  the  wick,  which  is,  by  this  means,  fed  by  a 
constant  stream  of  oil,  the  surplus  dropping  down  into  the  reservoir  above  the  piston. 
When  the  piston  has  fully  descended,  it  is  re-elevated  by  a  cog  and  ratchet  apparatus. 
The  flow  of  liquid  up  the  tube  is  regulated  by  a  fine  piece  of  wire,  which  partly  closes 
the  same  and  ht  Ips  to  cleanse  it.  By  these  means,  very  heavy  oils  can  be  burnt,  and 
perhaps  no  lamp  has  enjoyed  greater  popularity  than  this.  Its  defects  are  the  constant 
need  of  winding  up,  and  liability  of  the  fine  tube  to  become  clogged.  Young's  "  Vesta" 
lamp,  first  used  in  18.34,  burnt  "camphine,"  or  turpentine,  with  a  very  brilliant  snow- 
white  flame.  The  "  Diacon "  lamp  was  a  modification  of  the  moderator,  invented  and 
used  in  America. 

The  wick  has  been  tlie  subject  of  numerous  modifications.  As  early  as  1773,  we  find 
one  Leger  producing  a  flat-ribbon  wick.     Though  a  great  improvement  on  that  of  the 


618  Lighting — Oil-lamps. 

older  cord  wick,  the  flame  was  too  thin,  being;  blown  out  with  every  puff  of  air.  Argand 
introduced  the  circular  wick,  which  has  maintained  its  form.  A  great  step  was  made 
when  the  flat  wick  was  forced,  as  in  modern  lamps,  to  adjust  itself  exactly  to  an  annular 
tube,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of  pushing  the  tube  into  an  ill-fitting  wick.  In  1SG5, 
Hincks,  of  Birmingham,  brought  out  a  lamp  with  two  parallel  flat  flames,  called  tlie 
Duplex,  which  gives  a  remarkably  good  light,  and  has  a  world-wide  reputation.  To  the 
same  firm  are  due  ingenious  devices  for  extinguishing  and  re-lighting  the  flame  without 
moving  the  shade,  by  merely  pressing  a  trigger. 

An  entirely  different  variety  is  HoUiday's  vapour  burner  lamp,  of  which  many 
thousands  are  to  be  seen  burning  on  costermongers'  stalls  in  East  and  South  London. 
The  conical  reservoir  at  the  top  is  filled  with  light  hydrocarbon  oil,  passing  through  a 
tap  and  tube  into  a  burner  of  peculiar  construction,  and  being  ignited  by  holding  in  a 
flame  for  a  few  seconds,  will  continue  to  burn  without  wick  furiously  and  safely  as  long 
as  the  supply  is  properly  regulated.  This  may  be  said  to  be  the  first  lamp  which  burnt 
hydrocarbon  oils,  and  no  doubt  for  an  open-air  flame  no  better  can  be,  or  at  any  rate  has 
been,  devised.  Invention  has  been  very  active  to  devise  means  of  burning  hydrocarbon 
oils  with  safety  in  household  lamps.  In  1866,  Leichenstadt  invented  a  lamp  for  burning 
a  mixture  of  benzole  and  camphor,  but  the  dangerous  nature  of  benzole  rendered  this 
form  undesirable.  Aaronson,  in  1875,  by  a  clever  combination  of  oil  and  water,  con- 
structed a  lamp  to  be  extinguished  directly  it  was  overturned,  or  even  deflected  from  the 
vertical.  This  masterpiece  could  also  be  trimmed,  filled,  and  lighted  without  moving 
the  shade  and  chimney.  Young  and  Silber  are  2  names  most  prominent  in  the  lamp 
problem.  James  Young,  as  the  discoverer  and  first  manufacturer  of  paraffin  oil  from 
shale,  was  naturally  the  appropriate  inventor  of  means  for  its  safe  combustion,  and 
Young's  Company  now  still  supply  "  Vesta"  lamps  for  burning  their  own  productions. 

All  the  inventions  thus  briefly  epitomized,  have  one  or  other  of  the  following  objects 
m  view : — To  supply  oil  regularly  to  the  wick ;  to  apportion  the  supply  of  air  to  the 
description  and  quantity  of  oil  to  be  burnt ;  to  provide  simple  means  for  regulating  the 
height  of  the  wick,  and  consequently,  the  flame;  and  finally,  to  place  the  burning 
portion  of  the  lamp  in  such  a  position  as  not  to  be  obscured  by  the  reservoir  and  other 
portions.  The  oldest  lamps,  as  the  antique  Etruscan,  and  the  cruisie  of  Scotland,  were 
on  the  suction  principle,  and  the  wick  depended  for  its  supply  upon  its  own  capillary 
action.  As  the  level  of  the  oil  was  constantly  varying,  so  the  light  varied  also,  and  the 
first  attempts  of  inventors  were  directed  to  maintaining  an  equal  level  of  oil.  The  bird- 
fountain  and  hydrostatic  reservoirs  partly  attained  this  end,  and  the  Carcel  and 
Moderator  systems  were  perfect  of  their  class,  mechanical  or  pressure  lamps.  It  is 
evident  that  suction  lamps  depend  for  their  efficacy  upon  the  gravity  of  the  combustible. 
A  spirit  lamp,  with  a  good  wick,  will  burn  very  well,  though  the  wick  be  several  inches 
above  the  liquid.  With  liquids  volatilizing  at  low  temperatures,  theire  is  always  a 
danger  of  the  formation  of  explosive  mixtiu-es. 

In  1834,  Beale  patented  a  lamp  for  burning  mineral  and  wood  naphthas,  and  oils 
from  the  distillation  of  coal  tar,  vegetable  tar,  and  the  like ;  the  principle  being  the 
vaporization  by  means  of  a  small  secondary  flame,  from  a  separate  source,  which  soon 
burns  out,  having  started  the  vaporization.  This  lamp  had  no  wick ;  the  supply  of  fluid 
was  regulated  by  forced  air. 

Parker's  lamp,  patented  1840,  should  also  be  mentioned,  as  the  most  successful 
attempt  at  heating  the  oil  before  combustion.  Here  the  upper  part  of  the  chimney  was 
made  of  copper,  and  passed  through  the  reservoir  filled  with  a  heavy  luminant  (pre- 
ferably coconut  oil  or  tallow).  The  air  being  expended,  the  oil  fed  the  wick  by  its  own 
expansion,  regulated  by  an  ingenious  mechanism.  This  was  a  so-called  "sinumbral" 
lamp,  and  appears  to  have  been  held,  by  some,  superior  even  to  Carcel's  as  a  standard 
for  photometry. 

The  supply  of  oil  to  the  wick  in  all  pressure  lamps  was  in  excess  of  the  demand,  and 


Lighting— Oil-lam.ps  ;  Gas.  649 

the  surplus  fell  back  into  the  reservoir.  This  can  only  be  feasible  in  the  case  of  heavy 
oils,  especially  animal  and  vegetable.  The  Russians  boast  of  having  constructed  a  lauii) 
to  solve  the  problem  of  burning  their  own  heavy  hydrocarbon  oils,  of  which  Baku  pro- 
duces so  vast  a  quantity;  but  as  the  demerits  of  such  oils,  especially  the  clogging  of  tho 
wick,  cannot  be  asi'ertaincd  in  the  few  hours  their  committee  ap[)ear  to  have  spent  upon 
the  investigation,  we  must  defer  our  meed  of  applause.  The  ligbt  hydrocarbons,  such 
as  petroleum,  photogen,  solar  oil,  aud  their  polynomial  varieties,  must  reach  tho  arena 
of  combustion  in  as  small  quantities,  and  at  as  high  a  temperature  as  possible,  while  the 
supply  of  air,  both  from  inside  and  out,  can  scarcely  be  too  abundant. 

At  first  sight,  the  burner  of  the  Silber  lamp  appears  to  be  a  simple  aggregation  of 
concentric  tubes— and  tliis,  in  fact,  it  is.  Tho  use  of  these,  especially  of  tlie  inneruiobt, 
bell-mouthed  pipes,  becomes  very  apparent  in  the  lighted  lamp.  Kemove  tho  interior 
tube,  and  immediately  the  flame  lengthens  and  darkens,  wavers  and  smokes.  Tho 
current  of  air  which  is,  by  this  internal  conduit,  directed  into  the  interior  Hume  surface, 
is  the  essential  principle  of  Silber's  invention.  The  wick  is  contained  in  a  metal  case, 
surrounded  by  an  air-jacket,  which  passes  down  the  entire  length  of  the  lam[),  leaving  a 
small  aperture  at  the  base,  through  which  the  oil  flows  from  the  outer  reservoir  to  tho 
wick  chamber.  Thus,  by  the  interposition  of  an  atmospheric  medium,  the  bulk  of  the 
oil  is  maintained  throughout  at  a  low  temperature ;  2  concentric  bell-mouthed  tubes  pass 
down  the  interior  of  the  wick  case,  and  communicate  with  the  air  at  the  base  of  the 
lamp,  which  is  perforated  for  the  purpose ;  2  cones,  perforated,  the  inner  and  smaller 
throughout,  the  largest  only  at  the  base,  surround  the  wick,  and  heat  tho  air  in  its 
passage  through  the  holes  to  the  flame.  The  effect  of  these  appliances  is,  firstly,  by  tho 
insulation  of  the  outer  reservoir,  to  avoid  all  danger  of  vaporization  of  the  oil,  till  actually 
ill  contact  with  the  wick.  As  it  is  drawn  nearer  and  nearer  tlio  seat  of  combustion,  tho 
hot  metal  wick-holder  heats,  and  ultimately  vaporizes  the  luminaut,  so  that  at  the 
opening  of  tho  wick  tube  concentrically  with  the  air  conduits — all  of  which  are  ex- 
ceedingly hot — a  perfect  mixture  of  vapour  and  hot  air  is  formed,  and  burned.  An  all- 
importaut  feature  is  the  shape  and  position  of  the  chimney,  which  influences  the  flame 
to  the  extent  of  quadrupling  its  brilliancy  if  properly  adjusted. 

The  preceding  remarks  have  been  condensed  from  Field's  Cantor  Lecture  on 
Illuminating  Agents,  read  before  the  Society  of  Arts. 

Gas. — Coal  gas,  being  much  lighter  than  air,  flows  with  greatest  velocity  in  the 
upper  floors  of  houses ;  hence  the  supply  pipe  may  diminish  in  size  as  it  rises,  say  from 
1^  in.  at  the  basement  to  f  in.  on  the  3rd  floor.  At  a  point  near  the  commencement  of 
the  supply  pipe  it  should  be  provided  with  a  "  siphon,"  which  is  simply  a  short  length 
of  pipe  joined  at  right  angles  in  a  perpendicular  position  and  closed  at  the  lower  end 
by  a  plug  screwed  in.  As  all  gas-tubes  should  be  fixed  with  a  small  rise,  this  siphon 
will  collect  the  condensed  liquids,  which  miiy  be  drawn  ofl"  occasionally  by  unscrewing 
the  plug  end.  When  the  lights  flicker,  it  shows  there  is  water  in  the  pipes :  the  siphon 
prevents  this. 

The  number  of  gas  burners  requisite  for  lighting  a  church  or  other  largo  building 
may  be  computed  thus.  Take  the  area  of  the  floor  and  divide  this  by  40,  will  give  the 
number  of  fith-tail  burners  to  be  distributed  according  to  circumstances.  Example  :  a 
church  120  ft.  loug  by  60  ft.  wide,  contains  VZOO  ft.  area  ;  divided  by  40,  gives  180 
burners  required  for  the  same. 

Burning  gas  without  a  ventilator  or  pipe  to  carry  off  the  effluvia,  is  as  barliaroug 
as  making  a  fire  in  a  room  witliout  a  chimney  to  carry  otf  the  smoke.  If  a  pipe  of 
2  in.  diameter  were  fixed  between  the  joists,  witli  a  funnel  elbow  over  the  gaselier,  and 
the  other  end  carried  into  the  chimney,  it  would  be  a  general  ventilator,  Of  cour.-e,  an 
open  ornamental  rosette  covers  the  mouth  of  the  tube ;  or  an  Arnott  valve  ventilator 
over  the  mantelinece  would  answer  the  sain(>  purpose. 

In  turning  off  the  gas-lights  at  niglit,  it  is  usual,  first,  to  turn  oil'  all  the  lights, 


650  Lighting — Gas. 

except  one,  and  then  turn  off  the  meter  main  cock,  and  allow  the  one  light  to  burn  itself 
out,  and  then  turn  it  oif.  The  evil  of  this  system  is  this, — by  allowing  the  one  light  to 
burn  itself  out,  you  exhaust  the  pipes  and  make  a  vacuum,  and  of  course  tlie  atmospheric 
air  will  rush  in.  The  proper  way  is  to  turn  off  all  lights  first,  and  finally  the  meter, 
thus  leaving  the  pipes  full  of  gas  and  ready  for  re-lighting. 

These  few  remarks  have  been  derived  from  Eldridge's  'Gas-Fitter's  Guide,'  an 
eminently  useful  and  practical  handbook. 

It  was  formerly  the  practice  to  make  all  gas  burners  of  metal ;  the  openings,  whether 
slits  or  holes,  from  whicli  the  gas  issued  to  be  burned  being  small,  in  order  to  check 
the  rate  of  flow.  This  was  an  error,  for  lieat  and  light  go  together,  and  the  metal, 
being  a  good  conductor  of  heat,  kept  the  lower  part  of  the  flume  cold.  The  part  of 
burners  actiially  in  contact  with  the  flame  is  now  invariably  of  some  non-conducting 
material,  such  as  steatite  ;  and  the  effect  of  this  simple  improvement  is  most  noteworthy. 
Bad  burners  show  a  great  proportion  of  blue  at  the  lower  part  of  the  flame,  and  the 
upper  or  luminous  portion  is  small  and  irregular  in  shape,  and  dull  in  colour.  These 
effects  are  due  to  gas  issuing  at  too  great  velocity  from  small  holes  in  burners,  as  well 
as  to  improper  material  in  the  latter.  The  illuminating  power  of  coal  gas  depends  upon 
the  incandescence,  at  the  greatest  possible  heat,  of  infinitesimal  particles  of  carbon  which 
it  contains,  invisible  until  heated.  In  the  lower,  or  blue  portion  of  the  flame,  the  heat 
is  not  sufficient  to  render  these  particles  incandescent;  and  it  is  necessary  that  this 
effect  should  be  secured  at  the  nearest  point  to  the  burner.  Unless  this  is  done,  the 
light  is  not  only  lessened,  but  the  unconsumed  carbon  passes  off  and  is  deposited  as  soot 
on  ceilings  and  furniture.  Blackened  ceilings  are  a  measure  of  the  badness  of  the 
burners.  It  will  now  be  seen  why  a  material  which  cools  the  flame  should  not  be  used 
for  a  burner,  for  the  hotter  the  flame,  the  more  perfect  is  tlie  incandescence  of  the  carbon 
for  which  in  reality  the  consumer  pays,  and  the  less  danger  there  is  of  blackened 
ceilings.  But  in  addition  to  the  better  material,  the  construction  of  even  the  cheapest 
modern  burners  is  very  greatly  improved;  although  even  a  good  burner  may  be  subjected 
to  such  conditions — e.  g.  allowing  gas  to  be  driven  through  it  at  a  high  velocity,  a 
condition  usually  accompanied  by  a  hissing  or  roaring  sound — as  to  give  a  bad  result. 
Tlie  capacity  of  burners  should  moreover  bear  a  reasonable  proportion  to  the  quality 
of  the  gas  for  which  they  are  required  to  be  used.  Tiius  with  rich  Scotch  gas,  burners 
■with  very  small  holes,  consuming  only  about  IJ  cub.  ft.  hourly,  are  sometimes  adopted 
for  economical  reasons.  Occasionally  these  burners  find  their  way  South,  but  their  use 
for  the  ordinary  qualities  of  English  gas  is  the  worst  possible  economy.  It  is  difficult 
to  lay  down  hard  and  fast  rules  for  the  sizes  of  burners,  the  purposes  for  which  gaslight 
is  required  being  so  various.  For  an  ordinary  apartment,  however,  wherein  distributed 
lights  are  adopted,  5-ft.  burners  witli  14  or  15  candle  gas,  4-ft.  burners  with  IG  or  17 
candle  gas,  3  or  3|  ft.  burners  with  IS  or  20  candle  gas,  and  2J-ft.  burners  with  richer 
gas  will  be  found  to  give  satisfactory  results.  It  may  be  remarked  that  these  figures 
apply  to  burners  regulated  in  some  way  to  the  given  rates  of  consumption,  and  not  to 
those  merely  reputed  to  be  of  the  stated  sizes.  Various  means  are  adopted  for  checking 
the  flow  of  gas,  not  at  the  point  of  ignition,  but  at  some  prior  point  of  its  course ; 
because  it  has  been  found  that  the  slower  the  rate  of  flow  at  the  commencement  of 
combustion,  the  better  the  result  obtained. 

Clustering  of  gas  lights  is  bad.  All  parts  of  a  room  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible 
equally  lighted,  the  only  noteworthy  exception  to  this  rule  being  in  the  case  of  a  dining- 
room,  where  concentration  of  light  upon  the  table  is  not  only  permissible  but  is  even 
demanded.  Hence  in  most  cases  wall  brackets  give  the  best  effect,  and  such  masses  of 
light  as  are  afforded  by  pendants  of  many  arms  are  to  bo  avoided,  or  are  only  required 
in  very  large  rooms  where  portions  of  the  floor  area  would  otherwise  be  insufficiently 
lighted.  When  it  is  desired  to  light  a  drawing-room  with  wax  candles — than  which 
nothing  is  more  beautiful — they  are   distributed  wherever  support  can  be  found  for 


Lighting — Gas.  651 

tliem.  As  every  gas  flame  may  be  considered  equal  to  12  or  15  candles,  with  all  their 
wicks  together,  the  madvisability  of  furtlier  concentration  is  evident.  In  fact  -as  is  if 
anything  too  brilliant  for  living-rooms,  and  if  it  were  always  properly  .li^tril.utcirmany  a 
dinily-lighted  apartment  would  be  perfectly  illumined  with  the  same  number  of  burners 
which,  when  massed,  appear  insufficient.  Where  concentrated  ceiling  lights  are  needed 
for  dining-rooms,  many-armed  pendants  are  seldom  satisfactory,  owhig  to  the  shadows 
which  most  of  them  cast.  In  these  cases  a  single  powerful  argand  light  in  a  suitable 
reflecting  pendant,  or  a  cluster  of  flat  flames  similarly  provided,  will  give  a  better 
result  than  the  usual  branched  chandelier,  and  with  a  material  saving  in^as.  For  it 
is  a  curious  and  valuable  property  of  gas.  that  large  burners  can  be  rendered  much  more 
economical  m  proportion  thansmaller  ones.  Thus,  if  the  4  burners  of  a  branched  chandelier 
give  altogether  the  light  of  (say)  50  candles,  the  same  illuminating  power  may  be 
obtained  from  a  greatly  reduced  quantity  of  gas  when  concentrated  in  a  single  burner  of 
the  most  improved  kind. 

With  regard  to  the  smaller  flat  flames,  which  are  the  most  general  for  ordinary 
lighting,  the  selection  of  glass  globes  is  a  very  important  matter.  It  may  be  said  at 
once  that  all  the  old-fa.-hioned  style  of  glasses,  with  holes  in  the  bottom  "about  2J  in. 
diam.,  for  fitting  into  the  brass  galleries  of  the  older  pattern  pendants  and  brackets"  are 
objectionable.  The  reasons  for  this  condemnation  are  few  and  simple.  It  seems  never 
to  have  occurred  to  the  makers  of  these  things  that  the  gas  flames  inside  the  globes 
are  always  wider  than  the  openings  beneath  them,  through  which  the  air  required  for 
combustion  passes ;  and  that,  as  a  rule,  the  light  of  the  flame  is  required  to  be  cast 
downward.  Gas  flames  always  flicker  in  these  old-fashioned  glasses,  because  the 
sharp  current  of  entering  air  blows  them  about.  And  the  light  cannot  come  downward 
because  of  the  metal  ring  and  its  arms,  and  the  glass,  which  is  always  thicker  and 
generally  dingier  at  this  part  of  the  globe.  Perfectly  plain  and  clean  glass  absorbs  jit 
least  ^  of  the  light  that  passes  through  it ;  ground  glass  absorbs  i ;  and  the  ordinary 
opal  obstructs  at  least  i,  and  generally  more.  Only  those  globes  should  bo  chosen 
therefore  which  have  a  very  large  opening  at  the  bottom,  at  least  4  in.  wide,  through 
which  the  air  can  pass  without  disturbing  the  flame.  The  glass  then  fulfils  its  proper 
duty,  screening  the  flame  from  side  draughts,  and  not  causing  mischief  by  a  perpetual 
up-current  of  its  own.  Good  opal  or  figured  globes  of  this  pattern  may  be  used  without 
disadvantage,  because  the  light  is  reflected  down  through  the  bottom  opening  more 
brightly  than  if  there  were  no  globe,  while  the  flame  is  shaded  and  the  light  difi"used 
over  other  parts  of  the  room. 

The  degree  to  which  the  luminosity  of  gas  is  utilized  depends  very  largely  upon  the 
burner,  people  too  often  setting  down  as  the  fault  of  the  gas,  defects  which  should 
really  be  ascribed  to  the  burner.  In  1871,  the  Commission  appointed  by  the  Board  of 
Trade  to  watch  over  the  London  gas  supply,  and  whose  prescriptions  in  these  matters 
are  more  or  less  recognized  by  the  whole  country,  made  an  examination  of  a  collection 
of  gas  burners  from  a  large  number  of  sources,  and  including  those  in  general  use. 
The  greater  portion  of  these  gave  only  J,  some  even  only  |,  of  the  light  that  the  gas 
was  actually  capable  of  affording.  Two  points  very  often  neglected  are :  (1)  that  the 
size  of  the  burner  should  be  proportionate  to  the  quantity  of  gas  required  to  be  con- 
sumed by  it,  and  (2)  that  the  gas  should  issue  at  a  very  low  velocity.  In  good  argand^-, 
the  pressure  at  the  point  of  ignition  is  almost  nil ;  and  in  flat  flame  burners,  the  pressure 
should  be  only  ju^t  sufficient  to  blow  the  flame  out  into  the  form  of  a  fan.  It  is  also 
very  necessary  that  the  body  of  the  chamber  below  the  point  of  ignition  should  be  of 
material  with  low  heat-conducting  power,  so  that  the  gas  may  undergo  no  increase 
in  volume  which  would  occasion  a  proportionate  increase  of  velocity,  and  that  the  heat 
may  not  be  conducted  away  from  the  flame.  To  establish  this.  Evans  had  2  argand 
burners  made,  difiering  only  in  that  one  had  the  combustion  chamber  of  brass,  and  the 
other  of  steatite.     The  latter  gave  more  light  than  the  former  in  the  proportion  of 


652  Lighting — Gas;  Electricity. 

15  to  13  for  the  same  quantity  of  gas.  As  another  example  a  No.  8  metal  flat  flamo 
burner,  consuming  5  cub.  ft.  of  gas  per  hour,  gave  a  light  equal  to  11-5  candles,  while 
a  steatite  burner  of  corresponding  size,  with  non-conducting  combustion  chamber,  gave 
14-6  candles.  Another  metal  burner  of  a  description  somewhat  generally  used,  gave 
about  f  of  the  light  that  the  gas  was  capable  of  yielding.  Worn-out  metal  burners 
generally  give  the  best  results,  as  the  velocity  of  the  issuing  gas  is  lower  than  when 
the  burners  are  new.  A  much  better  result  is  obtained  by  burning,  say  20  cub.  ft  of 
gas  from  one  burner,  than  by  using  5  burners,  each  of  which  consumes  4  cub.  ft.  This 
is  the  reason  why  tlie  modern  argands  give  so  much  more  light  than  the  older  ones, 
which  were  drilled  with  a  very  large  number  of  holes,  and  were  more  suitable  for  boihng 
water  than  for  illuminating.  If  the  air  which  is  to  support  the  combustion  be  heated, 
before  it  reaches  the  flame,  especially  in  the  case  of  flat  flame  burners,  better  results 
are  produced,  as  was  pointed  out  by  Prof.  Frankland  more  than  10  years  ago,  and 
this  principle  is  now  being  carried  out  by  some  Continental  burner  makers.  Of  modern 
argands  there  are  many  excellent  varieties,  which  can  evolve  15-30  per  cent,  more 
light  for  the  same  quantity  of  gas  than  the  best  flat  flame  burners.  One  kind  consisting 
of  3  concentric  rings  of  flame  with  steatite  gas  chambers  was  first  used  in  the  public 
lighting  of  Waterloo  Eoad  in  1879.  In  another  the  products  of  combustion  are  brought 
down  in  a  flue  fastened  round  the  burner,  so  as  to  heat  the  air  which  supports  the 
combustion  as  it  passes  in  pipes  through  the  flue  above-mentioned  to  the  flame; 
while  a  third  kind  has  an  arrangement  for  admitting  separate  currents  of  cold  air  to 
keep  the  chimney  cool.  There  seems  little  doubt  that  the  argand  lamp  will  play  a 
leading  part  in  the  gas  lighting  of  the  future.  An  important  point  connected  with  the 
use  of  gas  is  that  the  heat  generated  by  combustion,  may  be  made  to  do  the  work  of 
ventilation,  as  in  the  fish-gill  ventilator  invented  by  the  late  Goldsworthy  Gurney.  In 
this  strips  of  calico  are  nailed,  by  the  2  upper  corners,  across  an  opening  in  the  wall, 
in  such  a  way  that  each  strip  laps  over  the  strip  next  below  it.  This  contrivance, 
opening  and  closing  like  the  gills  of  a  fish,  is  self-acting,  as  the  heated  air  passes  away 
through  the  porous  material,  and  cold  air  is  admitted  without  draught. 

Electric  Lighting.— The  following  rules  and  regulations  are  drawn  up  by  a  committee 
of  the  Society  of  Telegraph  Engineers  and  Electricians  for  the  reduction  to  a  minimum, 
in  the  case  of  electric  lighting,  of  those  risks  of  fire  which  are  inherent  in  every  system 
of  artificial  illumination,  and  also  for  the  guidance  and  instruction  of  those  who  have,  or 
who  contemplate  having,  electric  lighting  apparatus  installed  in  their  premises.  The 
difficulties  that  beset  the  electrical  engineer  are  chiefly  internal  and  invisible,  and  they 
can  only  be  effectually  guarded  against  by  "  testing,"  or  proving  with  electric  currents. 
They  depend  chiefly  on  leakage,  undue  resistance  in  the  conductor,  and  bad  joints, 
which  lead  to  waste  of  energy  and  the  dangerous  production  of  heat.  These  defects  can 
only  be  detected  by  measuring,  by  means  of  special  apparatus,  the  currents  that  are, 
either  ordinarily  or  for  the  purpose  of  testing,  passed  through  the  circuit.  Should  wires 
become  perceptibly  warmed  by  the  ordinary  current,  it  is  an  indication  that  they  are  too 
small  for  tlie  work  they  have  to  do,  and  that  they  should  be  replaced  by  larger  wires. 
Bare  or  exposed  conductors  should  always  be  within  visual  inspection,  and  as  far  out  of 
reach  as  possible,  since  the  accidental  falling  on  to,  or  the  thoughtless  placing  of  other 
conducting  bodies  upon,  such  conductors,  would  lead  to  '•  short  circuiting,"  and  the 
consequent  sudden  generation  of  heat  due  to  an  increased  current  in  conductors  not 
adapted  to  carry  it  with  safety. 

The  necessity  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged  for  guarding  against  the  presence  of 
moisture  and  the  use  of  "  earth  "  as  part  of  the  circuit.  Moisture  kads  to  loss  of  current 
and  to  the  destruction  of  the  conductor  by  electrolytic  corrosion,  and  the  injudicious  use 
of  "  earth  "  as  a  part  of  the  circuit  tends  to  magnify  every  other  source  of  difficulty  and 
danger.  The  chief  dangers  of  every  now  application  of  electricity  arise  from  ignorance 
and  inexperience  ou  the  uart  of  those  who  supply  and  fit  up  the  requisite  plant.     The 


Lighting — Electricity.  653 

greatest  element  of    safety  is  therefore  the  emplo3'ment  of   tkilled  and  experienced 
electricians  to  supervise  the  work. 

(a)  The  Dynamo  Machine. — (1)  The  dynamo  machine  should  bo  fixed  in  a  dry  place. 
(2)  It  should  not  be  exposed  to  dust  or  flyings.  (3)  It  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean 
and  its  bearings  well  oiled.  (4)  The  insulation  of  its  coils  and  conductors  should  be 
practically  perfect.  (5)  All  conductors  in  the  dynamo  room  should  be  firmly  supported, 
well  insulated,  conveniently  arranged  for  ins^pcction,  and  marked  or  numbered. 

(6)  The  Wires. — (0)  Every  switch  or  commutator  used  for  turning  the  current  on  or 
off  should  be  constructed  so  that  when  it  is  moved  and  left  it  cannot  permit  of  a 
permanent  arc  or  of  heating.  (7)  Every  part  of  the  circuit  should  be  so  determined  that 
the  o'auo-e  of  wire  to  be  used  is  properly  proportioned  to  the  currents  it  will  have  to  carry, 
and  all  junctions  with  a  smaller  conductor  should  be  fitted  with  a  suitable  safety  fuse  or 
protector  so  that  no  portion  of  the  conductor  should  ever  bo  allowed  to  attain  a 
temperature  exceeding  150°  F.  (65^°  C).  (S)  Under  ordinary  circumstances,  complete 
metallic  circuits  should  be  used ;  the  employment  of  gas  or  water  pipes  as  conductors 
for  the  purpose  of  completing  the  circuit  should  not  in  any  case  be  allowed.  (9)  Bare 
wires  passing  over  the  tops  of  houses  should  never  be  less  than  7  ft.  clear  of  any  part  of 
the  roof,  and  all  wires  crossing  thoroughfares  should  invariably  be  high  enough  to  allow 
fire  escapes  to  pass  under  them.  (10)  It  is  most  essential  that  joints  should  be  elec- 
trically and  mechanically  perfect,  and  united  by  solder.  The  form  of  joint  recommended 
is  shown  in  Fig.  1388.     (11)  The  position  of 

wires   when  underground  should  be  clearly  it'^'^j 

indicated,  and  they  should  be  laid  down  so 
as  to  be  easily  inspected  and  repaired. 
(12)  All  wires  used  for  indoor  purposes 
should  be  efficiently  insulated,  either  by  ^2 
being  covered  throughout  with  some  insu- 
lating medium,  or,  if  bare,  by  resting  on  insulated  supports.  (18)  When  these  wires 
pass  through  roofs,  floors,  walls,  or  partitions,  or  where  they  cross  or  are  liable  to  touch 
metallic  masses,  like  iron  girders  or  pipes,  they  should  be  thoroughly  protected  by 
suitable  additional  covering ;  and  where  they  are  liable  to  abrasion  from  any  cause, 
or  to  the  depredations  of  rats  or  mice,  they  should  be  efficiently  encased  in  some  hard 
material.  (14)  Where  indoor  wires  are  put  out  of  sight,  as  beneath  flooring,  they  should 
be  thoroughly  protected  from  mechanical  injury,  and  their  position  should  be  indicated. 

N.B. The  value  of  frequently  testing  the  apparatus  and  circuits  cannot  be  too  strongly 

urged.  The  escape  of  electricity  cannot  be  detected  by  the  sense  of  smell,  as  can  gas, 
but  it  can  be  detected  by  apparatus  far  more  certain  and  delicate.  Leakage  not  only 
means  waste,  but  in  the  presence  of  moisture  it  meaus  destruction  of  the  conductor  and 
its  insulating  covering,  by  electric  action. 

(c)  Lamps.— (15)  Arc  lamps  should  always  be  guarded  by  proper  lanterns  to  prevent 
danger  from  falling  incandescent  pieces  of  carbon,  and  from  ascending  sparks.  Their 
globes  should  be  protected  with  wire  netting.  (16)  The  lanterns,  and  all  parts  which 
are  to  be  handled,  should  be  insulated  from  the  circuit. 

(ci)  Danger  to  Person. — (17)  Where  bare  wire  out  of  doors  rests  on  insulating 
supports,  it  should  be  coated  with  insulating  material,  such  as  indiarubber  tape  or  tube, 
for  at  least  2  ft.  on  each  side  of  the  support.  (IS)  To  secure  persons  from  danger  inside 
buildings,  it  is  essential  so  to  arrange  and  protect  the  conductors  and  fittings,  that  no 
one  can'^be  exposed  to  the  shocks  of  alternating  currents  of  a  mean  electromotive  force 
exceeding  100  volts,  or  to  continuous  currents  of  200  volts.  (19)  If  the  difference  of 
potential°within  any  house  exceeds  200  volts,  the  house  should  be  provided  with  a 
"  switch,"  so  arranged  that  the  supply  of  electricity  can  be  at  once  cut  oft". 

With  reference  to  par.  (10),  Bolas  says  that  the  best  way  to  make  an  electrical  joint 
is,  first  to  thoroughly  tin  the  wires,  and  then  wipe  them  carefully  while  th.  y  are  still 


654  Lighting — Electricity.    Ventilating. 

hot ;  any  chloride  of  zinc  which  may  have  been  used  being  next  removed  by  a  damp 
cloth.  The  wires  are  then  bound,  and  subsequently  well  grouted  with  solder,  rosin  only 
being  used  as  a  flux. 

Killingworth  Hedges,  in  a  paper  recently  read  before  the  British  Association,  alludes 
to  some  sources  of  danger  not  previously  mentioned.  Thus,  in  reference  to  tlie  develop- 
ment of  heat  caused  by  an  increased  resistance,  he  recalls  Matthiessen's  experiment  showing 
that  the  conducting  power  of  '■  commercial  '  copper  wire  is  only  13-6  as  against  99-95 
for  pure  copper  :  hence  the  wire  used  must  be  pure  throughout.  An  absolute  essential 
is  a  cut-out  or  fusible  plug  in  the  circuit,  arranged  to  melt  if  the  current  is  more  than  10 
to  15  per  cent,  in  excess  of  the  working  strength. 

VENTILATING.— This  subject  has  long  been  left  in  a  very  unsatisfactory  state 
of  neglect,  despite  its  importance  with  regard  to  health.  The  following  remarks  are 
mainly  gathered  from  a  paper  on  the  subject  recently  read  by  Arthur  Walmisley  before 
the  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers'  Society,  in  which  he  reviews  the  principal  systems. 

As  regards  window  ventilators,  Lockhead's  perforating  panes  of  glass  are  a  useful 
form  when  placed  in  the  highest  pane  of  the  window  farthest  from  the  fireplace.  A 
system  in  very  general  use  is  found  in  Moore's  patent  ventilator,  which  consists  of  glass 
louvres  fixed  so  as  to  open  at  any  angle  required  with  facility  by  means  of  a  cord,  which, 
when  set  free,  allows  the  louvre  plates  to  close  of  themselves  airtight.  Mooie's  sliding 
glass  ventilators,  which  are  usually  made  in  circular  plates  of  9  in.  or  10  in.  diameter 
with  egg-shaped  openings  neatly  cut  and  turning  on  slips  of  glass  with  bevelled  edges, 
are  very  effective  for  the  admission  or  extraction  of  air  in  a  room,  but  admit  the  rain  in 
wet  weather.  Another  method  of  admitting  fresh  air  to  a  room  consists  in  leavin"-  an 
aperture  in  the  external  wall,  at  a  level  between  the  ceiling  of  one  apartment  and  the 
floor  of  the  room  Immediately  above,  then  to  convey  the  fresh  air  through  a  channel 
from  the  external  wall  to  the  centre  of  the  ceiling  of  the  apartment  below,  where  the  air 
can  be  admitted  by  an  opening^  and  dispersed  by  having  a  flat  board  or  disc  to  impinge 
against,  suspended  4  in.  or  6  in.  below  the  opening  of  the  ceiling,  and  so  scattered  over 
the  room.  The  cold  air,  however,  thus  admitted,  plunges  on  the  heads  of  the  occupants 
of  the  room  and  mixes  with  the  hot  air  which  has  risen  near  the  ceiling.  A  top  window- 
sasli  lowered  a  little  to  admit  fresh  air  has  the  same  disagreeable  effect,  the  cold  air  being 
drawn  towards  the  floor  by  the  chimney  draught,  and  leaving  the  liot  air  to  stagnate  near 
the  ceiling.  In  any  siphon  system  placed  vertically  the  current  of  air  will  enter  by  the 
short  arm,  and  take  its  exit  by  the  long  arm,  and  thus  the  chimney  flue  acts  as  the  long 
arm  of  a  siphon,  drawing  the  fresh  air  from  the  nearest  opening.  Fresh  air  may  be 
introduced  through  perforations  made  in  the  woodwork  of  the  bottom  rail  of  the  door  to 
the  room,  or  through  apertures  in  the  outer  wall,  admitting  the  fresh  air  to  spaces  behind 
the  skirting  board,  and  making  the  latter  perforated.  The  only  objection  to  this  plan  is 
the  liability  for  vermin  to  lodge  between  the  skirting  board  and  the  wall.  This  may  be 
prevented  by  covering  the  outside  apertures  with  perforated  zinc,  but  such  covering  also 
helps  to  keep  out  the  full  supply  of  fresh  air. 

Butler  recommends,  while  admitting  the  cold  air  through  side  walls  near  the  floor 
level,  and  allowing  the  foul  air  to  escape  at  the  ceiling,  that  the  fire  draught  should  be 
maintained  quite  independent  of  the  air  inlet  to  the  room,  the  requisite  amount  of  air  for 
combustion  being  supplied  by  a  separate  pipe  led  through  the  hearthstone  with  its  face 
towards  the  fire,  the  latter  acting  as  a  pump,  which  is  sure  to  procure  its  own  allowance 
from  the  nearest  source ;  thus  the  draught  which  would  otherwise  be  felt  by  the  fiie 
drawing  its  supply  from  the  inlet  across  the  room  is  considerably  reduced.  The  foul  air 
may  enter  the  ceiling  in  the  centre,  and  be  conducted  by  an  air-flue  either  to  the  outside 
or  to  the  chimney.  The  chimney  is  the  best  extractor,  as  its  heated  condition  greatly 
favours  the  ventilating  power. 

Dr.  Arnott  was  one  of  the  first  to  draw  attention  to  the  value  of  a  chimney  as  a  means 
of  drawing  oflf  the  foul  air  from  the  interior  of  an  apartment.    He  invented  a  ventilator 


Ventilating.  655 

consisting  of  a  •well-baianced  metallic  valve,  intended  by  its  instantancons  action  to  close 
against  down  draught  and  so  prevent  the  escape  of  smoke  into  a  room  during  tlie  usse  of 
fires.  If  the  tire  is  not  alight,  what  is  known  as  the  register  of  the  stove  siiould  bo 
closed,  or  a  tight-fitting  board  placed  in  front  of  the  fireplace,  with  the  adoption  of  all 
chimney-ventilators  fixed  near  the  ceiling. 

A  very  ingenious  device  was  described  by  Prof.  Morse  at  a  recent  meeting  of  the 
"American  Association  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,"  held  in  Miniuapoli.s,  having 
for  its  object  the  utilization  of  the  sun's  rays  for  warming  and  ventilation.  The  devicu 
consists  mainly  of  a  slaty  surface  painted  black,  placed  vertically  on  the  outside  wall  of 
a  building,  with  flues  to  conduct  the  warm  air  to  the  inside.  The  slates  are  inserted  in 
a  groove-like  glass  in  a  frame.  A  library  measuring  20  ft.  by  14  ft.,  by  10  ft.  high,  was 
warmed  in  this  way  by  an  apparatu.s  measuring  8  ft.  long  by  3  ft.  wide,  and  was  thus 
kept  comfortable  throughout  the  winter  except  on  a  few  of  the  coldest  days.  Prof.  Morse 
states  that  as  a  general  result  of  the  experiments  a  difference  of  30^  could  thus  be  secured 
during  4  or  5  hours  of  the  day.  He  found  in  the  morning  that  when  tlie  sun's  rays 
rested  directly  on  the  apparatus  the  air  passing  through  it  was  raised  about  30^  and  that 
it  discharged  3206  cub.  ft.  of  warm  air  per  hour.  The  sun,  by  heating  the  solid  objects 
upon  which  its  rays  fall,  causes  a  gentle  and  regular  circulation  of  air  along  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  This  fact  suggests  the  advantage  of  so  placing  a  building  that  a 
maximum  amount  of  sunshine  is  admitted  into  the  rooms  most  occupied.  "Where  air 
without  the  sun's  heat  is  required,  as  in  the  case  of  meat  markets,  the  method  adopted 
in  the  design  for  the  Metropolitan  Cattle  Market  may  be  recommended,  where  5  louvre 
boards,  each  S  in.  by  |  in.,  are  made  to  revolve  on  pins  fixed  near  the  lower  ends  of 
support ;  these  louvres  open  or  close  by  means  of  a  chain  passing  over  pulley  blocks. 

In  America  the  plan  most  generally  adopted  for  the  ventilation  of  some  of  their  large 
institutions  is  to  admit  the  fresh  air  in  the  middle  of  the  room,  after  warming  it  by  a 
stove  or  other  heating  appliance,  placed  either  in  the  room  or  in  another  compartment, 
and  connected  by  an  air-duct  to  the  centre.  The  air  so  admitted  first  ascends  to  the 
ceiling,  and  then  is  supposed  to  be  drawn  down  from  apertures  near  the  floor  in  the 
walls  of  the  room,  whence  it  is  allowed  to  escape  by  passages  to  the  smoke-flue,  and  so 
to  the  outside.  In  some  of  their  hospitals  fresh  air  is  admitted  through  a  scries  of  long 
narrow  apertures,  covered  with  a  jjerforated  plate,  situate  one  over  each  bed  a  little 
above  the  patient's  head,  and  drawn  out  through  a  tube  at  the  foot  of  the  bed,  which  is 
placed  in  communication  with  a  suction  flue,  tlie  object  of  this  arrangement  being  to  free  the 
neighbouring  patients  from  the  danger  of  inhaling  the  heavy  gases  generated  in  di.seasc. 

In  St.  Thomas's  Hospital,  Lambeth,  each  ward  contains  central  fireplaces  facing  the 
end  of  the  room.  Tlie  fresh  air  is  admitted  at  tlie  floor  level,  after  passing  through  a 
flue  open  at  one  end  to  the  external  air,  and  warmed  by  passing  through  a  hot-air 
cliamber  behind  the  fire.  The  vitiated  air  escapes  into  an  up-cast  flue  through  a  grating 
at  the  level  of  the  ceiling,  from  whence  it  is  drawn  into  an  iron  flue  enclosing  the  smoke 
flue  of  each  fireplace,  the  heat  of  the  latter  being  considered  sufficient  to  create  the 
required  suction  for  its  extraction. 

A  better  arrangement,  in  the  author's  opinion,  is  that  adopted  at  Guy's  Hospital, 
London,  where  advantage  is  taken  of  the  girders  carrying  the  floor  for  ventilating  the 
wards.  The  fresh  air  is  drawn  down  2  lofty  shafts,  one  on  each  side  of  the  main  entrance, 
into  a  compartment  in  the  basement,  where  it  is  heated  by  hot-water  pipes  before  passing 
through  the  air-ducts  into  the  wards,  entering  them  tlirough  gratings  on  the  floor  level. 
The  upper  flue  is  embedded  in  the  concrete  of  the  floor,  while  the  lower  flue  is  below 
the  ceiling  of  the  ward.  After  passing  through  tlic  wards,  the  hot  air  is  cxtracttd 
through  apertures  near  the  ceiling  into  a  series  of  independent  flues  communicating 
with  a  shaft  placed  near  the  centre  of  the  building,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  action 
of  the  down  shafts,  and  carried  up  outside  tlie  roof  to  a  greater  height  tlian  the  other 
shafts.     The  velocity  of  an  escaping  current  will  be  proportional  to  the  square  root  of  the 


656 


Ventilating. 


13S9. 


excess  of  the  temperature  of  the  heated  air  in  a  flue  over  the  air  outside  the  flue,  an  1 
also  to  the  square  root  of  the  height  of  the  flue  or  cliirauey,  and  the  volume  of  air 
extracted  is  consequently  proportional  in  addition  to  the  sectiomil  area  of  the  flue. 

Harding's  ventilators  are  better  known  in  the  north  of  England  than  tiie  south. 
They  are  recommended  by  Pridgin  Teale,  surgeon  to  the  General  Infirmary  at  Leeds, 
as  a  means  of  securing  freshness  of  atmosphere  without  draught,  and  free  from  all 
mixture  of  dust,  soot,  or  fog.  The  outside  air  is  conducted  through  a  grate  and  aperture 
in  the  wall  about  7  ft.  6  in.  above  the  floor  level,  where  it  is  made  to  pass  through  a 
series  of  small  tubes  fixed  at  an  angle  of  about  30°  with  the  wall.  The  currents 
of  air  are  said  to  be  compressed  while  passing  through  the  tubes,  but  to  expand  and 
diffuse  in  all  directions  as  soon  as  they  are  liberated  into  the  apartment.  In  all  filtering 
arrangements  it  must  be  remembered  that  if  air  is  to  pass  through  a  screen  or  filter 
without  retarding  the  current  entering  the  room  through  a  tube,  the  area  of  the  screen 
must  be  greater  than  the  area  of  section  of  the  tube.  This  cao  be  eifected  by  placing 
the  screen  diagonally  within  the  tube  which  admits  the  air.  In  some  buildings  the 
filter  is  dispensed  with,  and  the  apparatus  is  used  simply  to  diffuse  the  air  as  it  enters 
the  room.  An  outlet  for  the  vitiated  air  is  provided  by  the  chimney  flue,  either  through 
the  fireplace  or  by  a  mica  valve  placed  in  the  flue  near  the  ceiling.  In  rooms  where 
flues  do  not  exist  an  air  extractor  is  provided,  consisting  of  2  perforated  cones  and  a 
central  tube.  The  external  air  impinging  upon  the  perforated  cones  is  deflected, 
creating  an  induced  current  up  the  vertical  tube,  drawing  the  foul  air  from  the  interior 
of  the  room,  and  expelling  it  through  the  perforations.  In  fixing  the  extractor,  a 
wooden  base  or  frame  is  placed  on  tlie  ridge  and  covered  with  lead  to  make  it  water- 
tight ;  the  extractor  is  then  placed  over  this  and  fixed  in  the  ordinary  manner.  A 
small  inner  cone  is  provided  simply 
to  prevent  rain  from  getting  into 
the  tube.  Harding's  extractors  are 
so  designed  that  they  may  be  easily 
fixed  inside  an  ornamental  turret 
without  in  any  way  afiecting  their 
action.  They  can  be  obtained  in 
London  from  Strode  and  Co.,  at 
prices  varying  from  15s.  to  Gl.  and 
upwards.  Their  action  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  1389:  a,  wall;  b, 
grating  outside ;  c,  filter. 

Another  system  for  admitting 
fresh  air  into  a  room,  free  from  fog 
and  other  impurities,  is  that  recom- 
mended by  the  Sanitary  Engineer- 
ing and  Ventilating  Co.,  115, 
Victoria  Street,  Westminster.  They 
provide  for  the  introduction  of  fresh 
air  in  vertical  currents  by  means  of 
a  suitable  number  and  disposition 
of  vertical  tubes,  varying  in  size, 
section,  and  weight  according  to 
each  special  case.  The  current  can 
be  regulated  in  amount  by  throttle 
valves,  and  the  heated  or  vitiated 

air  is  removed  by  means  of  exhaust  ventilators,  placed  directly  over  the  roof  or  in 
connection  with  air  flues  and  shafts.  The  exhaust  ventilator  is  thus  described  by  tlie 
makers :  There  are  no  working  parts  to  get  out  of  order,  and  no  attention  is  required 


Ventilating. 


657 


to  ensure  its  constant  action.  In  this  respect,  a  ^^roat  improvement  is  cluimcrl  over 
the  numerous  forms  of  revolving  cowls,  which  require  occasional  luhrication,  otherwise 
the  working  parts  become  corroded  and  the  cowl  ceases  to  act.  They  aro  made  of 
circular  or  rectangular  section,  or  other  shapes  to  suit  special  circumstances.  Ono 
great  merit  of  the  system  is  the  clement  of  length  which  is  introduced  by  means  of 
the  tube  arrangement,  and  thus  a  current  is  continually  passing  which  diffuses  itself 
over  the  room.  The  system  admits  of  a  patent  air-cUansing  1x)x  being  built  into  tho 
wall  at  the  foot  of  the  tube,  fitted  with  special  deflector  plates  and  a  tray  to  hold  water 
or,  when  necessary,  disinfectants.  Where  the  arrangements  of  furniture  or  fittinf^s  in  a 
room  preclude  the  use  of  vertical  tubes  fixed  near  the  ground,  they  recommend  the 
substitution  of  a  ventilating  bracket  fixed  at  6-7  ft.  above  tho  floor.  This  bracket  may 
contain  an  air  purifying  or  cleansing  box ;  if  required,  a  valve  is  provided  for  regu- 
lating the  admission  of  fresh  air,  and  a  9  in.  by  6  in.  hinged  air  grating  to  cover  the 
opening  outside.  The  air-cleansing  box  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  1390 :  o,  inside  of  room  ; 
h,  floor  ;  c,  trough  or  tray  for  holding  water  or  disinfectant  fluid ;  d,  tube. 


1390. 


Boyle's  patent  self-acting  air-pump)  ventilators  are  well  known,  and  are  foimd  to 
answer  well  in  their  continuous  action  under  all  varieties  of  wind  pressure ;  they 
are  Qften  adopted  without  any  inquiry  being  made  as  to  the  scientific  principles  on  which 
they  are  constructed.  They  consist  of  4  sections,  each  acting  independently  of  the 
other.  The  exterior  curved  baffle-plate  prevents  the  wind  blowing  through  the  slits 
formed  in  the  immediate  interior  plates,  and  tends  to  concentrate  the  current.  These 
interior  plates  are  curved  outwards,  so  as  to  take  the  pressure  off"  the  vertical  slits, 
which  form  a  communication  with  the  internal  chambers,  through  whicli  the  air  im- 
pinges on  inner  deflecting  plates,  and  is  further  directed  by  the  radial  plates.  The 
external  air  impinging  on  the  radial  plates  is  deflected  on  to  the  side  plates,  and  creates 
an  induced  current.  In  its  passage  it  draws  the  air  from  the  central  vertical  chambers, 
expelling  it  at  the  opposite  opening.  The  vitiated  air  immediately  rushes  up  the  shaft 
connecting  the  ventilator  with  the  apartment  to  be  ventilated,  extracting  the  air  and 
producing  a  continuous  upward  current  without  tlie  possibility  of  down  draught.  The 
partitions  separating  the  chambers  prevent  the  external  air  being  drawn  through  the 
slits  upon  which  the  wind  is  not  directly  acting.  The  wliole  arrangement  being  a 
fixture,  with  no  mechanical  movement,  it  is  never  liable  to  get  out  of  order,  and  the 
apparatus  can  be  easily  fixed  over  a  wood  base  or  frame  covered  with  zinc  or  lead  to 
secure  a  good  watertight  connection.  Where  Boyle's  ventilators  are  used  tho  air  is 
renewed  imperceptibly,  the  vitiated  air  being  extracted  as  rapidly  as  it  is  generated. 

A  somewhat  similar  arrangement  to  Boyle's  ventilator  is  patented  by  Arnold  W. 
Kershaw,  of  Lancaster,  and  consists  of  3  rims  of  deflectors  or  plates  with  openings  in 
each,  so  arranged  that  the  openings  in  one  rim  are  opposite  the  deflectors  in  tho  next 
inner  or  outer  rim,  the  effect  being  that  whatever  the  direction  of  the  wind,  it  passes 

2  u 


658  Ventilating.    "Waeming 

through  the  ventilator  •without  being  able  to  enter  the  central  shaft,  and  in  passing 
creates  a  partial  vacuum,  which  induces  an  upward  current  in  the  upcast  shaft  without 
the  possibility  of  down  draughts.  Both  Boyle's  and  Kershaw's  roof  ventilators 
are  suitable  for  fixing  in  ventilating  towers  or  turrets.  While  Kershaw's  is  somewhat 
simpler  in  construction,  Boyle's  is  said  to  possess  the  additional  advantage  of  preventing 
the  entrance  of  snow  by  the  curve  in  which  the  inner  plates  are  fixed.  In  the  case 
of  chimney  flues  where  there  is  any  obstruction  that  breaks  the  wind  and  produces  a 
swirl,  such  as  would  be  caused  by  close  proximity  to  higher  buildings  or  raised  gables, 
a  down  draught  may  be  prevented  by  the  iise  of  a  properly-constructed  chimney  cowl. 
Kershaw's  chimney  cowl  is  a  modification  of  his  pneumatic  ventilator,  and  consists  of 
deflecting  plates  so  arranged  that  there  is  no  possibility  of  a  down  draught.  Boyle'a 
chimney  cowl  is  better  known  than  Kershaw's,  and  is  very  effective.  It  consists  of 
deflecting  plates  so  fixed  that  if  a  body  of  air  is  forced  in  at  the  false  top,  instead  of 
passing  down  the  vent,  it  is  split  up  by  an  inner  diaphragm,  deflected  over  the  real 
top,  and  passed  over  at  the  side  openings,  thus  checking  the  blow  down  and  assisting 
the  up  draught.  Kershaw's  patent  inlet  and  air  diffuser  consists  of  a  tube  connection 
between  the  outside  and  inside  of  an  apartment  rising  vertically  on  the  inside,  the 
upper  extremity  having  radiating  plates,  which  diffuse  the  incoming  current.  Generally 
speaking,  a  sufficient  amount  of  fresh  air  enters  under  the  door  to  a  room  or  between 
the  window  sashes  or  frames  ;  but  in  apartments  where  doors  and  windows  fit  tightly, 
some  arrangement  for  the  admission  of  fresh  air  becomes  indispensable.  In  this  climate, 
durin"'  7  months  of  the  year,  the  external  air  is  usually  too  cold  to  be  admitted  directly 
into  the  room.  The  plan  of  admitting  fresh  air  to  a  space  behind  the  grates,  leading  up 
the  air  through  channels  on  each  side  of  the  fireplace,  and  ultimately  passing  it 
through  perforated  gratings  within  the  wall  or  through  perforations  in  the  skirting 
board  on  each  side  of  the  fireplace  cannot  be  commended,  as  the  passages  are  apt  to 
get  choked  up  with  dust,  and  the  temperature  of  the  air  cannot  be  well  regulated  in 
its  passage  into  the  room.  The  true  object  of  a  fire  and  chimney  flue  should  not  be  to 
supply  fresh  air,  but  to  extract  it  after  it  has  done  its  work. 

WARMING. — In  connection  with  warming  an  apartment,  it  is  obviously  a 
necessary  condition  that  the  warmth  shall  be  conserved  as  much  as  possible.  Hence 
there  is  an  evil  in  having  too  much  glass,  as  it  cools  the  room  too  fast  in  the  winter 
season  :  1  sq.  ft.  of  window  glass  will  cool  li  cub.  ft.  of  warm  air  in  the  room  to  the 
external  temperature  per  second ;  that  is,  if  the  room  be  warmed  to  60°  F.,  and  the 
thermometer  stands  at  30°  F.  outside,  there  will  be  a  loss  of  90  cub.  ft.  of  warm  air  at 
60°  per  second  from  a  window  containing  a  surface  of  glass  of  60  sq.  ft.  In  colder 
climates  than  that  of  England,  this  subject  is  of  much  greater  importance.  In  America, 
for  instance,  during  the  cold  weather,  there  will  always  be  foimd,  no  matter  how 
tightly  or  closely  the  sashes  are  fitted  and  protected  with  weather-strips,  a  draught  of 
cold  air  falling  downward.  This  arises  from  the  contact  of  the  heated  air  with  the 
cold  glass,  which  renders  the  air  cooler  and  heavier,  and  causes  it  to  fall.  The  air,  at 
the  same  time,  parts  with  a  considerable  proportion  of  its  moisture  by  condensation  upon 
the  glass.  The  cold  air  thus  formed  falls  to  the  floor,  forming  a  layer  of  cold  air, 
which  surrounds  the  feet  and  legs,  while  the  upper  part  of  the  body  is  enveloped  in 
overheated  air.  The  layers  of  cold  and  warm  air  in  an  apartment  will  not  mix.  The 
warm  air  will  not  descend,  and  the  cold  air  cannot  go  upward,  except  the  one  is  deprived 
of  its  heat  by  radiation,  and  the  other  receives  its  heat  by  actual  contact  with  a 
heated  surface.  This  radical  difference  in  the  upper  and  lower  strata  of  atmosphere 
of  the  rooms,  in  which  people  live  during  the  cold  season,  is  the  prolific  cause  of  most 
of  the  throat  and  lung  diseases  with  which  they  are  afflicted.  Double  windows  to  the 
houses,  therefore,  would  not  only  be  a  great  economy  as  to  fuel,  but  highly  conducive 
to  human  longevity. 

There  are  only  2  ways  in  which  dwelling-houses  can  be  heated,  namely,  by  radiant 


Warming— Open  grate ;  Open  stove.  659 

heat  and  by  hot  air.  The  former  is  produced  hy  the  open  fire,  and  hy  it  alone.  The 
latter  is  obtained  in  various  ways.  The  question  whether  wo  shall"  use  hot  air  or 
radiant  heat  in  our  rooms  is  by  no  means  one  to  be  lightly  passed  over.  Instinct  tells 
ns  to  select  radiant  heat,  and  instinct  is  quite  right;  it  is  so  because  radiant  heat 
operates  in  a  very  peculiar  way.  It  is  known  that  as  a  matter  of  health  it  is  best  lo 
breathe  air  considerably  below  the  natural  temperature  of  the  body— 98°  F. ;  in  air 
heated  to  this  temperature  most  persons  would  in  a  short  time  feel  stifled.  But  it  is 
also  known  that  the  body  likes,  as  far  as  sensation  is  concerned,  to  be  kept  at  a 
temperature  as  near  98°  F.  as  may  be,  and  that  very  much  higher  temperatures  can  be 
enjoyed :  as,  for  example,  when  we  sit  before  a  fire,  or  bask  in  the  sun.  Now  radiant 
heat  will  not  warm  air  as  it  passes  through  it,  and  so,  at  one  and  the  siimc  time,  we 
can  enjoy  the  warmth  of  a  fire  and  breathe  that  cool  air  which  is  best  suited  to  the 
wants  of  our  system.  Herein  lies  the  secret  of  the  popularity  of  the  open  fireplace. 
But  in  order  that  the  open  fireplace  may  succeed,  it  must  be  worked  within  the  proper 
limits  of  temperature.  If  air  falls  much  below  40°  F.  it  becomes  unpleasant  to  breathe 
and  it  is  also  very  difficult  to  keep  the  body  warm  enough  when  at  rest  by  any  quantity 
of  clothes.  In  Russia  and  Canada  the  temperature  of  the  air  outside  the  houses 
often  falls  far  below  zero,  and  in  the  houses  it  cannot  be  much  above  the  freezing-point. 
Here  the  open  fire  fails;  it  can  only  warm  air  by  first  heating  the  walls,  furniture,  and 
other  materials  in  a  room,  and  these,  in  turn,  heat  the  air  with  which  they  come  in 
contact.  But  this  will  not  do  for  North  American  winters ;  and  accordingly  in  Canada 
and  the  United  States  the  stove  or  some  other  expedient  for  warming  air  by  direct 
contact  with  heated  metal  or  earthenware  is  imperatively  required.  But  this  is  the 
misfortune  of  those  who  live  in  cold  climates,  and  when  they  ask  us  to  follow  their 
example  and  take  to  close  stoves  and  steam-pipes,  and  such  like,  they  strongly  remind 
us  of  the  fable  of  the  fox  who  had  lost  his  tail.  How  accurately  instinct  works  in 
the  selection  of  the  2  systems  is  demonstrated  by  the  fact  that  a  succession  of  mild 
winters  is  always  followed  in  the  United  States  by  an  extended  use  of  open  grates ; 
that  is  to  say,  the  English  system  becomes,  or  tends  to  become  fashionable,  while,  on 
the  other  hand,  a  succession  of  severe  winters  in  this  country  brings  at  once  into 
favour  with  builders  and  others  a  whole  host  of  close  stoves  and  similar  devices  which 
would  not  be  looked  at  under  more  favourable  conditions  of  the  weather.  While 
English  wiiiters  remain  moderately  temperate,  the  open  fireplace  will  enjoy  the  favour 
it  deserves,  as  not  only  the  most  attractive,  but  the  most  scientific  apparatus  available 
for  warming  houses.     (Engineer.) 

In  discussing  the  various  methods  of  warming,  it  will  be  convenient  to  classify  them 
under  general  heads. 

Open  Grate.— The  ordinary  open  grate  is  too  familiar  to  need  any  description,  but 
it  is  wasteful  of  fuel  to  a  degree  that  could  only  be  tolerated  in  a  mild  climate  where 
fuel  was  cheap.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  only  some  10-12  per  cent,  of  the  heat  generated 
in  an  open  grate  is  utilized,  the  remainder  going  up  the  chimney.  But  this  very  fault 
is  in  one  sense  a  virtue,  in  that  it  performs  the  ventilation  of  the  apartment  in  an 
eminently  satisfactory  manner.  By  the  addition  of  a  contrivance  for  regulating  the 
combustion  in  an  open  grate,  the  fuel  consumption  is  much  reduced,  the  combustion 
is  rendered  more  perfect  (diminishiug  or  preventing  smoke),  the  radiated  heat  is  much 
increased,  while  the  appearance  of  an  open  grate  is  retained,  though  it  is  in  reality 
converted  into  an  open  stove. 

Opc7i  Stove.— This  subject  has  been  most  ably  discussed  by  Dr.  Pridgin  Ttale,  in  con- 
nection with  the  economising  of  fuel  in  house  fires.    His  remarks  will  well  bear  repeating. 

"  It  is  hardly  possible  to  separate  the  2  questions  of  economy  of  fuel  and  abatement 
of  smoke.  None  who,  in  their  own  person,  or  as  the  companion  or  nurse  of  friends 
and  relatives,  have  gone  through  the  miseries  of  bronchitis  or  asthma  in  a  dense 
London  fog,  can  fail  to  perceive  that  this  is  a  serious  medical,  not  less  than  a  great 

2  u  2 


660  Warming — Open  stove. 

economical,  question.  Nine  million  tons  of  coal — one-fourth  of  the  domestic  fuel 
consumption  in  this  kingdom — is  what  I  estimate  as  a  possible  reward  to  the  public 
if  they  will  have  the  sense,  the  energy,  and  the  determination  to  adopt  the  principles 
here  advocated,  and  which  can  be  applied  for  a  very  small  outlay.  Much  has  been  said 
by  scientific  men  about  waste  of  fuel,  and  strong  arguments  have  been  advanced  which 
make  it  probable  that  the  most  economical  and  smokeless  method  of  using  coal  is  to 
convert  it  first  of  all  into  gas  and  coke,  and  then  to  deliver  it  for  consumption  in  this 
form  instead  of  coal.  Theoretically,  no  doubt,  this  is  the  most  scientific  and  most 
perfect  use  of  fuel,  and  the  day  may  come  when  its  universal  adoption  may  be  possible. 
But  before  that  time  arrives  many  things  must  happen.  The  mode  of  manufiicture, 
the  apparatus  on  a  mighty  scale,  and  the  mode  of  distribution  must  be  developed,  nay, 
almost  created,  and  a  revolution  must  be  effected  in  nearly  every  fireplace  in  the 
kingdom.  At  present  its  realization  seems  to  be  in  a  very  remote  future.  Meantime 
I  ask  the  public  to  adopt  a  method  which  is  the  same  in  principle,  and  in  perfection  not 
so  very  far  short  of  it.  It  is  nothing,  more  nor  less,  than  that  every  fireplace  should 
make  its  own  gas  and  burn  it,  and  make  its  own  coke  and  burn  it,  and  this  can  be 
done  approximately  at  comparatively  little  cost,  and  without  falling  foul  of  any  patent, 
or  causing  serious  disturbances  of  existing  fireplaces.  We  must,  first  of  all,  do  away 
with  the  fallacy  that  fires  won't  burn  unless  air  passes  through  the  bottom  or  front 
of  the  fire.  The  draught  under  the  fire  is  what  people  swear  by  (aye,  and  many 
practical  and  scientific  men  too),  and  most  difficult  it  is  to  sweep  this  cobweb  away  from 
people's  brains.  They  provide  2  or  3  times  as  much  air  as  is  needed  for  combustion, 
i,  perhaps,  being  the  necessary  supply  of  oxygen,  the  remainder  serving  to  make  a 
draught  to  blow  the  fire  into  a  white  heat,  and  to  carry  no  end  of  waste  heat  rapidly 
up  the  chimney ;  f  of  cold  air  chilling  the  fire,  ^  more  than  needful  of  cold  air  coming 
into  the  room  to  chill  it ;  and  much  of  the  smoke  and  combustible  gases  hurried  unburnt 
up  the  chimney.  The  two  views  which  I  am  anxious  to  enforce  upon  the  attention  of  the 
public,  of  builders,  of  ironmongers,  and  of  inventors,  are  these  :  that  the  open  grating 
under  the  fire  is  wrong  in  principle,  defective  in  heating  power,  and  wasteful  of  fuel, 
and  that  the  right  principle  of  burning  coal  is  that  no  current  of  air  should  pass  through 
the  bottom  of  the  fire,  and  that  the  bottom  of  the  fire  should  be  kept  hot.  This 
principle  is  violated  by  the  plan  of  closing  the  slits  in  the  grate  by  an  iron  plate  resting 
on  the  grate,  which  cuts  off  the  draught,  but  allows  the  chamber  beneath  the  fire  to 
become  cold,  and  when  cinders  reach  the  plate  they  become  chilled,  cease  to  burn,  and 
the  fire  becomes  dead.  The  right  principle  is  acted  upon  by  the  various  grates  with 
fire-brick  bottoms,  and  the  English  public  owes  much  to  the  inventor  of  this  principle 
as  carried  out  in  the  Abbotsford  grates,  which  have  done  much  to  educate  the  British 
public  in  the  appreciation  of  the  fact  that  a  fire  will  burn  well  with  a  current  of  air 
passing  over  it,  and  not  through  it.  But  there  is  a  better  thing  than  the  solid  fire- 
brick bottom,  and  that  is  a  chamber  underneath  the  grating,  shut  in  from  the  outer 
air  by  a  shield  resting  on  the  hearth  and  rising  to  the  level  of  the  bottom  bar  of  the 
range.  This  hot-air  chamber,  into  which  fine  ash  can  fall,  produces  on  the  whole 
a  brighter  and  cleaner  fire,  and  one  which  is  more  readily  revived  wlien  low,  than  the 
solid  fire-brick.  There  is  another  mighty  advantage  in  the  principle  of  the  "  economiser  " 
— an  unspeakable  advantage,  it  is  applicable  to  almost  every  existing  fireplace,  and  it 
need  not  cost  more  than  3-4s.  This  idea  has  now  been  long  on  its  trial.  It  lias  been 
applied  in  hundreds  of  houses.  It  has  been  submitted  to  the  very  severe  test  of  being 
applied  to  an  infinite  variety  of  grates,  under  a  great  variety  of  circumstances,  and  tried 
with  coke,  anthracite,  and  coal,  good,  bad,  and  indifferent.  The  effect  has  been,  in  an 
enormous  mimber  of  instances,  a  marked  success  in  saving  coal  and  labour,  and  in 
more  comfortable  uniform  warmth  to  the  room.  The  failures  have  been  very  few 
indeed.  I  have  drawn  up  7  rules  for  the  construction  of  a  fireplace,  all  of  which  are 
pronounced  to  be  sound  : — 


Warming— Open  stove.  661 

1.  As  much  fire-brick,  and  as  little  iron  as  possible. 

2.  The  back  and  side's  of  the  fireplace  should  be  fire-brick. 

3.  The  back  of  the  fireplace  should  lean  or  arch  over  the  fire,  so  as  to  become  heated 
by  the  rising  flame. 

4.  The  bottom  of  the  fire  or  grating  should  be  deep  from  before  backwards,  probably 
not  less  than  9  in.  for  a  small  room  nor  more  than  11  in.  for  a  lar^e  room. 

5.  The  slits  in  the  grating  should  be  narrow,  perhaps  J  in.  wide,  for  a  sitting-room 
grate,  I  in.  for  a  kitchen  grate. 

6.  The  bars  in  front  should  be  narrow. 

7.  The  chamber  beneath  the  fire  should  be  closed  in  front  by  a  shield  or  oconomiser. 
"  Tliere  is  one  caution  which  should  be  given.    There  is  no  doubt  about  the  fact  that 

immediately  beneath  the  fire  the  hearthstone  is  hotter,  and  the  ashes  remain  much 
hotter  when  the  'economiser'  is  used.  Tbis  may  increase  the  risk  of  fire  whenever 
wooden  beams  lie  under  tlie  fireplace.  In  any  case  of  doubt,  the  best  plan  would  be  to 
take  up  the  hearthstone  and  examine,  and  relay  with  safe  materials ;  but  should  this  bo 
impossible,  safety  may  be  secured  by  covering  the  hearthstone  with  a  sufficient  tliick- 
ness  of  fire-brick,  just  within  the  space  enclosed  by  the  'economiser' — leaving  a  space 
of  2  or  more  in.  between  the  fire-brick  hearth  and  the  bottom  of  the  fire.  In  lighting 
the  fire,  if  there  be  no  cinders  on  which  to  build  the  fire,  it  is  well  to  draw  away  the 
'  economiser '  for  a  short  time  until  the  fire  has  got  hold ;  but,  if  there  be  cinders  left 
from  the  previous  day,  on  the  top  of  which  the  paper  and  wood  can  be  placed,  then  tho 
fire  may  be  lighted  with  the  '  economiser '  in  its  place.  There  is  a  great  art  in  mending 
a  fire.  It  is  wasteful  to  throw  lumps  of  coal  higgledy-piggledy  on  a  fire.  The  red 
embers  sliould  be  first  broken  up  so  as  to  make  a  level  surface,  then  pieces  of  coal  should 
be  laid  flat  on  the  fire  and  fitted  in  almost  like  pavement ;  lastly,  if  the  fire  is  intended 
to  burn  slowly  and  last  very  long,  small  coal  should  be  laid  on  the  top.  An '  economised ' 
fire  so  made  will,  in  a  short  time,  heat  the  coal  through,  and  give  off  gases,  which  will 
ignite  and  burn  brightly  on  the  surface  of  the  black  mass,  and  when  the  gases  are 
burnt  ofi"  there  is  a  large  surface  of  red-hot  coke." 

The  annexed  illustrations  show  the  application  of  the  economiser.  Fig.  1391  is  a 
kitchen  range,  a  being  the  economiser  and  b  the  front  damper.  The  latter  should 
always  be  used  in  warm  weather,  imless  the  front  of  the  fire  is  needed  for  roasting,  and 
should  be  put  on  at  night.  Fig.  1392  is  a  bedroom  fireplace  having  fire-brick  sides  a, 
fire-brick  back  b  leaning  over  the  fire,  narrow  front  bars  c  movable,  grating  d  with 
narrow  slits,  chamber  under  the  fire  closed  by  economiser  e,  and  front  damper  /  which 
can  close  the  lower  |  of  the  front  of  the  fire  at  night  or  when  a  slow  fire  is  needed. 

The  "  economiser"  is  a  shield  of  sheet  iron  which  stands  on  the  hearth,  and  rises  as 
high  as  the  lowest  bar  of  the  grate,  against  which  it  should  fit  accurately,  so  as  to  shut 
in  the  space  or  chamber  under  the  fije.  If  the  front  of  the  range  be  curved  or  angular, 
as  in  most  register  stoves,  the  economiser  will  stand,  owing  to  its  shape — but  if  the  front 
be  straight,  the  economiser  needs  supports  such  as  are  shown.  "  Ordinary  economisers  " 
are  made  of  16-gauge  charcoal  iron  plate,  with  |-in.  bright  steel  moulding  at  the  top, 
2-in.  moulding  at  the  bottom,  and  1  or  2  knobs  as  required.  "Kitchen  economisers" 
are  made  of  Ib'-gauge  iron,  with  J-in.  semicircle  iron  at  the  top  edge;  and  with  .supports 
in  scroll  form  of  J-in.  semicircle  iron.  Some  makers  use  rather  thinner  iron  plate  and 
give  strength  by  the  mouldings.  Some  have  used  too  thin  plates,  little  better  th;in  tin, 
which  have  warped  and  so  become  more  or  less  useless.  Great  care  should  be  spent  iu 
taking  the  dimensions— as  every  grate  has  to  be  measured— as  a  foot  for  a  boot.  This 
renders  it  almost  impossible  to  send  orders  to  a  maker  by  post.  Some  skilled  person 
must  take  the  measure,  and  take  it  accurately.  The  dimensions  to  be  taken  are; 
firstly,  the  outline  of  the  bottom  bar  of  the  grate.  If  it  he  curved,  or  angular,  the 
outline  can  be  well  taken  by  a  piece  of  leaden  gas-pipe,  which,  moulded  to  the  outline, 
can  then  be  traced  upon  paper  or  carried  carefully  away  to  tlie  makers ;  secondly,  the 


662 


Warming — Open  stove. 


height  must  be  measured  from  the  hearthstone  to  the  bottom  bar.     This  is  the  "  econo- 
miser  "  in  its  simplest  and  cheapest  form,  as  applicable  to  nearly  every  ordinary  range. 

Ornament  can  be  added  to  taste.  It  is  obvious  that  the  adaptation  of  the  econo- 
miser  need  not  displace  the  old-fashioned  ash-pan,  aad  that  the  2  can  be  combined,  or 
that  the  economiser  may  be  made  like  a  drawer  and  catch  the  aslies.     All  such  varia- 


1391. 


1392. 


',--  /  A 


illZiMml^^iOI 


mM3^mmt 


I  '^...lluu J 


tions  will  work  well  provided  that  the  main  principles  be  adhered  to  of  cutting  off  the 
under  current,"  and  "  keeping  the  chamber  under  the  fire  hot."  But  the  simplest  form 
is  the  best. 

Fig.  1393  illustrates  a  lew  typical  specimens  of  modem  improved  open  grates  devised 


Warming — Close  stove ;  Hot  air. 


6G3 


1394. 


to  increase  the  radiation  of  lieat  and  perfect  the  combustion  of  the  fuel :  A  is  a  combina- 
tion of  Parson's  grate  and  economiscr  with  a  Milucr  buclv ;  B  is  Nt.lson  aiid  Sons'  "  riUe  " 
back ;  C  is  a  Galton  back ;  D,  Jailrey's  grate. 

Close  Stove. — "Where  a  continual  genial  -warnith  is  required  at  little  cost  in  an  apart- 
ment, the  slow  combustion  stove,  such  as  that  niade  by  the  Thames  Bank  Iron  Company 
(Fig.  1394),  may  be  employed.  The  external 
air  is  drawn  in  by  a  smoke-pipe  channel  and 
impelled  through  orifices  in  the  stove.  The 
smoke  can  be  made  to  pass  out  at  any  level 
in  the  stove  that  may  be  found  most  con- 
venient, but  unless  there  is  a  high  chimney 
shaft  an  underground  fl.ue  connection  is  not 
recommended.  The  fuel,  consisting  of  coke 
or  cinders  broken  small,  is  supplied  at  the 
top,  the  ashes  or  cinders  being  removed 
through  a  sliding  door  at  the  base ;  a  special 
soot-door  is  provided  for  clearing  the  ilue 
before  lighting  the  fire. 

Eoberts'  patent  terracotta  stoves  operate 
also  by  slow  combustion  and  are  self-acting, 
but  possess  the  additional  advantage  of  puri- 
fying and  radiating  the  heat  by  the  terra- 
cotta, which  is  contained  between  2  concentric  cylinders  of  sheet  iron  united  at  the  base 
and  top,  the  outer  cylinder  being  perforated  to  allow  of  direct  radiation  of  heat  from  the 
terracotta.  The  stove  consists  of  4  separate  parts,  namely,  the  stove  body,  its  top  or 
cover,  the  fire-box,  which  can  be  lifted  in  and  out,  and  the  stand,  with  drawer  and 
damper.  The  fire  is  lighted  at  the  top  and  burns  downwards,  the  air  sustaining  it  being 
drawn  upwards  through  the  bottom  of  the  fire-box  and  thence  through  the  fuel.  The 
stove  can  be  placed  in  any  position  on  an  iron  or  stone  base  and  connected  with  tho 
nearest  chimney  flue  by  an  iron  pipe  provided  with  soot-door  elbows,  care  being  taken  to 
form  a  complete  connection  by  abandoning  any  other  open  fire-grate  in  the  room  and 
screening  it  off  by  an  iron  or  zinc  plate.  They  admit  no  effluvium,  as  tho  terracotta 
gradually  and  completely  absorbs  all  tho  caloric  in  its  permeation  through  the  .shell 
before  it  is  communicated  to  the  outer  air,  which  is  thus  warmed  and  diffused  in  a 
healthy  condition  over  the  room.  The  top  of  the  stove  is  movable,  so  that  the  fire-box 
can  be  removed  to  be  cleaned  and  recharged  without  moving  the  stove  body,  and  a  sand 
groove'is  inserted  at  the  top  where  the  cover  rests,  which  is  filled  with  fine  dry  sand  to 
prevent  any  escape  of  smoke. 

Hot-air  Furnace.— Tho  close  stove  is  really  a  hot-air  furnace,  but  it  is  restricted  to 
heating  the  air  in  the  room.  Other  apparatus  are  designed  to  obtuiu  a  supply  of  fresh 
air  and  heat  it  before  passing  it  into  the  room.  The  heated  air  from  a  fireplace  is 
available  to  the  apartment  for  only  about  12  per  cent,  of  the  total  amount  of  heat, 
produced  ;  all  the  rest  passes  up  the  chimney.  The  close  stove,  on  tho  contrary, 
utilizes  85-90  per  cent,  of  the  heat  produced,  and  loses  through  the  smoke-pipe  onlj 
about  as  much  as  the  open  fireplace  saves— 10-15  per  cent.  And  herein  lies  the 
striking  difference  between  the  relative  healthiness  of  the  atmosphere  heated  by  a  close 
stove  and  an  open  fireplace.  The  amount  of  air  which  hourly  passes  through  a  close 
stove,  heated  with  a  brisk  fire,  is,  on  an  average,  equal  to  only  about  -^'.^  tho  capacity  cf 
the  room  warmed,  and  consequently  such  stove  requires,  if  unaided,  10  hours  to  effect  a 
change  of  the  atmosphere  in  every  such  apartment.  Thus  stagnant  and  heated,  the  air 
becomes  filled  with  the  impurities  of  respiration  and  cutaneous  trausi)iratioii. 

Moisture,  too,  is  an  important  consideration.  The  atmosphere,  whether  within 
doors  or  without,  can  only  contain  a  coitain  proportion  of  moisture  to  each  cub.  ft.,  and 


664  Warming — Hot  air. 

uo  more,  according  to  temperature.  At  80°  F.  it  is  capable  of  containing  5  times  as 
much  as  at  32°  F.  Hence,  an  atmosphere  at  32°  F.,  with  its  requisite  supply  of  moisture, 
introduced  into  a  confined  space  and  heated  up  to  80°  F.,  has  its  capacity  for  moisture 
so  increased  as  to  dry  and  wither  everything  with  which  it  comes  in  contact;  furniture 
cracks  and  warps,  seams  open  in  the  moulding,  wainscoting,  and  doors ;  plants  die  ; 
ophthalmia,  catarrh,  and  bronchitis  are  common  family  complaints,  and  consumption  is 
not  infrequent.  But  this  condition  of  house  air  is  not  peculiar  to  stove-heat.  It  is 
equally  true  of  any  overheated  and  confined  atmosphere.  The  chief  difierence  is,  that 
warming  the  air  by  means  of  a  close  stove  is  more  quickly  accomplished  and  more 
easily  kept  up  than  by  any  other  means.  Sometimes,  by  the  scorching  of  dust  afloat  in 
the  atmosphere,  an  unpleasant  odour  is  evolved  which  is  erroneously  supposed  to  be  a 
special,  indication  of  impurity,  caused  by  the  burning  air.  It  is  an  indication  O'f 
excessive  heat  of  the  stove.  But  the  air  cannot  be  said  to  burn  in  any  true  sense  of  the 
word,  for  it  continues  to  possess  its  duo  proportion  of  elementary  constituents.  Such  is 
the  close  stove  and  its  dangers,  under  the  most  unfavourable  circumstances. 

The  essentials  for  healthy  stove-heat  are  a  brick-lined  fire-chamber,  exhaust-flue  for 
foul  air,  means  for  supplying  moisture,  and  provision  for  fresh-air  supply.  A  brick 
lining  is  requisite  for  the  double  purpose  of  preventing  overheating,  and  for  retaining 
heat  in  the  stove.  For  the  supply  of  moisture  the  means  are  simple  and  easy  of  control, 
but  often  inadequate.  An  efScient  foul-air  shaft  may  be  fitted  to  the  commonest  of 
close  stoves  by  simply  enclosing  the  smoke-pipe  in  a  jacket — that  is,  in  a  pipe  of  2  or  3  in. 
greater  diameter.  This  should  be  braced  round  the  smoke-pipe,  and  left  open  at  the 
end  next  the  stove.  At  its  entry  into  the  chimney,  or  in  its  passage  through  the  roof  of  a 
car,  as  the  case  may  be,  a  perforated  collar  should  separate  it  from  the  smoke-pipe.  For 
stoves  with  a  short  horizontal  smoke-pipe,  passing  through  a  fire-board,  the  latter  should 
always  be  raised  about  3  in.  from  the  floor.  A  smoke-pipe  thus  jacketed,  or  fire-board 
80  raised  at  the  bottom,  affords  ample  provision  for  the  escape  of  foul  air. 

Hot-air  furnaces  are  simply  enclosed  stoves  placed  outside  the  apartments  to  be 
warmed,  and  usually  in  cellars  or  basements  of  the  buildings  in  which  they  are  used. 
The  manner  of  warming  is  virtually  the  same  as  by  indirect  steam  heat — by  the  passage 
of  air  over  the  surface  of  the  heated  furnace  or  steam-heated  pipes,  as  the  case  may  be, 
through  flues  or  pipes  provided  with  registers.  The  most  essential  condition  of 
satisfactory  warming  by  a  hot-air  furnace  is  a  good  chimney-draught,  which  should 
always  be  stronger  than  that  of  the  hot-air  pipes  through  which  the  warmed  air  is 
conveyed  into  the  rooms,  and  this  can  be  measured  by  the  force  with  which  it  passes 
through  the  registers.  A  chimney-draught  thus  regulated  effectively  removes  all 
emanations ;  for,  if  the  chimney-draught  exceeds  that  of  the  hot-air  pipes,  all  the 
gaseous  emanations  from  the  inside  of  the  furnace,  and  if  it  have  crevices,  or  is  of  cast 
iron  and  overheated,  all  around  it  on  the  outside  will  be  drawn  into  the  chimney. 
Closely  connected  with  this  requirement  for  the  chimney-draught  is  the  regulating 
apparatus  for  governing  the  combustion  of  fuel — the  draught  of  the  furnace.  This 
should  all  be  below  the  grate;  there  should  be  no  dampers  in  the  smoke-pipe  or 
chimney,  and  all  joints  below  and  about  the  grate  should  be  air-tight.  The  fire-pot 
should  be  lined  with  brick  and  entirely  within  the  surface,  but  separate  from  it,  so  that 
the  fre.ih  air  to  be  warmed  cannot  come  in  contact  with  the  fuel-chamber. 

It  should  go  without  saying  that  the  air  which  passes  from  furnaces  into  living-rooms 
should  always  be  taken  from  out  of  doors,  and  be  conveyed  in  perfectly  clean  air-tight 
shafts  to  and  around  the  base  of  the  furnace.  Preferably,  the  inlet  of  the  shaft,  or  cold- 
air  box,  should  be  carried  down  and  curved  at  a  level  (of  its  upper  surface)  with  the 
bottom,  and  full  width  of  the  furnace.  Thus  applied,  the  air  is  equally  distributed  for 
warming  and  ascent  through  the  hot-air  pipes  to  tlie  apartments  to  be  warmed.  On  the 
outside  the  cold-air  shaft  should  be  turned  up  several  feet  from  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  its  mouth  protected  from  dust  by  an  air-strainer.     A  simple  but  efiectual  way  is  to 


Wakming — Hot  Water. 


fiCS 


1395. 


cover  the  mouth  with  wire  cloth,  and  over  this  to  lay  a  piece  of  Iwse  cotton  waddinp. 
This  may  bo  kept  in  place  with  a  weight  made  of  a  few  crossings  of  heavy  wire,  an<l  it 
should  be  changed  every  few  months.  And  here,  too,  outside  the  house,  hhould  bo 
placed  the  diaphragm  for  regulating  the  amount  of  cold-air  supply,  and  not,  as  commonly, 
in  the  cellar. 

As  the  best  means  of  regulating  the  temperature  and  purity  of  the  atmosphoro  from 
hot-air  furnaces,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  sufficiently  large  channels  for  both  the  inlet 
fresh  air  and  its  distribution  through  the  hot-air  pipes.  The  area  of  the  smallest  part 
of  the  iulet  (or  iidets,  for  it  is  sometimes  better  to  have  more  than  one)  should  be  about 
A  sq.  ft.  for  every  lb  of  coal  estimated  to  bo  burnt  hourly  in  cold  weather;  and  to 
prevent,  in  a  measure,  the  inconvenience  of  one  hot-air  pipe  drawing  from  another,  tho 
collective  area  of  the  hot-air  pipes  should  not  be  more  than  -^  greater  than  tlie  area  of  the 
cold-air  inlet.  These  proportions  will  admit  the  hot  air  at  a  temperature  of  about  120°  F. 
when  at  zero  outside,  and  the  velocity  through  the  register  will  not  exceed  5  ft.  per  second . 

A  large  heating  surface  of  the  furnace  is  a  well-reoognized  condition  of  both  economy 
and  efficiency.  As  a  rule,  there  should  be  10  sq.  ft.  of  heating  surface  to  every  lb.  of 
coal  consumed  per  hour,  when  in  active  combustion ;  and  the  grate  area  should  be  about 
JL_  of  that  of  the  heating  surface.  For  the  deficiency  of  heat,  or  the  failure  of  some  of 
the  hot-air  pipes  of  hot-air  furnaces  in  certain  winds  and  weathers  in  large  houses  or 
specially  exposed  rooms,  the  best  addendum  is  an  open  fire-grate.  With  this  provibinn 
in  northerly  rooms,  to  be  used  occasionally,  hot-air  furnaces  may  be  made  to  produce  all 
the  advantages  of  steam  heat  in  even  the  largest  dwelling-houses. 

Boyle's  system  of  warming  fresh  air  is  suitable  where  hot  air,  water,  or  steam  pipes 
are  not  available.  The  arrangement  (Fig.  139o)  consists  of  a  copper  or  iron  pipe  a  about 
li  in.  diam.  placed  in  an  inlet  tube  h,  pre- 
ferably of  the  form  of  a  bracket.  This  pipe 
is  not  vertical,  as  in  the  so-called  Tobin's 
shafts,  but  of  zigzag  shape,  crossing  and 
recrotsing  the  tube  from  top  to  bottom,  and  so 
causing  the  incoming  air  to  repeatedly  impinge 
in  its  passage  through  the  tube.  At  tho 
bottom  of  the  tube  an  air-tight  chamber,  so 
far  as  the  interior  of  the  tube  is  concerned,  is 
fixed,  in  which  a  Bunsen  gas-burner  c  is  placed 
the  flame  of  which  plays  up  into  one  of  the 
lower  ends  of  the  pijie,  the  upj  er  port. on 
being  about  5  ft.  9  in.  from  the  floor.  The 
other  lower  end  of  the  pipe  either  dips  into  a 
condensation  box  d  in  the  bottom  of  the  tube 
or  is  continued  into  an  existing  flue  or  ex- 
traction shaft.  If  the  pipe  terminates  in  a 
box,  the  vapour  is  condensed  there  and 
carried  off  through  the  outside  wall  by  means 
of  a  small  pipe.  At  tlie  bottom  of  the  box 
is  placed  some  loose  charcoal,  which  needs 
renewing  at  intervals.  This  charcoal  absorbs 
any  products  of  combustion  which  have  a  tendency  to  rise.  The  heat  thus  passes 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  pipe,  and  warms  the  air  as  it  travels  through  the  tubo 
to  the  room  or  hall  as  required. 

Fig.  139G  illustrates  Shortland's  "  ]\Ianchester  warm-air  grate  back  "  :  a,  fireplace  ; 
b,  outCT  wall ;  c,  inner  wall ;  d,  smoke  flue  ;  ef,  cold-air  inlets  ;  gh.  warm-air  passages; 
i,  inlet  fir  cold  or  warm  air  into  ronm. 

Hot  Water.— This  is  oitcn  used  for  heating  greenhouses,  churches,  schoolrooms,  &C. 


666 


Waeming — Hot  water ;  Steam. 


]39r,. 


The  following  simple  plan  is  adapted  for  a  greenhouse.  If  the  kitchen  boiler  is  one  that 
is  fed  from  a  cistern  at  the  side  of  the  fireplace,  it  may  be  utilized  by  connecting  it  by 
means  of  f-in.  or  1-in.  iron  or  lead  pipe  with  the 
cast-iron  (2-in.  or  3-in.)  pipes  in  the  greenhouse. 
If  iron  connecting-pipes  arc  used,  they  could  be 
screwed  into  the  boiler  with  a  nut  on  each  outsiilc 
to  keep  them  watertight,  by  means  of  a  grummet 
and  red-lead  paint.  One  should  go  into  the  boiler 
at  the  top  and  be  connected  with  the  top  line  of 
pipes,  called  the  flow,  and  the  other  should  go  in  at 
the  bottom  and  be  connected  with  the  bottom  line 
of  pipes,  called  the  return.  If  lead  pipes  are  used 
they  could  be  connected  with  the  boiler  and  green- 
house-pipes by  means  of  brass  unions,  to  be  pur- 
chased at  any  jjlumber's.  The  pipes  should  rise 
from  the  boiler  to  the  farthest  end  about  1  in.  to  the 
yard,  and  in  the  bend  at  that  point  should  be 
screwed  a  -?-in.  gas-tap,  and  from  it  a  small  lead  pipe 
should  be  carried  up  to  the  roof  inside.  This  tap 
should  always  be  open,  to  allow  any  steam  to  escape. 
If  the  kitchen  boiler  is  supplied  from  the  top  of  the 
house,  it  is  more  satisfactory  to  j^ut  up  a  small  gas- 
boiler,  as  the  pressure  of  the  water  would  try  the 
joints  and  prevent  the  vent-tap  being  kept  open. 
The  kitchen  fire  would,  of  course,  be  required  to  be 
kept  in  all  night  in  frosty  weather,  and  there  should 
be  taps  on  the  connections  between  boiler  and  pipes, 
to  shut  off  the  heat  when  not  required. 

Steam  Heat. — Steam  heat  may  well  be  compared 
with  stove  and  furnace  heat.  Stove  heat  corresponds 
to  direct  radiation  by  steam,  and  furnace  heat  to 
indirect.  The  supply  of  fresh  air  from  the  outside 
to  and  over  the  hot-air  furnace,  and  through  hot-air 
flues  into  the  rooms  through  registers,  is  virtually 
the  same  as  when  it  is  conveyed  by  means  of  steam- 
heated  flues  in  the  walls.  Exhaust  flues,  for  getting 
rid  of  foul  air,  are  equally  essential.  The  stove,  as 
representing  direct  radiation  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  steam  coil,  or  plate,  in  the  room,  has  the 
advantage  over  the  latter  of  some  exhaust  of  foul 
air,  however  little,  even  when  the  smoke-pipe  is  not 
jacketed,  for  the  steam  heat  has  none.  In  com- 
parison with  open-stove  heat,  steam  heat  is  at  still 
greater  disadvantage ;  for  open  stoves  supply  all  the 
qualities  of  complete  radiation— the  introduction  of 
fresh  air  and  the  escape  of  foul — to  a  degree  wholly 
unattainable  by  steam  heat,  whether  direct  or 
indirect,  or  by  hot-air  furnaces,  which  always  require 
special  provision  for  the  escape  of  foul  air. 

The  advantage  of  stove  and  furnace  heat  over 
steam  may  be  simimed  up  thus : — It  is  more  economical,  more  uniform,  more  easy  of 
management,  more  suitable  for  small  areas  to  be  warmed,  and  is  free  from  the  noises 
and  dangers  of  steam.     Irregularities  of  the  fire  iu  steam  heating  are  a  constant  source 


Foundations— Eock,  Gravel,  Sand,  Clay.  CG7 

of  inconvenience,  and  sometimes  of  danger.  The  going  down  of  <he  fire  during  the 
night-time,  or  its  neglect  for  a  few  hours  at  any  time,  is  followed  by  condon.-^ation  of 
the  steam.  On  the  addition  of  fuel  and  increase  of  heat,  steam  again  flows  (juickly 
into  the  pipes  where  a  partial  vacuum  has  formed,  and  here,  ou  coming  in  contact 
with  the  condensed  water,  it  drives  the  water  violently,  and  creates  such  shocks  as 
sometimes  occasion  explusions;  or,  at  least,  produces  very  disagreeable  noises  and 
general  uneasiness,  and  frequently  causes  cracks  and  leaks.  Hence  direct  steam 
heat,  which  for  warming  purposes  alone  is  altogetlier  superior  to  indirect,  has  been 
well-nigh  abandoned.  Indirect  steam  heat  plades  the  leaks  out  of  sight,  but  they 
commonly  lead  to  mischief,  and  require  special  and  expensive  provision  for  access  and 
repair. 

FOUNDATIONS.— The  foundation  of  a  building  is  the  horizontal  platform,  either 
natural  or  artificial,  prepared  for  carrying  the  walls  and  superstructure.  It  must  not  be 
confounded  with  "  lootings,"  which  are  the  bases  of  walls  made  broader  to  distribute  the 
weight  more  equally  over  the  fountlation ;  nor  with  piers,  although  it  is  not  always  easy 
to  define  where  a  foundation  ends  and  where  a  pier  begins  :  in  general,  all  those  parts 
of  a  structure  which  are  sunk  in  the  natural  soil,  the  conditions  of  which  are  therefore 
different  from  those  parts  above  ground,  are  foundations.  There  are  3  important  points 
which  should  be  considered  in  all  foundations: — (1)  That  the  weight  to  a  unit  of  area 
imposed  upon  it  should  not  be  more  than  it  and  the  subsoil  below  it  can  bear.  (2)  That 
it  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  homogeneous  and  equally  strong  throughout. 
(3)  That  the  upper  surface  should  be  horizontal :  if  not  in  one,  then  in  several  planes. 

Itoch. — It  is  generally  supposed  that  rock  is  a  dangerous  subttratum  to  make  a 
foundation  platform  from ;  for  it  is  rarely  that  rock  is  found  so  homogeneous  as  to 
provide  a  large  horizontal  surface  without  artificial  filling  in ;  and  it  is  diilicult  to  make 
the  filling  in  as  hard  as  the  rock  itself,  which  it  should  be,  that  the  settlement,  if  any, 
may  be  uniform.  Also  in  many  cases  of  inclined  strata  there  is  the  danger  of  one  part 
of  the  strata  slipping  over  the  other  from  the  additional  pressure  of  the  building.  A 
foundation  in  rock  should  never  be  less  than  1  ft.  in  depth,  for  security  against  slipping 
and  detrusion. 

Gravel. — Many  consider  a  sound  thick  stratum  of  gravel  to  be  the  most  secure 
foundation  possible.  In  such  cases  it  is  only  necessary  to  sink  a  little  into  the  stratum, 
rather  more  than  into  rock,  and  to  take  care  that  the  area  of  foundation  is  proportional 
to  the  weight  per  square  unit  the  gravel  is  calculated  to  bear.  When  the  gravel  is  not 
sound,  besides  the  latter  precaution,  it  is  advisable  to  sink  deeper  and  fill  in  with  an 
artificial  foundation  of  concrete  or  large  stones  or  hard  durable  timber. 

Sand. — When  in  thick  strata,  and  not  liable  to  be  moved  by  water  or  other  disturbing 
cause,  sand  forms  a  very  good  foundation ;  it  is  desirable  to  sink  deeper  into  sand  than 
into  gravel,  and  to  fill  in  with  an  artificial  foundation  to  counteract  any  irregular  settle- 
ment of  the  sand.  When  exposed  to  the  action  of  water  or  any  other  moving  action, 
however  slight,  sand  is  a  dangerous  foundation  to  trust  to,  on  account  of  its  great 
mobility. 

Clay  appears  to  be  considered  an  uncertain  and  troublesome  substratum  for  a 
foundation,  ou  account  of  the  irregularity  of  its  strata,  and  its  action  on  being  disturbed  ; 
for  there  is  a  tide  in  the  land  as  well  as  in  the  sea.  In  consequence  of  clay's  plasticity 
and  its  retention  of  water,  it  is  liable  to  yield  unequally  to  the  pressure  of  a  building, 
and  to  move  irregularly  when  exposed  or  cut  into :  consequently,  care  mutt  be  taken 
both  to  spread  the  structure  over  a  large  area  of  foundation  and  to  load  the  foundation 
uniformly  in  the  course  of  the  construction.  A  bed  of  clay  tan  be  sometimes  made 
firmer  by  piling  or  by  making  holes  in  it  and  filling  them  with  stones  or  gravel :  the 
elasticity  of  clay  is  sometimes  so  great  that  piles  are  often  forced  up  again  by  the  action 
of  driving  the  neighbouring  piles. 

It  frequently  happens,  especially  in  the  alluvial  banks  of  rivers,  that  below  the  soft 


668        Foundations— Firm  ground,  Soft  ground,  Concrete. 

ground  of  the  immediate  surface  lies  a  hard  straium,  and  when  the  thickness  of  the  soft 
superstratum  is  not  great  (30  it.  may  be  considered  a  maximum  for  ordinary  cases),  a 
secure  foundation  may  be  obtained  by  carrying  piles  or  piers  down  to  tiie  liard  ground 
below,  and  supporting  a  horizontal  platform  on  their  tops.  These  may  be  wooden  or 
iron  piles  driven  till  they  enter  tlio  hard  bottom ;  or  piers  formed  by  sinking  well- 
holes  through  the  soft  ground  and  filling  them  up  with  masonry,  loose  stones,  or  even 
sand,  though  this  last  should  only  be  used  when  the  superstratum  is  sufficiently  firm  to 
resist  the  lateral  pressure  of  tiie  sand.  The  tops  of  these,  if  piles,  may  be  connected  by 
beams  and  planks  forming  a  horizontal  platform;  or  if  piers,  by  arches  filled  in  at  the 
spandrils  to  a  horizontal  surface.  These  piles  or  piers  must  be  cousidered  as  columns 
fixed  at  the  bottom  and  calculated  accordingly,  without  trusting  to  the  lateral  support 
of  the  intermediate  strata. 

Firm  Ground  overlying  Soft  Ground. — In  some  cases  of  alluvial  foundations,  a  com- 
paratively firm  stratum  of  gravel  or  clay  is  found  at  the  surface  or  near  it,  the  substrata 
below  that  being  much  softer.  In  such  cases,  if  the  weight  of  tlie  structure  is  not  very 
great,  it  is  frequently  desirable  to  leave  the  hard  crust  unbroken;  but  then  the  area  of 
foundation  should  be  enlarged,  beyond  what  would  be  used  for  the  sjjme  stratum,  if  of 
considerable  thickness;  and  special  care  should  be  taken  to  distribute  the  pressure 
equally.  Also  in  these  cases  the  hard  crust  should  be  cut  into  as  little  as  possible  for 
any  purpose ;  if  it  is  clay,  there  is  danger  of  it  yielding  by  exposure  to  air  and  wet ; 
if  the  substratum  is  sand,  there  is  danger  of  its  being  moved  by  the  action  caused  by 
drainage  or  any  operations  of  that  kind,  consequent  on  the  building. 

Soft  Ground  of  Indefinite  Thiclmets. — When  the  soft  superstratum  is  of  indefinite  or 
very  great  thickness, and  not  hard  enough  to  "float"  the  building  upon  it,  by  extending 
tlie  area  of  the  foundation,  it  must  be  supported  upon  piles  or  piers,  carried  sufficiently 
deep  that  the  friction  on  their  sides  will  be  enough  to  carry  the  weight.  In  the  case  of 
piling,  they  should  be  closer  together  than  in  the  former  case,  and  the  heads  of  the 
piles,  besides  being  connected  together  with  timber  framework,  fchould  be  surrounded 
with  a  mass  of  masonry  or  concrete,  to  distribute  the  weight  and  add  to  the  resistance. 
If  piers  are  employed  they  may  be  of  masonry,  sunk  in  the  manner  that  wells  are  formed, 
and  which  are  used  as  foundations  by  the  natives  in  India,  or  they  may  be  hollow 
cylinders  of  iron. 

When  the  ground  is  exceedingly  soft,  there  is  considerable  danger  of  the  pressure 
on  the  part  underneath  the  building  causing  the  part  surrounding  it  to  rise  above  its 
original  level ;  to  counteract  this,  as  far  as  possible,  the  piling  or  piers  should  be 
extended  beyond  the  area  of  the  foundation,  and  the  ground  in  the  immediate  neigh- 
bourhood should  be  consolidated  or  weighted  with  stones  or  concrete,  and  as  few  excava- 
tions as  possible  should  be  made  in  the  natural  soil.  It  is  also  necessary  in  these  cases 
to  equalize  the  pressure  all  over  the  area  of  the  foundation,  because  there  is  sure  to  be 
a  settlement,  however  small,  and  the  smallest  irregular  settlement  will  cause  a  break  in 
the  structure.  Equalization  of  the  pressure  on  the  foundation  will  not,  however,  prevent 
an  absolute  settlement,  nor  a  rising  in  the  neighbouring  ground,  which  latter  can  only 
be  counteracted  by  piling  and  counterbalancing  the  pressure  by  weighting  the  sur- 
rounding parts. 

Concrete. — The  nature  of  concrete  that  should  be  used  for  a  foundation  depends  on 
the  nature  of  the  soil  it  is  to  Le  laid  in  :  the  object  in  all  cases  being  to  get  as  nearly  as 
possible  a  homogeneous  bed  under  the  structure.  If  the  £oil  is  dry,  a  concrete  of  sand, 
gravel,  and  as  much  ordinary  lime  as  is  necessary  to  produce  a  coherence  of  it  altogether 
is  sufficient ;  as  it  is  little  more  than  a  bed  of  coherent  gravel ;  but  then  it  must  be 
spread  over  such  an  area  that  it  might  be  sloped  at  an  angle  of  45°  from  the  outside  of 
the  footings  of  the  walls,  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  foundation  ;  and  of  such  a  thickness 
that  it  will  not  be  liable  to  crack  under  the  pressure.  For  ordinary  buildings  probably 
2-3  ft.  is  sufiicient.     If  the  soil  is  wet,  or  the  building  is  of  great  weight  or  special 


Foundations — Fascines,  Piling,  Footings.  GG9 

character,  the  concrete  should  bo  made  of  hydraulic  lime  and  sand  and  hrokon  .stones, 
in  about  the  same  proportions  as  would  bo  used  in  rubble  masonry  ;  that  is  to  ^ay,  tiio 
lime  should  be  about  i,  the  sand  about  f,  and  the  broken  stones  about  ♦.  These, 
however,  must  be  considered  only  as  avera^^e  proportions  for  medium  hydraulic  liino 
and  ordinary  wet  soils;  the  proportion  of  lime  must  be  varied  inversely  as  its  quality 
is  better  or  worse,  or  as  the  circumstances  are  more  or  less  important.  In  such  cases 
the  concrete,  if  properly  constituted  and  laid,  may  bo  considered  as  a  solid  coherent 
mass,  capable  of  bearing  without  crushing  the  weight  per  sq.  ft.  mentioned  in  recognized 
tables  as  the  crushing  resistance  of  ditVerent  kinds  of  concrete,  a  proper  coeflicicnt  of 
safety  being  used.  The  bed  of  concrete  must  also  be  tliick  enough  not  to  breiik  by 
transverse  strain,  but  so  as^to  settle  in  one  mass  if  the  subsoil  yields.  These  2  con- 
siderations will  determine  the  area  of  the  bed  for  the  foundation. 

With  moderate  hydraulic  limes  and  common  limes  there  will  be  an  expansion  of  tl;c 
mixed  concrete,  consequent  on  the  slaking  ;  in  some  cases  the  lime  increases  to  dcjuljlo 
its  original  bulk ;  this  may  be  almost  entirely  provided  for  by  allowing  time  for  the  lime 
to  be  thoroughly  slaked  before  laying  the  concrete  ;  in  some  cases,  however,  the  lime,  or 
parts  of  it  at  least,  will  take  so  long  to  slake,  that  the  process  is  completed  after  the 
concrete  is  laid,  and  it  is  therefore  generally  desirable  to  consider  this  expansion  in  pre- 
paring the  site  for  the  concrete. 

As  the  principal  object  in  laying  a  bed  of  concrete  is  to  form  a  solid  cohesive  mass 
when  it  hardens,  it  has  been  sometimes  recommended  that  it  should  be  thrown  in  from 
a  height  to  consolidate  it ;  this  practice,  however,  has  the  disadvantage  of  separating 
the  fiue  from  the  coarse  particles :  it  is  better  to  lay  the  concrete  from  barrows  or 
boxes  on  the  level  of  the  site,  and  to  consolidate  it  afterwards  by  ramming  ;  in  ordinary 
foundations,  to  effect  this  properly  and  to  allow  tlie  lime  to  set,  the  concrete  should  bo 
laid  in  strata  of  not  more  than  1  ft.  thick  each ;  it  is  very  desirable  to  bond  these  strata 
into  each  other  in  the  process  of  laying,  as  the  juiiit  between  2  days'  work  is  always  a 
weak  part  in  the  mass.  In  large  foundations,  or  with  strong  hydraulic  lime,  it  is  better 
to  make  the  strata  2-3  ft.  thick ;  on  that  account,  for  the  same  reason,  the  whole  of  one 
stratum  should  be  laid  as  quickly  as  possible. 

Fascines. — In  soft  marshy  ground  of  great  depth,  a  foundation  of  fascines  is  frequently 
employed  in  places  where  suitable  brushwood  is  plentiful,  in  Holland  for  instance ;  and 
in  such  places  it  is  highly  approved  of.  Its  recommendations  appear  to  be  that  when 
carefully  made  it  is  elastic,  durable,  and  uniform.  Authorities  differ  as  to  the  best  size 
of  fascine  for  foundations;  Paisley  recommends  6  in.  diam. ;  Lewis  used  them  12  in. 
diam.  successfully. 

Piling. — There  are  2  modes  in  which  piles  may  be  used  to  form  a  foundation  : — 
(1)  When  the  soil  is  soft  for  a  considerable  depth;  in  which  case  a  large  area  sliuuld 
be  covered  with  piles  connected  together  by  framework  at  the  top,  and  so  forniiug  one 
united  body,  which  would  resist  settlement  chiefly  by  the  friction  of  the  subsoil  against 
the  sides  of  the  piles.  (2)  When  there  is  a  stratum  of  hard  ground  below  the  soft ;  in 
which  case  the  piles  should  be  driven  into  the  hard  stratum  and  each  pile  would  act  as 
an  independent  column  bearing  a  certain  proportion  of  the  whole  weight,  and  resisting 
settlement  both  by  friction  and  by  its  own  transverse  strength.  But  this  does  not  come 
within  the  range  of  ordinary  house-building. 

Footings. — In  the  process  of  constructing  a  wall,  ihe  mason  or  bricklayer  first  lays 
the  "  footings  "  on  the  foundation  platform.  The  footing  is  an  enlarged  portion  of  the  wall 
fur  the  purpose  of  distributing  the  weight  over  the  foundation :  it  is  properly  a  portion 
of  the  wall  and  not  of  the  foundation,  althougli  it  is  not  always  easy  to  draw  the  line 
between  them.  When  the  pressures  pass  down  through  the  centre  of  the  wall,  the  footings 
may  project  equally  on  each  side ;  when  otherwise,  the  footings  should  be  so  arranged  that 
the  line  of  pressure  sliall  pass  nearly  through  the  centre  of  them  into  the  foundation. 
The  size  of  footings  and  the  mode  of  forming  the  increase  to  the  thickness  of  the  wall 


670 


Foundations — Footings.     Koads. 


must  depend  on  the  circumstances  and  the  material.  For  ordinary  buildings,  Tredgold 
recommends  that  the  extreme  breadth  of  the  footing,  when  the  subsoil  is  clay  or  sand,  be 
double  the  thickness  of  the  wall ;  if  on  gravel  or  chalk  subsoil,  that  its  breadth  be  to 
that  of  the  wall  as  3  to  2. 

Supposing  the  whole  pressure  per  lineal  foot  on  the  wall  to  be  equally  distributed 
over  the  breadth  of  footing  a  b,  Fig.  1397,  then  the  reaction  of  the  subsoil  on  the  part  b  c 
will    be    equivalent   to   that   proportion  of  the 

whole  pressure,  acting  upwards  and  tending  to  1397. 
break  the  projecting  part  b  c  about  the  section 
c  d,  which  section  must  be  strong  enough  to 
resist  that  transverse  strain;  in  brickwork  it  is 
usual  to  make  the  projection  of  a  footing  for 
light  buildings  5  of  a  brick  in  every  course,  and 
for  heavy  buildings  ^  of  a  brick  in  every  2 
courses.  In  stonework  the  proportional  pro- 
jection for  a   given  height  of  course   may  he  \ |  gf 

greater,    according  to   the    relative   transverse  \ 

length  of  the  stone.     The  footings  should  always    '         ^  ^         1 

be  made  of  large  stones  or  of  picked   bricks, 

laid  in  very  good  mortar,  and  well  bonded,  with  the  object  of  distributing  the  pressure 
as  uniformly  as  possible  over  the  foundations.  The  foundation  platform  should,  if 
feasible,  bo  in  one  horizontal  plane,  and  the  footings  should  be  equal  in  height 
throughout  the  main  walls  of  a  building,  in  order  to  avoid,  as  much  as  may  be, 
irregularity  of  settlement  from  unequal  heights  of  wall. 

The  "  damp  course,"  as  it  is  commonly  called,  is  a  course  of  some  impervious  material 
to  prevent  the  damp  rising  from  the  ground  through  the  masonry  into  the  body  of  the 
wall.  It  is  generally  placed  immediately  above  the  footings,  if  these  project  above 
ground ;  but  the  damp  course  should  be,  if  possible,  1  ft.  above  the  ground.  It  generally 
consists  of  2  or  3  courses  of  hard-burnt  bricks  laid  in  hydraulic  mortar.  A  highly-burnt 
glazed  hollow  brick  is  made  for  the  purpose,  the  perforations  being  horizontal,  so  that  a 
current  of  air  passes  through  the  wall  at  that  point.  Perforated  bricks  are  liable  to 
crack  imder  pressure. 

ROADS  AND  BRIDGES.— These  subjects  may  be  brought  together  under  a 
single  head  as  constituting  the  means  of  approach  to  a  building. 

Roads. — Ordinary  roads  may  be  divided  into  2  classes, — temporary  and  permanent. 
Attention  will  here  be  confined  to  the  former. 

The  first  idea  of  a  road  is  a  path  or  track  on  which  a  foot-passenger  can  travel.  In 
the  American  forests  the  trees  are  blazed  or  marked  to  show  the  direction.  On  the 
prairies  men  travel  by  compass  or  by  the  stars ;  or  by  watching  their  own  shadows,  or 
noting  the  direction  of  the  wind.  Successive  travellers  following  the  same  route  vnW 
tread  down  a  forest  path,  which  Ls  the  first  step  towards  road-making.  On  such  a  road, 
rivers  will  be  crossed  by  swimming  or  wading,  or  by  rafts ;  or  felled  trees  might  be  used 
on  very  narrow  streams ;  while  ranges  of  hills  would  be  passed  by  following  the  beds  of 
mountain  torrents.  The  employment  of  animals  necessitate.?  the  improvement  of  the 
roads.  The  footpaths  are  widened,  tlie  forest  is  cleared,  rude  bridges  of  logs  are  formed, 
or  rafts  made  of  wood,  of  empty  vessels,  or  of  inflated  skins. 

Suppose  it  is  required  to  make  a  temporary  road  from  one  settlement  to  another  in  a 
wild  unmapped  country.  If  a  traverse  were  run  by  compass  and  chain  between  the  2 
places,  and  plotted  on  paper,  the  magnetic  bearing  of  the  one  place  from  the  other  would 
be  ascertained,  and  a  straight  line  could  be  run  between  them  by  means  of  the  compass. 
If  2  flags  are  set  up  in  the  proper  direction  at  some  distance  apart,  then,  by  means  of  a 
tliird  flag  brought  into  line  with  the  2  former,  a  straight  line  could  be  run  for  many 
miles  with  a  very  slight  deviation  from  accuracy.     Where  a  compass  is  not  available,  a 


Roads.  671 

fire  lighted  at  one  place  may,  by  its  smoke,  enable  its  direction  to  bo  seen  from  tlio 
other. 

This  line  so  rnn,  and  marked  by  a  trench  cnt  in  the  ground,  will  often  be  a  practicable 
line  for  the  road  in  a  new  country ;  if  not,  it  will  at  any  rate  be  a  valuable  guiding  lino 
towards  which  all  deviations  caused  by  various  obstacles  should  return.  The  Hue  so 
marked  out  should  be  cleared  for  a  width  of  10,  20,  or  30  ft. ;  a  ditch  cut  on  either  side 
to  serve  as  a  drain,  and  the  earth  excavated  thrown  in  the  centre  of  the  road  to  assist 
the  rain-water  to  run  into  the  ditches.  Inequalities  of  surface  can  thou  be  levelled  iia 
far  as  possible.  Small  streams  may  be  crossed  by  temporary  bridges  if  wood  is  available ; 
if  not,  their  banks  must  be  cut  down,  if  necessary,  to  a  gentle  slope,  so  as  to  enable  carta 
to  pass  where  the  stream  is  dry  or  nearly  so,  and  such  slopes,  as  well  as  the  bottom  of 
the  stream,  may  be  paved,  if  material  is  available. 

The  following  is  a  description  of  a  temporary  road  of  this  kind  made  over  the  dry 
bed  of  the  Chenab  river  in  the  Punjab,  and  may  be  taken  as  a  general  example. 

The  total  length  for  the  roadway  across  the  Chenab  measures  10,600  running  ft.,  of 
which  1350  ft.  consist  of  a  metalled  road ;  3500  ft.  rest  on  firm  soil,  extending  from  tlie 
road  embankment  to  within  1000  ft.  of  the  south  side  of  river,  and  the  remaining  5800  ft. 
extend  across  entire  sand. 

The  roadway  consists  of  one  layer  of  grass  fascines,  each  fascine  being  24  ft.  long, 
6  in.  iu  diameter,  and  tightly  bound  with  grass,  packed  closely  together  and  covered 
■with  6  in.  of  clay.  On  the  surface  of  the  clay,  and  to  prevent  its  cutting  into  grooves,  a 
very  thin  layer  of  loose  grass  is  constantly  maintained.  An  inch  of  clay  is  first  laid 
down  on  the  sand,  all  hollows  are  filled  in  and  low  points  somewhat  raised,  that  the 
foundation  may  not  suffer  from  the  lodgment  of  water.  In  other  places  the  finished  road 
is  1  or  2  in.  above  the  sand. 

AVhatever  improvements  are  made  in  such  roads  should  be  directed  towards  the  most 
formidable  obstacles  at  first ;  this  is,  indeed,  self-evident,  the  strength  of  a  road,  as  of  a 
beam,  being  only  that  of  its  weakest  part ;  but  it  is  not  always  easy  to  determine  what 
are  the  most  formidable  obstacles,  nor  whether  it  will  be  more  economical  to  lay  out  a 
given  sum  in  raising  a  portion  of  embankment,  cutting  down  a  hill,  improving  the 
surface,  or  building  a  bridge,  but  much  of  course  -will  depend  on  the  peculiar  circum- 
stances of  each  case. 

Similarly  to  the  trellis  road  used  on  the  early  railways  in  the  United  States,  ordinary 
roads  of  a  temporary  character  are  sometimes  constructed  exclusively  of  timber,  and  are 
termed  plank  roads. 

The  method  most  generally  adopted  in  constructing  plank  roads  consists  in  laying  a 
flooring,  or  track,  8  ft.  wide,  composed  of  boards  9-12  in.  in  width,  and  3  in.  thick,  which 
rest  upon  2  parallel  rows  of  sleepers,  or  sills,  laid  lengthwise  in  the  road,  and  having 
their  centre  lines  about  i  ft.  apart,  or  2  ft.  from  the  axis  of  the  road.  Sills  of  various- 
sized  scantling  have  been  used,  but  experience  seems  in  favour  of  scantling  about  12  in. 
in  width,  4  in.  in  thickness,  and  in  lengths  of  not  less  than  15-20  ft.  Sills  of  these 
dimensions,  laid  flatwise,  and  firmly  imbedded,  present  a  firm  and  uniform  bearing  to 
the  boards,  and  distribute  the  pressure  they  receive  over  so  great  a  surface,  that,  if  the 
soil  upon  which  they  rest  is  compact  and  kept  well  drained,  there  can  be  but  little 
settling  and  displacement  of  the  road  surface,  from  the  usual  loads  passing  over  it.  The 
better  to  secure  this  uniform  distribution  of  the  pressuie,  the  sills  of  one  row  are  so  laid 
as  to  break  joints  with  the  other,  and  to  prevent  the  ends  of  the  sills  from  yielding,  the 
usual  precaution  is  taken  to  place  short  sills  at  the  joints,  either  beneath  the  main  sills 
or  on  the  same  level  with  them. 

The  boards  are  laid  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  road,  experience  having  shown 
that  this  position  is  more  favourable  to  their  wear  and  tear  than  any  other,  and  is  beside 
the  most  economical.  Their  ends  are  not  in  an  unbroken  line,  but  so  arranged  that  the 
ends  of  every  3  or  4  project  alternately,  on  each  side  of  the  axis  of  the  road,  3  or  4  m. 


672  KoADS — Pavements. 

beyond  those  next  to  them,  for  tne  purpose  of  presenting  a  bliort  shoulder  to  the  wheels 
of  vehicles,  to  facilitate  their  coming  upon  the  plank  surface,  when  from  any  cause  they 
may  have  turned  aside.  On  some  roads,  the  boards  have  been  spiked  to  the  sills,  but 
this  is  unnecessary,  the  stability  of  the  boards  being  best  secured  by  well  packing  the 
earth  between  and  around  the  sills,  so  as  to  present,  with  them,  a  uniform  bearing 
surface  to  the  boards,  and  by  adopting  the  usual  precautions  for  keeping  the  subsoil 
well  drained,  and  preventing  any  accumulation  of  rain-water  on  the  surface.  The 
boards  for  plunk  roads  should  be  selected  from  timber  free  from  the  usual  defects,  such 
as  knots  and  shakes,  which  would  render  it  unsuitable  for  ordinary  building  purposes, 
as  durability  is  an  essential  element  in  the  economy  of  this  class  of  structures.  Boards 
3  in.  thick  offer  all  the  requisites  of  strength  and  durability  that  can  be  obtained  from 
timber  in  its  ordinary  state,  in  which  it  is  used  for  plank  roads. 

Besides  the  wooden  track  cf  8  ft.,  an  earthen  track  of  12  ft.  in  width  is  made,  which 
serves  as  a  summer  road  for  light  vehicles,  and  as  a  turn-out  for  loaded  ones;  this,  with 
the  wooden  track,  gives  a  clear  road  surface  of  20  ft.,  the  least  that  can  be  well  allowed 
for  a  frequented  road.  It  is  recommended  to  lay  the  wooden  track  on  the  right-hand 
side  of  the  approach  of  a  road  to  a  town  or  village,  for  the  proper  convenience  of  the 
rural  tratfic,  as  the  heavy  trade  is  to  the  town.  The  surface  of  this  track  receives  a 
cross  slope  from  the  side  towards  the  axis  of  the  road  outwards  of  1  in  32.  The  surface 
of  the  summer  road  receives  a  cross  slope  in  the  opposite  direction  of  1  in  16.  These 
slopes  are  given  for  the  purpose  of  facilitating  a  rapid  surface  drainage.  The  side  drains 
are  placed  for  this  purpose  parallel  to  the  axis  of  the  road,  and  connected  with  the  road 
surface  in  a  suitable  slope. 

Where,  from  the  character  of  the  soil,  good  summer  roads  cannot  be  had,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  make  wooden  turn-outs,  from  space  to  space,  to  prevent  the  inconvenience 
and  delay  of  miry  roads.  This  can  be  effected  by  laying  at  these  points  a  wooden  track 
of  double  width  to  enable  vehicles  meeting,  to  pass  each  other.  It  is  recommended  to 
lay  these  turn-outs  on  4  or  5  sills,  to  spring  the  boards  slightly  at  the  centre,  and  spike 
their  ends  to  the  exterior  sills. 

The  angle  of  repose,  by  which  the  grade  of  plank  roads  should  be  regulated,  has  not 
yet  been  determined  by  experiment,  but  as  the  wooden  surface  is  covered  witli  a  layer  of 
clean  sand,  tine  gravel,  or  tan  bark,  before  it  is  thrown  open  to  vehicles,  and  as  it  in 
time  becomes  covered  with  a  permanent  stratum  of  dust,  it  is  probable  that  this  angle 
will  not  materially  differ  from  that  on  a  road  with  a  broken-stone  surface,  like  that  of 
M'Adam  or  of  Telford,  when  kept  in  a  thorough  state  of  repair. 

In  some  of  the  earlier  plank  roads  made  in  Canada,  a  width  of  16  ft.  was  given  to  the 
wooden  track,  the  boards  of  which  were  laid  upon  4  or  5  rows  of  sills.  But  experience 
soon  demonstrated  that  this  was  not  an  economical  plan,  as  it  was  found  that  vehicles 
kept  the  centre  of  the  wooden  surface,  which  was  soon  worn  into  a  beaten  track,  whilst 
the  remainder  was  only  slightly  impaired.  This  led  to  the  abandonment  of  the  wide 
track  for  the  one  now  usually  employed  which  answers  all  the  purposes  of  the  traffic, 
and  is  much  more  economical,  both  in  the  first  outlay  and  for  subsequent  renewals  and 
repairs.  The  plank  roads  possess  great  advantages  in  a  densely-wooded  country,  and 
will  be  found  superior  to  every  other  kind  as  a  temjjorary  expedient. 

Pavements. — -The  London  method  of  laying  pavements  is,  first,  to  carefully  grade 
the  ground,  sometimes  using  concrete  to  secure  a  firm  foundation,  where  the  soil  is  too 
soft;  generally,  sand  spread  over  the  level  ground  is  considered  good  enougli.  The 
curbing  is  made  of  roughly  "  pene-haramered  "  grey  granite,  12  in.  wide  on  the  top,  and 
6  in.  high.  Beside  this  run  tlie  gutters  draining  the  roadway.  The  flagging  is  gene- 
rally 3-41  in.  thick.  The  edges  are  all  squared,  not  being  just  pitched  under,  as  is  the 
practice  in  America.  The  edges  are  chi.^elled,  not  very  elaborately,  but  sufficiently  for 
the  purpose,  so  that  when  the  flagging  begins  to  wear  away,  imder  the  continuous 
traffic,  the  joints  will  continue  good  until  it  is  threadbare,  if  ever  it  is  allowed  to 


KoADS— Pavements.  G73 

remain  long  cnoilgli  to  get  into  that  condition.  A  liberal  allowance  of  mortar  13  thrown 
down  on  the  sand  in  which  to  bed  the  stones.  The  stones  are  placed  cluso  tojj;ether, 
the  inspector  of  sidewalks  generally  demanding  that  the  joints  shonld  not  be  nior^e  thiui 
}  in.  apart,  and  well  filled  with  binding  and  hardening  cement.  The  surfaces  of  tho 
flags  are  machine-dressed,  or  rubbed,  so  that  they  always  meet  evenly  at  the  joints. 
The  rough  stones  are  brought  to  the  streets  to  bo  paved  and  aro  stacked  in  piles.  Tho 
pavers  take  them,  preparing  tho  edges  witli  wonderful  rapidity.  They  have  a  good  way 
of  splitting  the  flags:  anything  under  (J  in.  thick  is  broken  in  tho  same  way  that 
American  marble-workers  use  to  break  up  their  slabs.  American  flaggors  can  break  a 
stone  very  quickly,  but  no  quicker  than  the  English  workmen,  who  also  do  it  more 
neatly,  and  with  less  waste  of  material.  A  line  is  drawn  on  tho  face  where  a  break 
is  required;  this  is  "strummed"  in  with  a  " pitching-tool "  or  "nicker";  tho  edges 
are  also  strummed  in.  Then  the  stone  is  smartly  struck  on  the  back  with  a  round- 
faced  hammer,  3  blows  generally  breaking  it  neatly  down  the  lino.  This  method  can 
be  used  by  American  flaggers,  as  it  is  successfully  done  with  North  River  bluestono 
and  with  all  kinds  of  sandstone  in  the  brownstone  cutters'  yards,  when  cutting  up  sawn 
slabs  for  ashlar.  Almost  any  kind  of  thin  stone  can  be  broken  in  this  way,  without  tho 
use  of  either  wedges  or  plugs. 

The  pavements  between  the  gutters  aro  generally  macadamized,  although,  as  with 
us,  stone  and  wooden  blocks  are  used  quite  extensively.  In  the  city  proper  most  of  the 
leading  thoroughfares  have  recently  been  laid  with  a  new  patented  preparation  of 
asphalt.  Asphalt-covered  roads  are  a  great  improvement.  The  noise  of  heavy  traffic 
is  greatly  diminished,  and  it  becomes  possible  for  pedestrians  to  hear  each  other  speak 
without  effort.  At  first  this  new  system  met  with  tho  unqualified  approval  of  owners 
and  drivers  of  horses ;  but  complaints  have  recently  been  made  that  the  least  drop  of 
rain  renders  the  road  so  slippery  that  it  is  as  bad  as  driving  on  ice,  and  tho  horses  con- 
tinually stumble  and  lame  themselves.  This  could  probably  be  obviated  by  sprinkling 
sand  over  the  asphalt.  It  will  require  very  strong  remonstrance  to  induce  the  autho- 
rities to  cease  using  the  new  material.  Its  two  great  qualities,  cleanliness  and  quietness 
under  heavy  traffic,  will  outweigh  a  host  of  minor  objections. 

Near  the  opera-house  at  Vienna  a  small  piece  of  the  road  is  laid  in  the  same  way  as 
that  just  mentioned.  It  is  the  best  piece  of  road  in  the  whole  city.  Asphalt  pavements 
for  interiors  are  also  much  used  in  Vienna.  The  finest  example  is  in  the  hall  of  tho 
Vieima  Museum  of  Art  and  Industry.  This  is  laid  in  diiferent  colours.  The  following 
is  a  translation  of  Suppantschitch's  instructions  for  laying  it.  (1)  Bring  j'our  caldron 
as  near  as  possible  to  the  place  where  you  intend  to  lay  your  floor,  in  order  that  you 
may  lay  it  down  as  hot  as  you  can  get  it.  (2)  Put  into  the  caldron  10-15  lb.  of  pitch  ; 
into  the  pitch  put  your  asphalt.  This  latter  must  be  placed  in  the  caldi-on  when  the 
pitch  is  red-hot.  (3)  The  asphalt  must  be  pounded  into  small  fragments  before  mixing 
with  the  pitch.  (4)  After  the  asphalt  has  been  in  the  pitch  1  or  1|  hour,  stir  it  up 
well  with  an  iron  bar,  broad  at  the  end,  until  the  asphalt  is  perfectly  dissolved.  Once 
this  is  done,  fill  tho  caldron  with  fine  sharp  sand ;  allow  this  sand  to  get  warm  fur 
h  hour  by  a  good  fire  before  mixing,  so  that  it  may  of  itself  combine  with  tho  asphalt. 

(5)  Next  stir  up  the  contents  of  the  caldron  at  short  intervals.  If  the  composition 
become  stiff  and  difficult  to  stir,  add  a  few  lb.  of  pitch,  using  judgment  as  to  how  much. 

(6)  In  laying  it  on  bridges,  thoroughfares,  or  viaducts,  it  is  advisable  to  use  more  pitch, 
as  the  composition  will  then  become  more  elastic.  Thuj.  asphalt  will  set  without 
cracking.  (7)  If,  in  stirring  it,  yellow  vapours  arise,  that  is  an  indication  that  tho 
composition  is  ready  for  use.  In  order  to  prove  the  fact,  make  the  following  trial :  dip 
a  chip  of  wood  into  the  composition,  and  observe  if  a  greasy  substance  adheres  to  it ;  if 
such  is  the  case,  boil  it  more,  until  you  are  able  to  take  tho  chip  of  wood  out  perfectly 
clean.  The  foreman  must  see  that  tho  ground  to  be  covered  is  well  swept,  and  clear  of 
mud,  damp  clay,  or  any  suck  substance.    He  then  lays  down  iron  rails,  3-4  ft.  apart. 

2  X 


67i 


Cement  Floors. 


Those  rails  serve  as  a  rest  for  the  float  used  to  make  a  level  suiface.  One  man  attends 
to  the  caldron,  another  carries  the  prepared  composition,  in  iron  or  wooden  pails,  to  the 
operator.  The  -workman  who  empties  the  caldron  must  not  neglect  to  stir  the  contents 
of  the  caldron  during  this  time,  as  the  sand,  being  heavier  than  the  pitch  or  asphalt,  is 
liable  to  sink  to  the  bottom,  causing  an  uneven  surface. 

In  order  to  produce  asphalt  in  colours  it  is  necessary  to  observe  the  following  rules : — 
(1)  A  foundation  of  concrete,  1-li  in.  thick.  (2)  Float  upon  this  a  covering  of  black 
asplialt,  4  in.  thick,  as  silicates  will  combine  easiest  with  this.  (3)  Put  down  thin 
wooden  strips  according  to  the  pattern  you  desire  to  produce.  These  rails  of  wood 
should  be  cemented  to  the  floor  with  hot  asphalt.  (4)  Then  commence  laying  out  the 
black  part  of  the  design.  This  should  always  be  done  first,  as  the  black  composition 
would  be  apt  to  soil  the  light  colours  if  not  laid  down  first.  (5)  In  order  to  make  the 
edges  straight  and  even,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  smooth  them  with  the  curling-  1398. 
iron,  Fig.  1398.  The  wooden  forms 
can  be  taken  away  when  the  com- 
position becomes  hard  enough  to 
stand  without  support.  (6)  Once  the 
design  is  all  laid,  commence  polishing 
it  with  a  piece  of  smooth  sandstone 
attached  to  a  handle,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
1399.  (Y)  Production  of  artificial 
black:  40  per  cent,  chalk,  40  fine 
soft  sand,  20  evaporated  coal-tar. 
(8)  White  silicate :  35  per  cent. 
chalk,  35  i^ure  white  sand  (silver 
sand),  22  pure  white  rosin,  8  tallow; 

first  put  the  rosin  into  the  caldron — it  must  be  well  melted ;  then  put  in  your  chalk  ; 
I  hour  afterwards  mix  in  the  sand ;  stir  well  and  add  the  tallow.  Asj^halt  in  colours 
(red,  blue,  yellow,  and  brown)  is  to  be  boiled  like  the  white  composition,  only  adding 
the  respective  mineral  colours. 

Cement  floors. — Portland  cement,  and  compositions  that  resemble  that  material,  are 
used  for  a  variety  of  purposes  in  Vienna ;  among  others,  for  making  artificial-stone  side- 
walks. A  dry  soil  is  to  be  preferred ;  but  if  it  should  be  moist,  marshy,  or  a  clayey 
soil,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  make  the  foundation  as  firm  as  possible.  This  will  be 
a  matter  in  which  the  workman  must  exercise  his  own  judgment  and  experience.  The 
first  layer  of  concrete  should  be  composed  of  1  part  cement  and  3  of  coarse  gravel.  This 
is  laid  ujion  the  soil  which  is  already  smoothed  and  graded.  The  thickness  of  this  layer 
will  vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  second  layer  should  be  mixed  in 
equal  parts,  2  of  cement  and  2  of  fine  sand.  Then  a  third  layer,  equal  parts  cement  and 
sand,  completes  the  work. 

The  workman  finishes  a  piece  about  3  ft.  wide,  from  the  wall  to  the  curb,  before  he 
attempts  to  touch  another  length.  The  first  layer  is  to  be  well  rammed  down  to  make 
it  compact ;  the  other  2  layers  are  to  be  floated  on  as  quickly  as  possible.  It  requires 
about  4  days  for  the  sidewalk  to  harden.  During  this  time  it  should  be  frequently 
sprinkled  with  water.  Spring  ox  autumn  is  the  best  season  in  which  to  lay  the  cement. 
Summer  is  too  dry,  and  winter  weather  is  too  severe.  A  sidewalk  thus  prepared  will 
last  about  15  years. 

The  curbing  is  also  made  of  cement.  This  is  generally  formed  in  a  mould.  The 
joints  are  made  to  fit  into  each  other  to  prevent  shifting  after  they  are  set.  The  body 
of  this  curb  is  composed  of  3|  parts  broken  stone  or  gravel  to  i  of  cement ;  it  is  coated 
with  a  surface  of  equal  parts  fine  sand  and  cement.  Steps  are  made  in  the  same  way. 
These  would  serve  for  door-steps  if  they  had  no  weight  to  carry.     The  makers  of  such 


Bridges. 


C75 


concrete-work  claim  that,  ■when  properly  hardened,  it  is  stronger  than  stone.  This  is 
doubtful. 

Bridges. — Obviously,  to  discuss  the  construction  of  bridges  of  largo  dimensions  is 
quite  beyond  the  scope  of  the  present  work. 

A  simple  form  of  timber  bridge  is  shown  in  Fig.  1400,  in  which  stout  beams  a  aro 
supported  on  posts  6,  duly  fixed  and  strutted,  with  a  flooring  c  carrying  posits  d  and  band- 
rails  e  braced  as  at  /.     When  the  stream  admits,  central  posts  may  be  dispensed  with, 

1400. 


and  the  beams  supported  only  at  the  ends.  The  arrangement  must  be  adapted  to  meet 
the  requirements  of  the  force  of  the  stream,  height  in  flood,  liability  to  change  of  course, 
silting  up  of  the  bed,  and  probability  of  ice,  fallen  trees,  &c.,  being  carried  down  against 
the  structure.     Usually  the  narrowest  point  on  a  stream  is  the  best  for  a  bridge. 

An  efficient  substitute  for  a  bridge,  often  used  in  India  on  watercourses  which 
contain  little  water  during  a  great  portion  of  the  year,  and  are  only  flooded  occasionally, 
consists  of  a  paved  causeway.  The  banks  are  cut  down  to  a  gcntlo  slope  on  each  side, 
and  a  pavement  or  solid  flooring  of  masonry  or  concrete  is  built  to  afi^ord  a  Arm  roadway 
for  vehicles,  at  such  a  level  that  the  water  does  not  enter  them.  One  across  the  nvcr 
Soane  is  a  mile  long  and  12  ft.  wide.  Boat  bridges  are  us.ful  under  some  condit.ous, 
and  are  constructed  by  laying  a  plank  platform  on  balks  of  timber  resting  on  the  banks 
of  the  stream  and  on  boats  lashed  together.  In  hilly  districts  foot  passengers  can  cro.s 
rivers  in  travelling  cradles  suspended  from  a  single  cable;  or  there  may  be  a  rope  Jor 


676  Banks,  Hedges,  Ditches,  Deains. 

the  feet  and  2  others  for  the  hands,  kept  in  position  by  triangular  sticks ;  or  2  foot-ropes 
may  be  laid  parallel  and  support  a  platform  of  bamboo.  In  India,  beams  weighted 
with  stones  are  made  to  gradually  project  from  each  side  till  they  meet  in  the  centre ; 
these  are  called  sangJioos. 

BANKS,  HEDGES,  DITCHES,  AND  DRAINS.— Every  house  possessed 
of  a  garden  or  standing  in  the  country  will  have  more  or  less  need  for  fences  to  exclude 
stray  animals,  and  the  means  of  carrying  off  surplus  water  during  storms. 

In  making  banks,  the  necessary  material  is  thrown  or  wheeled  into  position,  and 
piled  up  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  retain  the  position  given  to  it.  To  ensure  this  it  is 
essential  to  observe  a  correct  slojje.  Most  materials  will  lie  naturally  at  an  angle  not 
exceeding  40°  with  the  horizon,  while  20°  or  even  10°  will  suffice  if  the  surface  is 
covered  with  turf,  the  binding  together  of  the  earth  by  the  roots  of  the  grass  preventing 
the  scouring  effect  which  would  otherwise  be  exerted  by  every  shower  of  rain.  When 
such  materials  as  large  stones  are  available,  the  bank  may  assume  more  the  nature  of  a 
wall,  and  be  built  on  one  side  at  least  very  nearly  vertical.  The  same  object  may  bo 
attained  by  driving  2  or  3  rows  of  stakes  into  the  firm  ground  beneath,  and  ramming 
the  earth  tightly  around  them  ;  or  a  sort  of  hurdle  may  be  made  by  winding  brushwood 
among  the  stakes. 

Banks  are  seldom  used  alone  for  the  purpose  of  a  fence,  being  usually  supplemented 
by  a  hedge  planted  at  the  top.  This  is  generally  of  hawthorn,  from  its  impenetrable 
character,  though  many  other  shrubs  are  available  in  diflFerent  regions,  for  instance 
fuchsias  are  so  planted  in  Ireland.  The  hedge  serves  a  double  purpose  of  great  utility 
in  forming  a  serviceable  fence  and  presenting  an  obstacle  to  the  wind  and  a  shelter  for 
cattle.  On  the  other  hand  it  harbours  vermin.  In  connection  with  the  hedge  and  bank, 
a  ditch  is  needed.  This  increases  the  effectiveness  of  the  fence,  and  drains  the  roots 
of  the  hedge,  besides  being  a  ready  means  of  supplying  the  material  required  to  form 
the  bank.  As  the  hedge  and  ditch  occupy  a  considerable  space  of  land,  it  is  a  pity  that 
some  tree  or  shrub  affording  a  useful  product  cannot  be  more  generally  adopted. 

Drains,  not  to  be  confounded  with  sewer  pipes,  are  provided  for  the  purpose  of  easily 
and  effectively  carrying  off  the  excess  of  water  which  falls  during  heavy  rain,  preventing 
its  lying  in  a  stagnant  condition  to  the  detriment  of  health  and  vegetation.  Obviously 
this  could  be  accomplished  by  simple  open  ditches  having  the  requisite  amount  of  fall, 
i.e.  being  cut  in  such  directions  as  suited  the  undulation  of  the  surface,  in  order  to 
accommodate  the  natural  tendency  of  the  water  to  find  the  lowest  available  level.  But 
an  open  drain  is  very  costly  to  keep  free  from  weeds  and  fallen  earth,  and  becomes  a 
receptacle  for  the  best  portion  of  the  soil,  washed  into  it  by  the  rushing  water.  There- 
fore the  first  principle  in  draining  is  to  provide  a  channel  for  the  water  at  such  a  depth 
beneath  the  surface  as  the  nature  of  the  ground  determines:  that  is  to  say,  when  the 
subsoil  is  a  stiff  clay  impervious  to  moisture,  the  drain  channel  should  be  only  so  far 
beneath  the  surface  as  to  escape  all  possibility  of  contact  with  the  plough  or  spade  used 
in  tilling  the  surface ;  while  in  more  porous  soil  the  depth  may  be  3-4  ft. 

The  first  step  is  to  set  out  the  lines  which  the  drains  are  to  follow,  choosing  the 
lowest  level  for  the  main  channel,  and  letting  the  others  meet  it  at  an  angle  of  about 
30°.  On  these  lines  trenches  are  dug  with  a  trenching  tool  to  the  requisite  depth  and 
with  contracting  sides.  In  these  trenches  a  water  channel  is  formed  in  various  ways. 
In  stiff  clays,  filling  the  bottom  with  brushwood  and  then  replacing  the  surface  earth 
will  often  be  effective  for  years.  But  a  far  more  enduring  and  efficient  method  is  to 
occupy  the  lower  space  with  stones  in  some  form.  Fig.  1401  shows  several  methods  of 
using  stones  in  drains  :  at  A,  clean  round  stones  a  are  packed  closely  in  half  the  depth 
of  the  trench,  and  covered  by  a  turf  clod  h  to  prevent  dirt  washing  down  among  them ; 
at  B,  the  round  stones  a  rest  on  a  triangle  of  3  flat  stones  forming  an  open  channel  c  ; 
at  C,  the  2  flat  stones  a  placed  on  edge  are  kept  apart  by  a  large  rough  stone  h,  and 
smaller  stones  c  and  a  clod  d  complete  the  arrangement ;  at  D,  2  flat  stones  a  on  edge 


Water  Supply;   Sanitation. 


077 


support  fi  third  h  lying  flat,  ami  this  is  overlaid  by  rough  Rtonos  c  and  clod  d ;  at  E, 
the  whole  channel  is  formed  of  flat  stones,  2  on  edge  and  2  flat,  the  earth  coining 
immediately  on  tho   lid  a.     All   these   are   cheap,  enduring,   and   cfluctivc    plans, 

1401. 


adapted  to  almost  any  country.  The  most  perfect  system  is  to  lay  earthenware  drain- 
pipes in  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  placing  them  end  to  end  without  joining  them,  so 
that  tlie  water  may  enter  at  the  interstices. 

WATER  SUPPLY  AND  SANITATION.— The  supply  of  good  water  to 
the  house  and  its  outbuildings  is  of  primary  importance.  The  chief  sources  of  supply 
are  rivers,  springs,  wells,  and  ponds. 

In  the  case  of  river  water,  there  is  nothing  special  to  mention,  tlie  supply  being 
drawn  by  simple  pumping.  Eiver  water  is  usually  contaminated  by  organic  matters 
and  mud,  which  can  be  removed  by  subsidence  and  filtration  to  a  certain  extent ;  but 
in  populous  districts  the  surface  drainage  and  the  impurities  often  contributed  ^^by 
manufactories,  &c.,  render  river  water  perhaps  the  least  wholesome. 

Spring  water  is  generally  free  from  organic  matter,  having  been  cleansed  as  it  were 
in  passing  through  the  porous  strata  of  the  earth ;  but  it  is  liable  to  have  absorbed 
mineral  matters  by  its  action  on  the  rocks  met  with,  and  often  becomes  very  dirty  at  its 
point  of  issue  from  contact  with  the  surface  soil.  The  following  simple  contrivance  may 
be  adopted  to  deprive  it  of  suspended  impurities.  Provide  a  stone  or  wooden  trough, 
12-15  in.  deep,  2 J  ft.  long,  by  12  in.  or  so  broad.  Divide  tliis  by  a  watertight  partition, 
so  that  a  space  of  9  in.  broad  shall  be  left  at  one  end,  and  of  the  depth  of  the  trough. 
This  partition  should  only  reach  to  within  2  in.  of  the  top  edges  of  the  trough.  The 
bottom  of  the  large  division  must  be  perforated  with  numerous  holes.  Dig  a  hole  in 
the  earth  from  whence  the  spring  issues,  and  put  tliis  trough  therein,  so  tliat  the  upper 
edges  shall  be  a  little  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  Earn  tightly  all  round  it  stiff"  and 
good  clay — the  harder  the  better.  The  water  from  the  spring  will  issue  through  the 
holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  large  division  of  the  trough,  and  any  mud  brouglit  up  will  be 
deposited  therein.  As  the  clear  water  fills  the  trough,  it  will  reach  the  toj)  of  the  jjartition 
and  run  over  it  into  the  small  divisions  at  the  end,  free  from  deposit.  The  suiiplies 
required  should  be  taken  from  this  division. 

Wells  constitute  another  method  of  obtaining  the  supplies  of  water  gathered  in 
fissures  in  the  lower  strata,  compelling  the  liquid  to  collect  in  artificially  constructed 
openings  rather  than  escaping  naturally  to  the  surface  in  the  form  of  a  spring.  The 
choice  of  a  locality  for  sinking  a  well  cannot  be  determined  upon  without  some  know- 
ledge and  application  of  the  character  of  the  strata.  The  gravel,  clay,  and  sand  beds 
of  the  recent  sedimentary  formations  generally  yield  more  or  less  water  at  a  reasonably 
shallow  depth ;  in  the  older  formations,  it  will  be  necessary  to  go  much  deeper,  but  tho 
supply  is  more  abundant  and  less  likely  to  be  contaminated  by  organic  matter.  Hence 
the  latter  source  is  preferable  for  large  waterworks  supplying  towns. 

A  well  may  be  defined  as  a  deep  cylindrical  hole,  walled  round  by  bricks  laid  loosely 
in  succeeding  courses.  The  manner  of  sinking  it  varies  somewhat  according  to  tlie  soil. 
In  the  case  of  a  clay  soil  with  intervening  beds  of  sand  and  stones,  a  circle  of  8  ft.  diam.  ia 


078  Water  Supply. 

described  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  from  whose  area  the  surface  soil  is  removed  to  be 
used  elsewhere  as  compost.  After  throwing  out  a  depth  of  8-9  ft.  with  the  spade,  a  winch 
and  rope  and  bucket  is  set  up  to  draw  the  earth  out  of  the  well.  While  the  digging 
is  proceeding,  a  sufficient  number  of  flat  stones  are  laid  down  near  the  winch,  by  which 
they  are  sent  down  to  build  the  ring.  A  depth  of  16ft.  will  probably  suffice;  but  if  no 
water  is  found,  the  digging  must  proceed  to  the  requisite  depth.  A  ring  of  3  ft.  diam. 
will  be  large  enough  bore  for  the  well ;  the  rest  of  the  space  should  be  filled  up  with 
dry  rubble  masonry,  and  drawn  in  at  the  top  to  2  ft.  diam.  When  the  building  is 
finished,  the  water  should  be  removed  from  the  well  with  buckets  if  the  quantity  is 
small,  and  with  a  pump  if  it  be  large,  to  allow  the  bottom  to  be  cleared  of  mud  and 
stones.  A  thick  flat  stone,  reaching  from  the  side  of  the  ring  to  beyond  the  centre,  is 
firmly  placed  on  the  ground  at  the  bottom  of  the  well  for  the  wooden  pump  to  stand 
upon,  or  for  the  lead  pipe  to  rest  on.  If  a  wooden  pump  is  used,  a  large  flat  stone, 
having  a  hole  in  it  to  embrace  the  pump,  is  laid  on  a  level  with  the  ground  upon  the 
ring  of  the  well ;  but  if  a  lead  pipe  is  preferred,  the  flat  stone  should  be  entire  and 
cover  the  ring,  and  the  clayey  earth  be  thrown  over  it. 

Where  the  well  has  to  be  sunk  in  loose  gi-avel  or  sand,  a  difierent  plan  has  to  be 
adopted.  The  diameter  of  the  well  will  be  3  ft.  6  in.  inside  of  the  building,  and  the 
building,  instead  of  rubble,  will  be  of  droved  ashlar,  each  stone  8  in.  broad  in  the  bed, 
12  in.  deep,  about  21|  in.  long,  in  the  chord  of  the  arc  of  circle  on  the  one  side, 
and  17  in.  long  in  a  straight  line  on  the  other  side.  The  outside  of  the  stones  is  formed 
neatly  to  a  circle,  and  their  inside  into  an  octagon.  Beds  square ;  ends  properly 
bevelled  and  wrought  correctly  to  a  mould ;  each  course  to  contain  8  stones  of  equal  size ; 
a  ring-board  to  be  formed  of  willow,  not  to  flavour  the  water,  8|  in.  broad,  1^-2  in.  thick, 
and  2  in.  larger  than  the  outside  circle  of  the  stones.  The  ring-board  could  be  made 
stronger  in  2  courses  of  4  pieces  of  equal  size.  In  building  upon  the  ring-board,  the 
first  course  of  stones  to  have  the  centres  of  their  face  raised  perpendicular  to  the  inside 
of  the  ring-board.  The  centres  of  each  stone  of  the  second  course  to  be  placed  over 
the  joints  of  the  preceding  course,  and  also  perpendicular  to  the  inside  of  the  ring- 
board.  The  inside  face  of  each  stone  being  a  straight  line,  the  inside  diameter  of  the 
well  being  SJ  ft.,  and  the  ring-board  being  correctly  made,  the  inside  ends  of  each 
stone  will  be  back  If  in.  from  the  centre  of  the  face  of  each  stone  in  the  course  imme- 
diately above  it,  and  so  on  with  every  course.  A  small  stick  made  as  a  gauge  at  one 
end,  of  If  in.  length,  will  be  found  handy  for  setting  the  stones.  The  outside  circle 
must  be  most  carefully  made.  The  upper  course  to  form  a  square  instead  of  an  octagon 
fur  the  covers  to  rest  on,  and  to  slope  to  one  side,  to  carry  the  water  off  the  top  of  the 
well.  The  covers  to  be  droved,  and  in  3  pieces,  one  of  which  to  cover  the  building 
on  one  side  and  half  of  the  well,  and  to  be  half-checked  where  the  other  2  stones  meet 
it  in  the  middle,  and  they  are  to  be  half-checked  into  it,  also  half-checked  info  each 
other  where  they  meet  in  the  middle,  and  to  cover  the  other  side  of  the  building.  One 
of  the  stones  covering  a  portion  of  the  well  to  have  an  iron  ring  in  it,  by  which  to  lift 
it  freely  out  of  the  checks  of  the  other  2  stones.  The  joints  of  the  covers  to  be  filled 
with  putty  well  mixed  with  white-lead,  to  prevent  water  fronn  the  surface  getting  into 
the  well. 

Where  the  interior  of  the  well  is  faced  with  bricks — "  steined  "  as  it  is  termed — a 
simple  method  of  proceeding  is  as  follows : — A  dram-curb  is  provided,  being  a  circular 
frame  of  wood,  with  a  strong  flat  ring,  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  intended  well  at  top 
and  bottom,  the  breadth  of  the  ring  being  equal  to  the  breadth  of  a  brick ;  the  depth 
of  curb  is  5  ft.  or  so.  The  ground  being  excavated  to  a  depth  equal  to  that  of  the  curb, 
this  is  lowered  into  the  excavation.  The  operation  of  digging  is  continued,  the  curb 
gradually  descending — the  excavated  earth  being  removed  by  buckets  lifted  by  tackle 
supported  above  the  excavation  by  a  triangular  frame.  The  steining  or  brickwork  is 
then  built  on  the  upper  ring  of  the  curb;  the  bricks  are  laid  without  mortar,  care 


Water  SurrLY  079 

being  taken  to  arrange  tliora  so  as  to  Iccop  tho  form  of  the  circle  as  perfect  a3  possible, 
eacli  course  breaking  joint  with  tlie  one  under  it.  As  the  sinking  of  tho  curb  goes  on, 
the  laying  of  tho  bricks  is  proceeded  with,  until  the  necessary  depth  is  obtained.  It  is 
scarce^  requisite  to  point  out  the  absolute  necessity  of  making  all  wclla  circular ;  tho 
sides  of  square  ones  would  inevitably  be  forced  in. 

Well-sinking  is  performed  in  the  following  simple  way  in  India : — A  curb  (n^emchul:) 
or  ring  of  wood  9-18  in.  thick  is  laid  on  the  ground,  tho  masonry  built  upon  it  about 
4  ft.  high,  and  left  to  dry.  The  earth  inside  tho  curb  is  then  scooped  out,  and  the  well 
descends  gradually,  when  another  4  ft.  of  masonry  is  added,  and  tlio  sinking  continues 
till  water  is  reached.  In  making  a  further  descent,  a  sort  of  liugo  hoe  (jham)  is  used, 
being  worked  from  above  into  the  soil,  and  hoisted  up  with  its  load ;  meantime  a  churus 
is  kept  going  to  prevent  the  work  being  impeded  by  tlie  inflow  of  water. 

Of  all  the  methods  in  use  for  raising  the  water  from  the  wells,  the  ascending  and 
descending  buckets  (the  empty  one  descending  as  the  full  one  is  being  pulled  up)  form 
the  simjplest.  The  buckets  must  be' comparatively  heavy  to  allow  of  their  sinking  into  the 
water  on  being  let  down.  The  rope  to  which  the  buckets  are  attached  is  wound  round 
a  wooden  barrel,  revolving  on  2  uprights  at  each  side  of  the  well  mouth,  and  turned  by  a 
winch  or  handle.  The  well-covering  should  bo  made  in  2  halves  opening  upwards,  and 
hinged  at  the  outer  edges  to  a  wooden  frame  placed  round  tho  mouth  of  tlie  well. 
A  small  space  should  be  left  between  the  edges  of  the  flaps,  to  admit  of  the  rope 
passing  freely.  A  small  curb-wall  shoixld  be  made  round  the  mouth,  in  order  to  prevent 
surface  water  running  into  the  well ;  and  a  railing,  some  3-4  ft.  liigh,  to  prevent 
children  having  access.  Especial  care  should  be  taken  to  sink  tho  well  at  a  spot  where 
the  surface  drainage  from  the  house,  yard,  &c.,  and  underground  drainage  from  cess- 
pools and  such  barbarous  structures  cannot  possibly  contaminate  the  water. 

Several  ingenious  contrivances  are  in  use  in  imcivilized  countries  for  raising  water 
for  irrigation  and  other  purposes.  In  India,  when  the  lift  does  not  exceed  .3  or  4  ft.,  and 
when  the  hole  or  excavation  is  not  too  small,  a  swing  basket  covered  with  leaves  or 
matting  is  used  as  a  bale,  being  swung  by  2  men.  Water  may  be  lifted  in  this  way  some 
12-16  ft.  in  3  or  4  stages,  by  as  many  pairs  of  men,  at  the  rate  of  1800  gal.  per  hour. 
For  higher  lifts,  in  Bengal  use  is  made  of  the  paecotta,  or  lever  bucket,  the  counterpoise 
on  the  short  arm  being  a  heavy  stone  or  mass  of  clay ;  this  is  the  shadoof  of  Egypt, 
common  throughout  the  East  and  even  in  Hungary,  and  naturalized  among  the  gold 
miners  of  Australia,  where  it  is  called  a  "  hand  whip."  In  the  N.W.  provinces  of  India 
a  large  leathern  bag  drawn  up  by  bullocks,  with  the  aid  of  a  roller,  is  the  generally 
adopted  contrivance;  it  is  termed  a  churus  or  chursah.  The  Chinese  pump,  or  Persian 
wheel,  consisting  of  an  endless  chain  of  buckets,  worked  by  bullocks  or  other  power,  is 
often  to  be  seen  in  Australian  and  Californian  gold  diggings. 

Ponds  are  generally  understood  to  be  hollows  iilled  with  water  which  has  flowed 
from  higher  ground  around  into  a  low-lying  depression.  Such  water  is  generally  very 
impure  from  stagnation  and  the  accumulation  of  impurities  washed  in  by  the  torrents 
during  heavy  rain.  But  it  is  available  for  all  save  drinking  purposes.  Even  the  water 
of  uuder-drainage  on  clay  lands  may  be  collected  in  ponds  or  underground  reservoirs  for 
irrigating,  supplying  steam  threshing  machinery,  &c.  According  to  Bailey  Denton,  in 
some  parts  of  the  chalk  districts  underground  tanks  have  been  made  by  burrowing  into 
the  earth,  and  making  a  chamber  or  cavern  (with  an  opening  at  tlie  top  for  the  removal 
of  the  soil),  which,  being  lined  inside  with  a  thin  covering  of  cement,  is  made  perfectly 
watertight.  Thus  the  most  capacious  tanks  may  be  provided  for  comparatively  a  few 
pounds.  This  mode  of  constructing  tanks  might  also  be  adopted  in  other  geological 
formations  besides  the  chalk,  where  the  water  level  is  low  in  tho  earth,  with  a  con- 
siderable depth  of  drained  subsoil  above  it,  within  which  to  make  the  "cavern  tank." 
Such  a  receptacle  for  water  can  only  be  adopted  where  the  soil  is  naturally  drained,  and 
where  there  is  no  pressure  of  external  subsoil  water. 


C80 


Sanitation.    Log  Huts. 


Much  more  important  in  many  respects  is  the  so-called  "  dew-pond,"  which  is  really 
an  artificial  rain-pond.  The  one  described  by  Slade  is  situated  immediately  on  chalk 
strata  in  the  highest  part  of  the  Berkshire  hills,  and  is  entirely  fed  by  rain  and  snow. 
In  shape  it  resembles  a  shallow  rain-gauge,  without  a  vertical  rim.  Its  greatest 
diameter  is  C9J  ft.  The  straight  sides  meet  nearly  at  a  point  in  the  bottom,  and  form 
nn  angle  of  11°  21' with  the  surface  horizon.  A  layer  of  clay,  about  12  in.  thick,  mixed 
with  lime  to  stay  the  progress  of  earthworms,  and  covered  over  with  first  a  coating  of 
straw  (to  prevent  the  sun  cracking  the  clay),  and  finally  with  loose  rubble,  make  up  its 
waterproof  bed.  The  extreme  depth  is  80  in.  It  does  not,  however,  hold  this  head 
of  water,  since  a  ring  of  the  slope,  extending  from  the  top,  and  some  4  ft.  in  width,  is 
unpuddled,  in  order  to  avoid  an  overflow  and  the  consequent  deterioration  of  the  sides. 
In  40  years  it  has  been  only  once  known  to  fail,  and  that  instance  resulted  principally 
from  the  growth  of  rushes  whose  roots  struck  through  the  clay  bottom,  causing  leakage. 
The  rush  of  cattle  down  its  sides  also  helped  to  damage  the  clay  bed.  The  ponds,  kept 
free  from  these  pernicious  influences,  have  never  been  known  to  fail  even  in  seasons  of 
extraordinary  drought.  It  remains  to  point  out  the  weak  features  of  the  pond.  Its 
efiiciency  is  most  impeded  by  evaporation  and  slope  absorption.  This  absorption  should 
be  removed,  since  it  is  also  associated  with  capillary  attraction,  and,  in  a  twofold  character, 
tends  to  weaken  the  supply  and  increase  the  loss.  "Were  the  slopes  formed  of  a  non- 
absorbing,  non-conducting  material,  not  only  would  all  the  rain  be  drained  into  the 
basin,  but  the  capillary  attraction  of  the  sides  would  be  banished,  and  evaporation  from 
this  cause  cease.  The  faulty  points,  then,  are  the  absorption  by  the  rubble  slopes  and 
capillary  attraction. 

The  stoneware  drain  pipes  used  for  conveying  refuse  water,  slops,  &c.,  from  the  house 
to  the  main  sewer  or  to  the  liquid  manure  tank,  should  be  throughout  laid  watertight, 

and  as  smooth  and  even  inside  as  possible.     Where 
stoneware  pipes  cannot  be  procured,  a  good  sound 

drain  may  be  made  of  timber,  in  the  form  of  a  square 

covered  trough,   which    is  much  used  in  Sweden. 

The  entrance  to  all  drain  pipes  and  sewers  must  be 

carefully  "  trapped,"  to  prevent  the  reflux  of  the  bad 

gases  arising  from  the  decomposing  fluids  conveyed 

through  the  pipes.     The  principle  of  tlie  trap  is 

shown  in  Fig.  1402  :  a,  bed  of  sink  trough ;  h,  pipe 

leading  into  drain  ;  c  d,  the  2  arms  of  the  trap,  which 

are  so  formed  as  to  always  retain  a  certain  quantity 

of  fluid  in  the  angle,  and  thus  prevent  the  passage 

of  any  vapour  from  d  towards  c.     Should  the  angle 

at  any  time  become  choked  with  solid  matters,  the  perforated  lid  of  c  is  taken  off  to 

admit  of  their  removal. 

HOUSE  CONSTRXrCTION.— In  many  localities,   the  aid  of  an  architect  in 

planning  a  building  has  to  be  dispensed  with,  and  various  means  have  to  be  adopted 

mth  a  view  to  utilizing  the  materials  at  hand.    A  few  instructions  under  this  head 

cannot  fail  to  be  useful. 

Log  Huts. — Where  timber  abounds  this  is  the  simplest  and  cheapest  form  of  house. 

The  logs  are  cut  to  the  length  determined  on  for  the  walls,  and  merely  squared  on 

2  opposite  faces,  as  in  Fig.  1403,  to  make  tliem  lie  close.     Where  doors  and  windows 

intervene,  shorter  lengths  are  laid,  to  afford  the  necessary  space.     The  vertical  position 

of  the  wall  is  ensured  by  driving  posts  into  the  ground  and  building  the  logs  up  between 

them ;   or  by  spiking  the  logs  together  with  large  nails ;   or  by  the  employment  of 

squares  of  board,  as  in  Fig.  1404,  secured  by  nails  or  treenails ;  or  by  laying  the  logs  so 

that  they  cross  alternately,  as  in  Fig.  1 405,  where  the  side  log  a  comes  between  the  2  end 

logs  b,  the  ends  of  all  3  being  protruded  I  ft.  or  more  from  the  comer,  while  the  inter 


Log  Huts. 


G81 


mediate  end  log  c  only  comes  so  far  as  to  abut  against  a :  corner  posts  driven  down  both 
inside  and  outside  the  corner  render  it  very  strong.  In  forming  tiio  roof,  provision  must 
be  made  for  sloping  it,  so  as  to  throw  oflf  the  rain  and  snow.  A  convenient  huigiit  for 
the  walls  all  round  is  8  ft. ;  when  this  is  reached,  the  amount  of  slope  required  iu  the 


1403. 


1101. 


a/ 


I40S. 


roof  is  determined,  and  from  this  is  deduced  the  extra  hciglit  to  which  one  of  tlu;  walls 
(say  the  front)  must  be  carried.  A  rod  h  of  the  required  length  is  fixed  to  the  top  a  of 
the  side  wall  (Fig.  1406),  and  from  the  top  of  6  a  second  rod  c  is  laid  with  its  lower  end 
resting  on  the  back  wall.  Then  the  front  wall  must  be  taken  up  as  high  as  the  top  of  h, 
while  the  side  walls  are  built  up  of  logs  d  of  diminishing  lengths  within  the  triangle 
described  by  a  6  c.  The  remaining  spaces  e  can  be  filled  up  afterwards  with  odd  bits 
of  wood. 


1406. 


1407. 


cb 


cu 


& 


-^ 


1403. 


1109. 


The  ever  necessary  fire  is  best  supplied  in  the  form  of  a  stove,  the  smoke  pipe  from 
which  is  carried  through  a  large  hole  iu  the  roof  and  well  surrounded  with  clay  to 
prevent  any  possibility  of  the  rafters 
being  ignited.  Failing  a  stove,  an 
open  fireplace  must  be  built,  of  bricks, 
stones,  or  other  available  fireproof 
material.  The  method  of  constructing 
a  fireplace  is  shown  in  Fig.  1407 :  a  h 
are  the  logs  constituting  the  back  wall 
of  the  hut ;  in  them  a  space  3  ft.  high 
and  2j  ft.  wide  is  cut  out ;  at  the  back 
of  this  is  placed  a  frame  c  of  any  hard 
durable  wood,  measuring  18  in.  from 
back  to  front,  3  ft.  3  in.  high,  and 
2  ft.  9  in.  long ;  a  board  /  on  the  inside 
of  the  hut  completes  the  fourth  side  of 
the  frame,  enclosing  a  space  d,  which 

is  rammed  full  with  good  binding  clay;  when  this  is  quite  firm,  an  excavation  is  made 
iu  the  clay,  of  the  shape  indicated  at  e  iu  Figs.  1407, 1408 ;  g  is  the  front  of  the  fircjilace 
formed  by  inserting  iron  bars ;  h  is  the  combination  of  the  wall  of  the  hut ;  i  is  the 
smoke  flue,  better  Ulustrated  in  plan  in  Fig.  1409,  and  made  by  inserting  a  smooth 


682 


Feame  Houses. 


■wet  polo  about  10  in.  diam.,  rouiiil  wliicli  tlie  clay  can  be  packed,  and  ■which  can  be 
readily  ■withdra^vn  after  the  shrinkage  due  to  drying.  Bricks  or  squared  stones  may  be 
used  to  carry  the  chimney  a  little  higher  than  the  roof. 

Frame  Houses. — These  should  commence  -with  a  foundation  of  brick  or  stone  ■work 
carried  up  about  1|  ft.  above  ground,  or  failing  these  materials,  stout  logs  may  be  laid 
do'wn.  At  proper  intervals,  the  upright  posts  are  inserted  in  this  foundation,  and  pre- 
pared to  receive  the  ■walling.  This  may  consist  of  hc'wn  slabs  of  timber  for  the  outside 
lining,  with  an  inner  one  of  felt,  Willesden  paper,  canvas,  match-boarding,  or  whatever 
may  be  convenient,  the  intermediate  space  between  the  2  linings,  representing  the  thick- 
ness of  the  uprights,  being  packed  full  with  earth,  dry  moss,  or  otlier  non-conducting 
substance.  Simple  uprights  will  sufBce  when  there  is  to  be  only  one  storey — a  "  gromid 
floor";  but  when  a  second  storey  is  added,  struts  and  braces  must  be  provided  to 
strengthen  the  uprights.  The  Americans  have  much  improved  upon  the  ordinary 
system  of  constructing  wooden  frame  houses,  by  arranging  the  timbers  so  tliat  nearly  all 
strains  come  lengthwise  on  the  fibres,  and  by  relying  upon  nails  driven  diagonally  rather 
than  on  tenons,  scarfs,  and  other  weakening  cuts  into  the  wood.  Thus  in  erecting  a 
small  timber  house,  the  site  is  levelled,  and  a  few  inches  in  depth  of  the  soil  is  removed 
and  replaced  by  a  layer  of  non-absorbent  material,  sucli  as  furnace  clinker  ;  on  this  is  laid 
a  sill  a  (Fig.  lilO)  forming  the  whole  foundation,  measuring  6  to  8  in.  by  3  in.,  and  carrying 


1410. 


1411. 


1412. 


the  joist  b  and  stud  d,  each  simply  nailed  by  spikes  driven  diagonally,  the  joist  h  support- 
ing the  floor  boards  c.  If  the  spaces  between  the  joists  are  filled  with  non-absorbent 
material  up  to  the  level  of  the  floor,  an  advantage  will  be  gained  in  dryness,  quietness, 
and  general  comfort ;  concrete  will  be  even  more  desirable.    Generally  the  sills  simply 


1413. 


1415. 


< 


CI 

He 


meet  at  the  corners,  but  they  may  be  halved  together  as  at  a  h.  Fig.  1411,  if  preferred, 
c  being  the  joist,  and  d  the  stud.  In  small  buildings,  the  studs  are  best  set  as  in 
Fig.  1'112,  where  a  is  the  joist  and  b  c  the  2  studs.  When  an  upstairs  floor  is  to  be  built,  a 
notch  is  cut  in  the  inner  face  of  the  studs,  as  at  a  6  c,  Fig.  1413,  measuring  4  in.  deep  and 


Earth  Walls. 


G83 


in.  wide,  for  the  rereption  of  a  bearer  to  carry  the  joists:  see  Fij^.  1111,  where  a  i.s  the 
tud,  b  the  flooring  joist,  and  c  the  intervening  bearer,  1  in.  wide  and  1  in.  deep.  If  it 
bould  be  necessary  to  lengthen  a  stud,  this  is  done  by  putting  the  extra  piece  end  to 
nd  with  the  tirst,  as  at  a  h,  Fig.  1415,  either  with  or  without  a  mortice  and  tenon  joint, 
nd  nailing  pieces  of  1-in.  board  c  on  each  side.    To  support  tlie  roof,  a  wall  plate  c  U 


UIG. 


1417. 


1418. 


ailed  on  the  square  tops  of  the  studs  a  h,  Fig.  1416 ;  the  lower  ends  of  the  rafters  are 
otchcd  out  to  fit  on  the  wall  plate,  one  falling  exactly  over  each  stud  as  in  Fig.  1417, 
being  the  stud,  h  the  wall  plate,  and  c  the  rafter. 

Earth  Walls. — These  are  made  by  ramming  cohesive  earth  into  a  motild.  The  earth 
elected  should  contain  no  stones  larger  than  1  cub.  in.,  and  those  which  are  atlmitted 
mst  be  of  a  rounded  form.  No  organic  remains  liable  to  decay  must  be  present.  The 
insistence  and  degree  of  moisture  of  the  earth  should  be  carefully  ngulated  in  accord- 
nce  with  the  conditions  proved  by  experiment  to  be  best  adapted  for  securing  the  most 
erfect  cohesion  of  the  mass.  The  foundation  for  an  earth  wall  should  be  a  few  courses 
f  brick  or  stone.  To  erect  an  earth  wall  on  this,  recourse  must  be  had  to  a  mould,  after 
le  manner  of  concrete  building.  The  construction  and  arrangement  of  such  a  mould 
re  illustrated  in  Fig.  1418.  The  joists  a,  4  in.  wide  and  2|  in.  deep,  are  laid  on  the 
mndation  wall  b  at  intervals  corresponding  to  the 
mgths  of  the  boards  forming  the  sides ;  on  their 
pper  face  near  each  end  a  mortice  is  cut  for  the 
3ception  of  the  uprights  d,  at  points  allowing 
ifficient  width  for  the  boards  e  and  a  breadth  of 
arth  wall  c  equal  to  that  of  the  foundation  wall  6 
elow.  The  uprights  d,  which  tenon  into  the 
)ists  a  below  and  the  cap  pieces  /  above,  should 
e  about  30  in.  high  in  the  clear.  Inside  these 
prights  d,  are  fitted  edge  to  edge,  and  united  by 
mgues  or  pins,  a  series  of  1-in.,  clean,  well- 
iasoned  pine  boards  e,  not  exceeding  14  ft.  in 
mgth,  ^Yhile  half  that  figure  will  often  be  more 
anvenient.  To  strengthen  the  boards,  they  have 
attens  nailed  across  them,  outside,  at  intervals 
f  about  30  in.,  and  iron  handles  may  be  attached 
)r  facilitating  removal.  The  wedges  g  are  for 
le  purpose  of  tightening  the  cap  /  on  the  up- 
ights  d,  and  adjusting  the  width  of  the  wall. 
mgle  moulds  for  the  corners  of  walls  may  be 

lade  on  exactly  the  same  principles.  Where  a  wall  is  intended  to  end  abruptly,  a 
ead  is  put  into  the  mould  by  fastening  strips  of  batten  to  the  boards  e  and  drupiiing 
1  a  head  board.  In  commencing  to  build,  a  few  courses  of  brick  are  carried  up  with  the 
)ists  a  built  in,  so  as  to  give  rigidity  to  the  mould ;  as  the  wall  rises,  the  mould  is  taken 
part  for  further  use,  the  joists  being  driven  out  endwise,  for  which  purpose  they  arc 
lade  slightly  tapering.    When  the  first  mould  in  height  has  been  completed,  recesses 


684  Stairs. 

must  be  cut  to  admit  tlie  joists  for  the  nest  stage.  The  use  of  the  plumb  level  is  of  course 
as  necessary  with  this  as  with  any  other  kind  of  wall.  In  ramming  the  earth,  a  depth  o 
3-4  in.  at  a  time  is  always  enough,  and  the  strokes  should  travel  from  the  sides  toward; 
the  centre  and  from  one  end  to  the  other,  leaving  the  end  eloping  where  the  next 
addition  is  to  be  made.  In  building  the  second  course,  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
joists  fall  between  the  joist  holes  of  the  preceding  course,  and  the  ramming  slioulJ 
commence  from  the  opposite  end  of  the  wall.  The  joist  holes  may  be  afterwards  filled 
up  with  wooden  blocks,  for  convenience  in  fastening  the  internal  fixtures,  and  wooden 
joists  may  be  built  in  lengthwise  at  intervals.  The  rammer  should  weigh  about  14  lb. 
Unfinished  work  should  be  kept  covered  from  the  rain. 

Stairs. — The  following  are  the  technical  names  for  the  parts  of  stairs : — "  Flight "  is 
the  term  for  one  continued  series  of  steps  witliout  any  break ;  "  landing  "  is  the  level  flat 
between  two  flights ;  "  tread  "  is  the  horizontal  surface  of  a  step ;  "  riser  "  is  the  vertical 
part  between  2  steps ;  "  winders  "  are  the  winding  steps  round  a  curve  when  there  is  no 
landing. 

The  convenience  of  stairs  is  largely  dependent  upon  the  proportioning  of  the  height 
of  riser  and  width  of  tread.  Blondel's  rule,  which  adopts  as  a  module  of  measurement 
the  length  of  a  man's  pace  walking  leisurely  on  level  ground,  or  2  French  feet  =  25  •  56  in. 
English,  and  assumes  that  every  1  in.  of  ascent  is  equal  to  2  in.  of  progress,  is  a  correct 
theory  within  certain  limits  only.  The  energy  expended  by  a  man  in  lifting  himself 
40  ft.  up  a  ladder  nearly  vertical  is  vastly  more  than  twice  the  energy  required  to  advance 
40  ft.  on  a  level  plane.  This  is  sufficient  to  show  that  the  rule  is  only  correct  when  the 
rate  of  ascent  is  moderate.  Probably,  an  English  architect,  working  out  tlie  same  theory, 
would  have  adopted  2  English  feet  or  24  in.  as  his  module.  Corson  takes  the  mean 
(nearly)  of  these  two,  or  24*75  in.,  as  being  a  reliable  guide  to  an  easy  stair  suitable  for 
houses  of  moderate  size. 

The  height  of  riser,  which  should  not  be  exceeded,  he  fixes  (by  experience)  at  6  •  75  in,, 
deducting  twice  this,  or  13-50  from  24  "75,  we  have  11*25  for  the  breadth  of  tread. 
(Blondel's  rule  would  give  12*0G,  which  would  be  found  too  broad  for  that  height  of 
riser.)  Of  course,  tlie  breadth  of  tread  is  from  riser  to  riser,  disregarding  torus  or 
moulding,  if  there  is  one.  Obviously  the  experience  of  short  and  tall  people  will  ditfer 
somewhat.  Also  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  length  of  the  step :  the  longer  the  step, 
the  broader  should  be  the  tread. 

Again,  for  stejis  outside,  leading  up  to  the  doorway  or  a  terrace,  decrease  the  riser 
and  increase  the  tread ;  how  much  must  be  matter  of  judgment  with  the  architect, 
according  to  the  number  and  length  of  steps  and  character  of  house.  Terrace  slopes 
ought  to  be  3  to  1.  To  suit  that  slope,  steps  of  5*10  in.  rise  and  15*30  in.  tread  would 
be  a  fit  dimension,  and  would  agree  with  Blondel's  formula.  There  is,  however,  for 
stairs  generally,  another  and  very  simple  rule,  namely :  Keep  the  slope  of  the  stair  to  30°, 
or  as  little  over  that  angle  as  possible.  A  step  of  6£  in.  rise  would  in  that  case  have  a 
tread  of  11 1  in. ;  but  it  would  be  better  to  have  less  rise  and  less  tread,  say  G|  in.  and 
11  *20  in.  It  is  needful  to  have  iu  mind  old  people  and  children,  to  whom  a  low  riser  is 
of  great  moment. 

When  the  size  of  the  house  will  not  allow  the  use  of  such  proportions  as  are  given 
above,  diminish  the  tread  rather  than  increase  the  height  of  the  riser.  Blondel's  rule 
becomes  absurd  when  followed  out,  and  the  stair  becomes  a  step  ladder,  as  when  you 
find  steps  8  in.  tread  and  9J  in.  rise,  making  breakneck  stairs.  The  minimum  width  of 
tread  may  be  called  9  in.  It  is  too  little,  but  sometimes  economy  of  space  comi^els  it, 
and  if  only  the  riser  be  kept  to  the  maximum  of  6j  in.,  the  stair  will  be  reasonably  easy 
and  safe.  There  are  exceptions  to  every  rule,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  steps  of  a 
turnpike  stair  winding  round  a  C-in.  or  8-in.  newel,  must  deviate  from  the  proportions 
given  above,  i.e.  when  measured  as  winding  stairs  usually  are,  at  the  centre  of  the 
length  of  step.     The  head  room  must  be  preserved  at  all  costs. 


Colonial  Houses.  G85 

With  regard  to  the  planning  and  setting  out  of  stairs,  a  volume  mi-lit  1)0  written, 
and  illustrations  given  witliout  end.  The  staircase  often  is,  and  oftcner  miglit  bo,  Iho 
most  picturesque  feature  of  the  interior  of  a  house;  most  often  it  is  so  treated  that  it 
would  be  best  hidden  away  out  of  siglit.  A  stair  in  2  flights,  with  narrow  well-hole, 
offers  the  least  opportunity  for  effective  design  ;  a  wide  well-hole  removes  the  dittieulty, 
and  with  a  stair  in  3  flights  almost  anything  may  be  done.  A  stair  with  the  first  fliglit 
(only)  between  2  walls,  and  then  opening  out  to  the  double  width,  is  capable  of  great 
beauty  and  picturesque  treatment.  Stairs  with  winders  are  not  desirable,  but  sometimes 
are  unavoidable,  and  very  well  adapted  for  warehouses  when  planned  with  a  well-hole, 
say,  20-30  in.  wide.  The  winders  sliould  radiate,  not  to  the  true  centre,  but  to  a  centre 
removed  half  a  step  or  so  farther  back  from  the  string ;  thereby  the  narrow  ends  aro 
made  wider  and  the  ramp  of  the  handrail  is  improved.  The  arrangement  of  a  central 
stair  and  2  side  flights  should  only  be  used  on  the  grand  scale  and  in  buildings  of 
palatial  character.  In  houses  of  less  importance,  either  it  will  be  cramped  in  dimensions, 
or  it  will  be  too  large  for  the  house,  and  out  of  keeping  and  pretensions. 

A  convenient  height  for  the  handrail  of  a  stair  is  about  3  ft.  from  the  surface  of  the 
treads.  The  upper  surface  of  it  should  be  semicirculur  and  about  SJ  in.  diam. ;  it  should 
be  continuous,  without  break  of  any  kind  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  stairs.  The 
"  balusters  "  which  support  the  handrail  are  sometimes  also  intended  to  fill  up  the  space 
between  it  and  the  stairs,  so  as  to  prevent  any  one  falling  through.  When  for  the 
former  object  only,  as  is  generally  the  case  in  barracks,  the  fewer  balusters  there  are  the 
better,  as  they  are  very  liable  to  injury  and  so  cause  expense  in  repair ;  for  this  reason  it 
is  better  to  have  a  few  strong  posts  well  framed  into  and  connected  by  iron  straps  with 
the  bearers  of  the  stair.  In  private  houses,  where  the  balusters  are  generally  required  to 
fill  up  the  space,  the  ordinary  practice  is  to  make  them  square  wooden  bars  of  small 
size,  and  to  place  iron  balusters  of  the  same  size  at  intervals  to  strengthen  the  whole 
structure.  I3ut  in  all  public  buildings,  especially  in  military  buildings,  it  is  desirable 
to  use  balusters  of  a  much  larger  size,  and  more 

firmly  fixed  to  the  stairs,  and  at  just  sufficient  ^^^^ 

interval  to  prevent  children  falling  through. 

The  construction  of  the  steps  is  illustrated  in 
Fig.  1419  :  the  tread  a,  say  10  in.  broad  and  2  in. 
thick,  is  supported  by  the  riser  b  of  the  same 
thickness  and  about  7  in.  high,  a  "  blocking  "  or 
"  rough  bracket "  c  being  placed  iinderneath  the 
tread  and  behind  the  riser,  the  ends  being  dove- 
tailed or  notched  into  the  face  of  the  "outer 
string."  The  outer  string  is  the  woodwork  flank- 
ing the  side  of  the  stairs  not  next  tlie  wall.    In 

front  of  the  riser,  and  occupying  the  corner  formed  by  it  with  the  front  edge  of  the 
tread,  is  a  moulded  fillet  d ;  the  rounded  edge  of  the  tread  e  is  termed  the  nosing. 

Colonial  Houses. — The  peculiar  conditions  of  house  building  in  Canada  have  been 
described  in  interesting  detail  by  R.  Garabier-Bousfield.  Ho  alludes  to  the  absence,  in 
the  early  days  of  the  colony,  of  the  means  of  quarrying  and  transporting  stone,  the  small 
opportunity  for  making  bricks,  the  unlimited  quantities  of  fir  wood,— these  conditions 
have  resulted  in  a  method  of  building  which,  begiimmg  with  the  rough  log  huts,  has 
been  perfected  until  it  is  now  used  for  the  construction  of  the  first-class  houses.  He  has 
described  this  method,  pointed  out  many  advantages  resulting  from  its  use,  and  offered 
a  few  valuable  hints  in  the  arrangement  of  small  houses.  The  frame  house  astonishes 
the  novice  by  its  slenderness,  and  though  cool  enough  in  summer,  one  wonders  how  it  is 
possible  to  keep  out  the  intense  cold  of  tlie  winters.  Generally,  a  stone  foundation  is 
used  of  about  IG  in.  thick  rubble  work,  taken  down  at  least  3  ft.  to  below  tlie  level 
reached  by  the  post,  and  raised  about  10  in.  or  1  ft.  above  the  ground  line.    Upon  this  is 


686  Colonial  Houses. 

laid  a  sill  of  wood  G  in.  deep  and  S  in.  wide,  and  at  spaces  of  16  in.  centres,  are  erected 
2  in.  by  4  in.  uprights,  commonly  called  studding,  mortised  and  tenoned  to  sills  and 
heads.  The  lengtli  of  these  studs  depends  upon  the  height  of  the  house  to  be  built,  not 
upon  the  length  of  tne  stuff,  as  almost  any  reasonable  length  can  be  obtained.  If  it  is 
a  two-storey  dwelling,  the  studs  will  easily  reach  the  whole  height,  and  the  frame  is  tied 
at  the  corners,  and  strengthened  with  angle  pieces,  or  with  matched  boarding.  Floor 
joists  are  always  used  of  a  much  greater  depth  than  it  is  the  custom  to  use  in  England ; 
12  in.  deep  by  2  in.  wide,  placed  at  18  in.  centres  on  tlie  ground  floor,  and  at  IG  in.  centres 
on  all  floors  above,  is  the  common  arrangement,  cross  bridging  being  used  to  stiffen  them. 
At  openings  for  doors  and  windows,  the  studs  are  doubled.  When  the  studs  rise  the 
whole  height  of  the  house,  without  any  plate  for  the  support  of  tlie  floor  joists  of  the  first 
or  second  floors,  ribbon  pieces  1  in.  by  4  in.  are  spiked  between  the  studs,  horizontally, 
and  the  joists  rest  on  these,  being  spiked  to  the  uprights.  But  the  roofing  surprises  an 
Englishman  more  than  any  other  part.  The  use  of  shingles  may  or  may  not  be  new  to 
lum,  but  the  slenderness  of  the  roof  timbers  makes  him  tremble  for  the  future  inmates. 
WocmI  shingles  are  infinitely  lighter  than  slate,  and  the  common  construction  is  simply 
long  rafters,  2  in.  by  6  in.,  set  at  16  in.  centres,  reaching  from  plate  to  ridge  without 
purlins,  king  posts,  or  struts  ;  the  ceiling  joists  tie  the  feet  in,  and  for  a  span  of  20  ft. 
clear,  collar  ties  1  in.  by  6  in.  are  just  nailed  to  the  rafters.  (It  will  perhaps  be  noticed 
that  the  width  of  stuff  is  always  quoted  before  the  depth — this  is  the  trade  custom  in 
Canada.)  On  top  of  the  rafters  is  laid,  either  diagonally  or  straight,  matched  rough 
boarding,  and  upon  this  a  coat  of  hair  mortar,  |  in.  thick,  in  order  to  keep  down  fire  as 
long  as  possible,  in  the  event  of  a  conflngration  ;  this  coat  is  not  a  necessity  of  construc- 
tion, but  is  added  by  order  of  the  City  Building  Committees.  The  shingles  are  laid  on 
the  mortar,  just  like  slates,  with  about  4  in.  to  the  weather,  and  each  shingle  is  secured 
with  2  nails.  Wood  rolls  cover  all  external  angles,  and  except  for  valleys  and  gutters, 
the  description  of  the  roof  is  completed.  For  these  latter  there  is  a  further  entirely  new 
custom.  The  heat  does  not  admit  of  using  lead,  so  in  place  of  it  tin  is  adopted,  giving  it 
2  good  coats  of  paint.  Until  lately  tin  could  be  procured  that  would  stand  the  weather 
withont  rusting,  but  that  quality  cannot  be  obtained  now.  The  tin  is  laid  in  the  same 
way  as  lead ;  but  in  exposed  situations  it  is  decidedly  inferior,  and  it  is  very  difficult  to 
keep  out  the  wet  in  such  places.  Owing  to  the  heavy  falls  of  snow,  gutters  have  to  be 
avoided,  small  gablets  being  erected  behind  chimney  stacks,  to  prevent  the  snow  lodging. 
Gn  this  account  roofs  of  the  form  of  an  inverted  W  cannot  be  used,  as  the  snow  would 
drift  and  fill  in  the  whole  of  the  intermediate  gutter,  and  down  the  roof  would  come. 
Consequently,  Mansard  roofs  are  resorted  to  for  very  wide  spans,  and  sometimes  hori- 
zontal decks,  which  are  better  than  inverted  W'a  but  are  not  to  be  used  if  it  is  possible 
to  avoid  them.  Owing  to  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  tin  in  heat  and  frost,  the 
down  pipes  are  made  corrugated,  which  allows  them  to  shrink  or  expand  without  fear  of 
cracking.  The  advance  of  civiUzution,  with  local  boards  in  its  wake,  has  insisted  upon 
brick  exteriors  for  all  houses  within  the  defiued  "fire  limits"  of  each  city,  and  altliough 
stud  partitions  are  still  retained  inside,  it  is  not  allowed  now  to  have  wooden  exteriors. 
But  there  are  differences  between  the  methods  of  bricklaying  here  and  the  ways  common 
to  the  old  country.  Generally  speaking,  for  a  one-brick  wall  there  is  hardly  any  bond 
between  the  inner  and  outer  half-brick  veneer. 

To  all  appearances,  there  is  no  bond  visible                                  ^"^^o. 
on  either  face,  but  it  exists,  however  poor  it      C         ||      ~  ||X~  ii ? 


may  be.     The  plan  of  a  course  is  as  seen  in        ^ 

Fig.   1420,   the   brick  h  being   the   bond,  of      t  II  ^^?^     a      j|        { 

which  there  is  1  at  every  2  ft.  or  so.    Another 

method  is  to  build  5  courses  of  stretchers,  and  then  1  of  headers,  which  is  better  than 
the  first,  but  Canadian  bricklayers  have  yet  to  learn  English  and  Flemish  bonds. 
The  severity  of  the  climate  demands  that  great  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  outsides 


Colonial  Houses.  G87 

of  the  houses,  hoth  walls  and  roof,  find  a  precaution  taken  here  would  if  adopted  in 
England,  be  found  of  great  advantage  in  keeping  out  the  damp  in  small  houses.  This 
is  the  custom  of  fixing  grounds  to  the  inside  of  the  brick  walls,  and  hithiiig  and  plaster- 
ing, leaving  1  iu.  space  between  the  back  of  the  laths  and  the  wall.  By  this  means  the 
outer  wet  is  not  conducted  to  the  plaster  through  the  bricks,  and  tlie  houses  are  thereby 
kept  cooler  in  summer  and  warmer  in  winter. 

Owing  to  there  being  no  internal  brick  walls,  each  floor  can  be  arranged  without  of 
necessity  following  the  plan  of  the  floor  below;  this  gives  endless  facility  iu  phuining, 
and  the  consequence  is  that  8-roomed  houses  here  are  infinituly  more  comfortable  than 
in  the  old  couutry.  In  the  first  place,  the  system  of  stoves  does  away  with  the  necessity 
of  fireplaces,  although  1  or  2  are  constantly  introduced,  for  nothing  is  equal  to  an  open 
fire  for  cheerfulness.  To  heat  an  ordinary  house,  a  large  stove  stands  in  the  entrance 
hall,  and  the  iron  flue  wanders  half  over  the  house  at  a  distance  of  li  ft.  from  the  ceiling, 
suspended  by  wire  fastened  to  screws  or  hooks,  in  the  joists  above.  Holes  are  left  in 
floors  and  partitions  for  the  pipe  to  pass  through,  fitted  with  iron  collars,  air  spaces 
being  left  to  prevent  the  probability  of  fire,  which  otherwise  would  certainly  be  the 
result.  The  cooking-stove  pipe  conducts  the  hot  air  over  another  part  of  the  house,  and 
other  rooms  or  passages  are  heated  by  smaller  stoves,  as  the  case  may  require.  These 
stove  pipes  are  taken  to  the  brick  chimney-stacks  just  where  most  convenient,  and  thus 
every  room  and  passage  is  kept  comfortably  warm  through  the  whole  winter,  for  the 
fires  are  left  in  day  anji  night.  Largo  stoves  necessitate  wide  halls,  whicli  are 
generally  wisely  avoided  in  our  "  tight  little  island  "  as  a  source  of  cold  air  and  a  trouble 
generally.  Some  liouses  have  no  doors  to  the  sitting-rooms,  arches  being  left,  which 
are  hung  with  curtains  or  left  altogether  open  to  suit  the  taste  of  the  tenant.  Every 
bedroom  is  allowed  its  hanging-closet,  about  3  ft.  square,  and  of  a  height  equal  to  that  of 
the  room ;  and  every  house  has  its  bathroom.  Internal  or  external  blimls  are  fitted  to  all 
the  windows,  made  with  movable  slats,  in  small  panels,  hung  folding  in  narrow  leaves, 
and  then,  with  a  good  wide  verandah  and  a  cellar  to  act  as  cool  larder,  the  house  is 
complete,  and  very  comfortable  it  may  be  too.  As  the  summer  draws  on,  all  tlie  stove 
pipes  are  taken  down  and  cleaned,  and  they  and  the  stoves  are  all  stowed  away  out  of 
sight  until  the  cold  weather  begins  to  set  in.  Glass  frames  are  put  into  the  window 
spaces  in  winter  to  form  a  "  double  "  window — a  very  important  factor  in  the  comfort  of 
a  house. 

The  natives  in  the  country  districts  of  Ceylon  generally  build  their  houses  (huts)  of 
mud  (wattle  and  daub),  the  uprights  and  roof  timbers  being  common  jungle  wood,  and 
thatched  with  the  dried  leaf  of  the  coconut  tree  (locally  knowTi  as  cadjans).  In  the 
mountain  districts  of  Ceylon,  coflfee  planters'  bungalows  are  nearly  all  built  of  wood,  and 
of  what  is  locally  known  as  wattle  and  daub,  that  is,  wooden  uprights  crossed  on  both 
sides  with  small  bamboos  (or  what  is  better  known  by  the  name  of  icaratchks)  and  filled 
in  with  clay  made  into  the  consistency  of  mortar,  and  plastered  on  both  sides.  They  are 
put  up  very  cheaply,  and  are  well  adapted  to  the  climate.  Other  materials,  such  as 
bricks,  would  be  too  expensive,  on  account  of  the  distance  and  difficulty  of  transport. 
The  mode  of  building  is  to  put  in  a  stone  foundation  up  to  the  floor  level,  aud  then  a 
wooden  framing  all  round  to  receive  the  ends  of  the  uprights,  the  other  ends  of  the 
uprights  being  tenoned  into  the  wall  plates,  the  window  aud  door  frames  fixed  between 
the  uprights,  with  horizontal  ties  to  stiffen  the  framing,  and  then  filled  in  between  the 
framing  with  wattle  and  daub  as  before  stated. 

The  ordinary  rules  for  ventilation  are  often  inapplicalile  in  India,  owing  to  the 
extreme  heat  of  the  external  atmosphere,  which  renders  it  necessary  to  exclude  it 
entirely  during  the  day,  unless  previously  cooled  by  some  artificial  process.  The 
ordinary  method  of  doing  this  is  by  means  of  tatties,  or  grass  screens,  placed  in  the  door- 
ways to  windward,  and  kept  constantly  wetted.  In  general,  the  air  inside  the  house  is 
cooled  temporarily  by  agitating  it  with  punkahs.     To  secure  a   thorough   draught 


688  Colonial  Houses. 

through  the  rooms,  numerous  doors  or  windows  are  provided,  and  placed  opposite  to  each 
other. 

In  the  Punjab,  the  roof  usually  consists  of  a  course  of  bricks  or  flat  tiles,  or  slabs  of 
stone,  united  by  lime  mortar,  completely  closing  all  the  seams,  and  above  the  bricks 
a  layer  of  earth,  3-6  in.  thick,  well  beaten  down.  A  good  brick-earth  should  be  used 
for  this  covering,  but  it  will  require  frequent  beating  to  consolidate  it.  This  is  termed 
a  hucha-terrace  roof.  As  a  bed  for  the  covering  of  earth,  a  layer  of  the  reeds  called 
surhimda,  or  the  small  twigs  of  a  common  jungle-shrub  called  sambhaloo  or  samaloo,  or 
branches  of  the  jhao  (tamarisk)  laid  down  over  the  horizontal  rafters  in  small  bundles, 
tightly  bound  and  closely  packed,  may  be  used  instead  of  bricks.  Sometimes  earth  is 
dispensed  with  for  these  roofs,  and  the  whole  upper  surface  is  plastered.  The  preven- 
tion of  leakage  may  be  further  secured,  and  the  coolness  of  the  building  promoted  (at 
the  expense  of  additional  weight  on  the  beams)  by  a  second  course  of  bricks  or  tiles  laid 
over,  and  breaking  joint  with,  the  lower  course.  This  roof  is  known  as  a  pucka-terrace 
roof,  and  its  construction  is  very  similar  to  that  of  the  terraced  floor ;  3  layers  of  tiles 
laid  to  break  joint,  the  upper  layer  being  covered  with  a  thin  coating  of  plaster,  well 
polished  and  oiled,  forms  a  very  durable  flat  roof,  and  possesses  the  advantages  of  being 
more  quickly  made  and  lighter  than  a  terrace  roof. 

Sloping  or  pitched  roofs  are  generally  covered  with  thatch  or  tiles.  A  good  thatch 
forms  the  coolest  and  driest  roof.  The  thatch  in  India  is  generally  formed  of  a  long 
grass  laid  on  a  framework  (jafari)  of  small  bamboos  placed  over  the  woodwork  of  the 
roof.  The  jafari  is  made  on  the  ground,  of  whole  bamboos  laid  in  a  lattice  form  like 
trellis-work,  with  intervals  of  about  6  in.,  over  which  split  bamboos  are  fastened  about 
2  in.  apart,  the  whole  being  tightly  secured  with  string.  Over  this  jafari  is  laid  the 
grass  in  layers  3  in.  thick,  the  first  layer  being  generally  attached  before  the  jafari  is 
placed  on  the  roof.  Thatch  ought  to  be  at  least  9  in.  thick.  It  requires  a  thick  coat  of 
3-4  in.  thick  every  3  years.  The  grass  is  brought  in  bundles  called  poolas,  which  are 
broken  up  and  spread  flat  between  2  pieces  of  split  bamboo.  The  thicker  or  lower  ends 
of  the  grass  are  dressed  evenly  to  one  line,  and  the  grass  in  its  position  on  the  roof  lies 
with  these  ends  towards  the  eaves.  These  bundles  are  then  fastened  to  the  bamboo 
framework,  beginning  from  the  eaves  upwards,  and  so  overlapping  each  other  that  the 
small  pieces  of  bamboo  which  keep  them  in  position  are  not  seen  from  the  outside.  All 
along  the  eaves,  larger  but  round  bundles  of  grass  are  placed  the  full  thickness  of  the 
thatch.  The  ridge  of  a  flat  roof  is  generally  bound  with  a  roll  of  sirkee  laid  horizon- 
tally ;  and  the  same  is  occasionally  done  under  the  eaves. 

Tiles  are  sometimes  laid  over  the  thatch,  but  this  combination  is  not  recommended. 
A  terrace  roof  may  also  be  laid  over  a  truss  as  well  as  over  flat  beams,  when  the  pitch  is 
not  too  great.  Planking,  with  tarred  seams,  is  a  very  common  roof-covering  in  the 
Himalayan  hill  stations,  but  it  requires  to  be  made  with  great  care,  and  only  the  best- 
seasoned  timber  should  be  employed,  as  it  is  exposed  to  very  trying  alternations  of  tem- 
perature. Shingles,  which  are  rectangular  pieces  of  plank  applied  in  the  same  manner 
as  slates,  are  likewise  much  used  in  the  hills  for  roofing.  English  deal  packing-cases, 
beer-chests,  &c.,  are  not  uncommonly  cut  up  for  this  purpose,  the  wood  being  well 
seasoned,  and  the  boxes  seldom  flt  for  other  use.  Another  material  used  for  the  roof- 
covering  of  hill  houses  is  the  composition  called  "  oropholite."  It  is  made  of  sharp 
river  or  pit  sand  and  chalk,  with  an  admixture  of  litharge,  all  finely  sifted  and  made 
into  a  paste  with  linseed  oil.  This  is  spread  on  one  or  both  sides  of  any  kind  of  common 
coarse  cloth,  so  as  to  form,  when  dry,  a  sheet  about  |  in.  thick.  These  sheets,  when 
prepared,  are  hung  up  to  dry,  and  are  then  applied  in  pieces  of  such  size  as  may  be 
found  convenient. 

Besides  the  above,  roofs  arc  covered  with  slates  where  they  are  obtainable,  or  with 
tiles,  lead,  zinc,  or  corrugated  iron.  The  last-named  material  is  daily  coming  into  us& 
in  India,  especially  for  coverings  for  godowus,  open  sheds,  &c. 


(   089    ) 


INDEX. 


\bIES  woods,   130,   131-2,   147-8. 

155 
icacia  woods,  126,  128-9,  133,  134, 

155,  163 
Leer  woods,  138,  148 
Lcid  test  for  stone,  566 
idenanthera  wood,  155 
idjustable  clamp,  197 

—  dado  plane,  245-6 

—  jack  plane,  237 

—  mirror  stand,  506 

idjustiug    surfaces  by  hammering, 
84-8 

idzc's,  256-7 
Eolipile,  516 
ifrican  green,  408 

—  mahogany,  138 

—  oak,  141 

—  teak,  141 
.ging  bronze,  26 
.ilanthus  wood,  155 
Lir  pump,  516 
motion,  481 

rack  and  pinion  for,  497 

—  vessel  for  burning,  96 
.ke  wood,  127 

.Ibizzia  woods,  156 

Iburnum,  166 

.Ider  buckthorn  wood,  132 

—  wood,  127,  151 
lectryon  wood,  149,  163 
lerce  wood,  127 

lerse  wood,  127 
Uoys  for  casting,  16-7 
Imond  wood,  129 
Inus  wood,  127 
lubo  wood,  152 
ludel  wood,  152 
luminium  bronze  solder,  90 
mber,  472 

—  varnishes,  474 
mboyna  wood,  350 
merican  beech  wood,  128 

—  black  larch,  136 

—  • spruce,  147 

—  dogwood,  132 

—  hand  vice,  193 

—  locust  wood,  126 

—  white  spruce,  147 
mes's  square,  192-3 
mesbury  band-saw  filer,  215 
neroid  gauge,  520 

Dgle-gauges  for  metal-cutting  tools, 

548 

Dgles,  clearance  and  cutting,  546-7 

—  metal  turning  tools,  540 

—  wood-cutting  tools,  560 
Qgophora  wood,  127 
Qgular  bit  stock,  219 
aimi,  472 


Anjilli  wood,  135,  156 
Annealing  steel,  64-6 
Annual  rings,  166 
Anti-friction  bearing,  4 
Antwerp  blue,  407 
Anvils,  46-7 
Apple  wood,  127,  350 
Applying  paint,  413 
Aquatapaua  wood,  106 
Aramana  wood,  152 
Araucaria  woods,  130,  142 
Arbor  chuck,  534 
Aristotelia  wood,  138,  162 
Arsenic  yellow,  409 
Art  bronze,  26 
Artocarpus  woods,  135,  156 
Ash  graining,  430 

wood,  127-8 

Ashlar  work,  575 

Assegai  wood,  128,  151 

Assisting  crank  over  dead  centres. 


Atmospheric  hammer,  516 

Augers,  247 

Australian  apple  wood,  127 

beech  wood,  128 

boxwood,  129 

cherry  wood,  131 

hickory  wood,  134 

mahogany,  135 

oaks,  141 

red  cedar  wood,  130 

Autogenous  soldering,  92-7 
Awls,  246 
Axes,  252-6 

form  of  cutting  edge,  254-C 

handle,  253-^ 

principles,  252 

using,  252-3 

Azadirachta  wood,  156 


[510 


B. 


ACK  SAWS,  221-2 
Bahama  dogwood,  132 
Balance  pumps,  516 
Balata  wood,  166 
Bahng  scoop,  514 
Balk  timber,  169 
B;illow  wood,  164 
Band  saws,  224-5 

flier,  215 

motion,  483 

set,  217-3 

Banks,  676 
Banyan  wood,  159 
Bar  iron,  45 
Barker  mill,  512 
Barklya  wood,  163 
Barometer,  520 
Barringtonia  woods,  15C 
Bartons,  476 
Basic  pigments,  406-7 


(  Bassia  woods,  156 
Bastard  black  pine,  139 

ebony,  153 

luck, 591-2 

Battens,  109 

Bauhinia  wood,  150,  163 

Bearing  joints,  272—1 

Bed  panels,  veneering,  360-1 

Beds,  405 

Bedsteads,  304-6 

Beechwood,  123,  350 

Beefwood,  350 

Beehives,  321^ 

Belgian  burnishing  powder,  452 

Bell-centre  punch,  191 

crank  and  disc,  4S5 

lover,  481 

banging,  634-40 

Bellows,  plumbers',  97 
Bells,  casting,  21-2 

electric,  635-40 

soldering  cracked,  112 

Bench,  cabinet-makers',  353-1 

carpenters',  257-9 

makuig,  290-2 

boy,  355 

clamp  motion,  487 

clamps,  197 

stops,  259-60 

vices,  261-4 

Bent-setting  saws,  216-8 

Benzoate  driers,  412 

Beriya  wood,  152 

Berlm  blue,  407 

Bermuda  cedar  wood,  130 

Berrya  wood,  156 

Betula  woods,  128 

Bevel  gears  and  double  clutch,  523 

ratchet  wheels,  523 

Bevels,  187 
Beyeria  wood,  166 
Bibiri  wood,  133 
Bidsford  black,  407 
liignonia  woods,  156-7 
Bilge  ejector,  516 
Billian  chingy  wood,  164 
— —  wangy  wood,  161 
Binding-joi'sts,  338-9 
Birchwood,  128,  350 
Bird's-eye  maple,  138,  395 
Bisecting  gauge,  510 
Bismuth  solders,  91 
Bits,  107 

and  braces,  247-8 

tinning,  101-2 

Black  and  puH  marbling,  432 

bardilla  marbling,  433 

birch  wood,  128,  163 

board  washes,  435-6 

dogwood  1 32 

heart  birch  wood,  128 

2  Y 


690 


INDEX. 


Black  iron  wood,  134, 151 

malre  wood,  138,  162 

mapau  wood.  163 

pigments,  407 

pine,  139,  141 

stains,  434-6 

varnisli  for  metal,  475 

Virginia  walnut  wood,  150 

walnut,  395 

wood,  128-9 

Blazing  saws,  66 
Blind  dovetails,  281-2 
Blocks  and  tackle,  476 
Blower,  519 

for  soldering,  104-6 

Blown  castings,  20 
Blowpipe  brazing,  115-6 

burning,  94-7 

fitting  to  gas  supply,  105-6 

Blowpipes,  102 
Blue  black,  407 

gum  wood,  133 

pigments,  407-3 

stains,  436-7 

Board  fence,  333 
Boards,  drawing,  1 

removing  drawings  from,  8 

Boaster,  573 

Boat  detaching  hook,  519 

Bob,  gilders',  447 

Bobbin  bit,  248 

Bobbins,  electric,  639 

Bohnenberger's  macliine,  503 

Boiling  wood,  171 

Bolts  and  nuts,  278 

forging,  69-71 

Bombax  wood,  157 
Bond,  588-9,  593-5 
Bone  black,  407 
Bookcase,  369 
Bookedges,  burnishing,  454 
Borassus  wood,  157 
Borate  driers,  412 
Boring,  549-54 

collar,  535 

iron,  54-6 

machine,  250 

tools,  240-50,  541 

Boss  spanners,  81-2 
Bossing  irons,  107-8 

mallets,  107 

Bourdon  gauge,  520 
Bow  saw,  198 
Bowery's  clamp,  505 
Box-scraper,  244 

stool,  making,  302 

woods,  129,  166,  350 

Boxes,  ironfounding,  38 

sheet-metal,  126 

Boyle's  ventilator,  657 

Braby's  glazing,  632 

Braces  and  bits,  247-8 

Brackets,  fretwork,  398-9 

Bradawl,  246 

Brake  for  cranes,  494 

Brandering,  274 

Brard's  test  for  stone,  566 

Brass-castings,  burning,  92-4 

founding,  16-35 

furnaces,  17-9 

lacquer,  475 

moulding,  20-2 

polishes,  452 

pouring,  22-4 

soldering,  114 

to  platinum,  soldering.  111 

to  steel,  soldering,  111-2 

turning  tools,  542 

wire  soldering.  111 

work  solder,  90 


Braziers'  hearth,  108-9 
Brazil-wood  lake,  408 
Brazing,  97-9 

witli  blowpipe,  115-6 

Breaking-weight  of  woods,  126 
Brear's  bilge-ejector,  516 
Breabt  drill,  249 
Bremen  blue,  408 
Bricklayers'  tools,  587 
Bricks,  577-9 

laying,  587-94 

Brickwork,  577-95,  686 

bond, 588-9,  593-5 

pointing,  590-3 

Bridged  gutter,  343 
Bridges,  675-6 
Bridle  joint,  276 
liriedelia  wood,  157 
Bright  gilding,  449 
Brighton  green,  408 
British  Guiana  woods,  150 
Broad  finishing,  549 

tool,  573 

Broadleaf  wood,  129 
Broad-leaved  cherry  wood,  163 
Bronze,  ageing,  26 

art,  26 

casting  en  cire  perdue,  28-35 

colouring,  26 

figures,  casting,  24-8 

founding,  1 6-35 

furnaces,  17-9 

Japanese,  26-7 

moulding,  20-2 

ornamenting,  27-8 

pouring,  22^ 

Brosmium  wood,  150 

Brown    and   Level's   boat-detaching 

ochre,  403  fhook,  519 

pigments,  403 

pink,  408 

stains,  437 

Brownell's  crank  motion,  503 
Brunswick  black,  475 

green,  408 

Brush  wheels,  521 

Brushes,  paint,  415 

Bubbles  in  castings,  40 

Buchanan  and  Rigliter's   slide-valve 

Buck-saws,  222  [motion,  509 

Building-up  beams,  271-2 

woods,  179 

Bullet-tree  wood,  130 
Bunya-bunya  wood,  130 
Burning  (soldering),  92-7 

macbine,  95-B 

Burnishing,  452-4 
Burnt  iron,  62 

sienna,  408 

solder.  111 

umber,  408 

Bursaria  wood,  163,  166 
Buruta  wood,  152 
Butea  wood,  157 
Butt  joint,  277 

jointing  veneer  curls,  361 

weld,  45 

Butterwood,  166    ■ 

Buttoned  seats,  upholstering,  403 

Button  wood,  145 

Buxus  woods,  129,  157 

Byttneria  wood,  157 


C 


ABINET-MAKING,  350-86 

examples,  363-86 

imitation  inlaying,  362-3 

inlaying,  362 

tools,  351-5 

veneering,  355-62 


Cabinet-making  woods,  350-1 

scraper,  354 

Ca?8alpinia  wood,  157 
Calamander  wood,  152,  158 
Calcimining,  610-3 
Calliper  rule,  192 

square,  191-2 

Callipers,  189-90 
Callitris  woods,  127,  131 
Calmes,  630-1 

Calophyllum  woods,  145,  148,  157 
Camphor  wood,  350,  386 
Cams,  478-80,  483 
Canary  wood,  350 
Cane-bottomed  chair,  303 
Canned  goods,  sealing,  91 
Cape  ashwood,  151 

ironwood,  134 

lancewood,  128,  151 

mahogany,  152 

walnut,  152 

woods,  150-2 

Capstan,  519,  531 
Carapa  wood,  166 
Carcass  saw,  208 
Cards,  gilding  on,  448 
Careya  wood,  157 
Cargillia  wood,  163 
Carisiri  wood,  150 
Carminated  lakes,  403 
Carmine,  408 
Carpentry,  126-350 

accessories,  257-66 

benches,  257-9 

bench-making,  290-2 

bench-stops,  259-60 

bench-vices,  261-4 

bolts  and  nuts,  278 

boring  tools,  246-50 

chopping  tools,  252-7 

construction,  266-350 

edge  tools,  230-46 

examples,  289-350 

guiding  tools,  182-93 

hinging,  283-9 

holdfasts,  260-1 

holding  tools,  193-8 

house-building,  334-50 

joints,  266-83 

making  garden  requisites,  310-34 

making  rough  furniture,  294-310 

making   workshop   appliances, 

289-94 

nails,  263-4,  278 

rasping  tools,  198-230 

sawing  rest,  261 

screws,  264-5,  278 

sockets,  279 

straps,  278 

striking  tools,  251-2 

tools,  182-266 

valet,  260-1 

woods,  126-82 

Carpinus  wood,  134 
Carpodetus  wood,  163 
Carriage  varnishes,  474 
Carton  pierre,  paint  for,  417 
Cartwright's  parallel  motion,  500 
Carving,  386-95 

handy  tools,  392-3 

operations,  394-5 

parting  tool,  392 

selecting  wood,  388-90 

sharpening  tools,  394 

staining,  389 

tools,  390-94 

voluter,  392 

woods,  386-390 

Carya  wood,  133-4 
Case-hardening  steel,  66 


INDEX. 


C91 


Casement  windows,  34R 
Cask-cradle,  niakiiifj,  295 
Cast  iron,  brazing,  98 

burning,  92^ 

Castanea  wood,  131 
Casting  and  founding,  13-44 

bells,  21-2 

bronze  figures,  24-8 

by  forma  perduta,  22 

figures,  24, 

gas  generated  in,  23-4 

iron  in  loam,  39 

— —    sand,  39 

Castings,  blown,  20 

examination  of  iron,  40-2 

form  of  iron,  39-40 

of  fragile  objects,  22 

sand-burned,  21 

Casuarina  woods,  141,  157,  350 
Cathartocarpus  wood,  157 
Cauling  veneers,  358-60 
Caulking  joint,  272 
Cedar  boom  wood,  130-1,  151 

woods,  130,  163,  164,  395 

Cedrela  woods,  130,  149,  157 
Cedrus  woods,  130,  132,  157 
Celery-leaved  pine  wood,  148 
Cement  floors,  674-5 

paint,  417 

Cements  for  plastering,  604-8 

iron,  88-9 

Centre-bits,  248 

lines  of  drawings,  5-6 

punches,  191,  543 

; square,  192-3 

Centrifugal  check  hooks,  494 

governor,  486 

Oentrolinead,  509 
peylon  mahogany,  135 

woods,  152-4 

Chain  and  chain  pulley,  493 

pumps,  514 

Ohaire  bronze,  26 

Chairs,  making,  303-4,  363-9,  400-4 

Chalk  line,  182 

prepared,  453 

Changes  of  velocity  and  direction,  495 
Dhase  mortice,  273 

wedge,  108 

Cherry  birch  wood,  128 

1 woods,  131,  163,  350,  388 

ijhest  of  drawers,  306-8,  369-80 
Shestnut  graining,  430-1 

i wood,  131,  388 

i!hickrassia  wood,  157 

5hilled  rolls,  43-4 

;hilling  iron  castings,  43-4 

'huiese  blue,  407 

I —  lake,  408 

I —  red,  409 

—  windlass,  481,  502 

—  yellow,  409 

■hisels,  230  3,  390-1,  558-61,  573 

—  forging,  74-6 

—  iron,  49-53 

—  sharpening,  75-6,  240-3 
hittagong-wood,  149 
hloroxylon  woods,  147,  157 
hopping  tools,  252-7 
lirome  green,  408 

I —  orange,  408 

—  yellows,  409 
bucks,  532-5 

ircles,  relations  of,  117 

ircular  into  reciprocating  motion,  495 

—  melting-furnace,  18-9 

—  plane,  243-4 

—  saw,  222-4 

clamp,  197 

hammering,  86-7 


Cire  perdue  casting,  28-35 

Clamps,  196-8,  213-J,  359-00,  505 

Clap  boarding,  141 

Classiiication  of  woods,  169 

Clay  foundations,  667 

Clayton's  sliding  journal-box,  497 

Cleaning  files,  59 

paint,  415-6 

Clearing  a  projecting  boss,  545 

Close  jointing,  267-« 

stoves,  663 

Cloth-dressing  machine,  506  « 

tracing,  8-9 

Cluster  pine  wood,  142 

Clutch-boxes,  476 

Coarse  stuff,  605-6 

Coats  of  paint,  414-5 

Cobalt  benzoatc  drier,  412 

blue,  408 

borate  drier,  412 

Coburg  varnish,  475 

Coconut  wood,  153 

Cocos  wood,  157 

Cog-wheels,  493 

Cogging  joint,  272 

Cohesive  force  of  woods,  126 

Coils,  electric,  639 

Cold  chisels,  49-53 

shut  iron,  39 

soldering,  97 

Gplonial  houses,  685-8 

Colophony,  472 

Coloured  paints,  417-8 

Colouring  bronze,  26 

pigments,  407-9 

soft  solder,  92 

— ■ —  tracings,  8 

Colours  for  drawings,  7-8 

graining,  430 

of  tempering,  63-5 

Colt's  revolver  movement,  497 

Combination  filisters,  244-5 

movement,  495 

tools,  191-3 

Combined  rubbles,  575 

Compass  saw,  208,  222 

wood,  170 

Compasses,  189-90,  509 

drawing,  5 

Compensation  balance,  499 

Compo  pipes,  soldering,  114 

Composition  of  paints,  421-2 

of  wood,  178-9 

Compound  bar  compensation  pendu- 
lum, 499 

slide  rest,  537 

solder  joints,  91 

Concrete,  596-602 

bulk  produced,  601-2 

cementing  material,  600-1 

expansion,  602 

foundations,  668 

ingredients,  596-8 

laying,  599-600 

mixing,  598-9 

selenitic,  602 

Cones,  striking  out,  117-8 

Conical  pendulum,  499 

Connarus  wood,  153 

Conocarpus  wood,  153 

Continuous  circular  into  intermittent 
circular  motion,  508 

rectilinear  re- 
ciprocating motion,  508 

rectilinear  reciprocat- 
ing motion,  510 

rocking  motion,  510 

Conversion  of  wood,  175-8 

Cooling  cutters,  542 

strains,  36 


Copai  wood,  166 
Copal,  472 

varnishes,  474-5 

Coping,  576-7 
Copper  jiaint,  418 

rooling,  626 

Copper  Bolder,  90 
Copying  drawings,  10-3 

papers,  Hl-3 

Cores,  composition  for,  24 

for  casting,  15 

iron  founding,  36-7 

Cork  wood,  163 
Corner  piecing,  279 
Corners,  veneering,  359-60 
Cornus  wood,  132 
Couche,'!,  363,  402-3 
Counterbalance  bucket,  514 
Countersinks,  248,  249-50 
Courbaril  wood,  166 
Coursed  rubble,  575 
Coverings,  upholstery,  400 
Cowrie  wood,  135 
Crabwood,  166 
Cramp  drills,  505 
Cramps,  196-8,  213-4 
Crank  and  fly-wheel,  485 

motions,  478 

pin  and  bell  crank,  485 

substitutes  for,  4'-0-l 

Cranking  file  tangs,  76 
Creams,  furniture,  459-70 

painteis",  423 

Creosoting  wood,  174-5 
Crocus,  454 
Cross-cut  saw,  220-1 

riftied  bronze,  26 

Crossed-leg  table,  302 
Crotch  punch,  206,  218 
Crucibles,  19-20 

iron  casting,  37-8 

Crushing  force  of  woods,  126 
Cup  chuck,  534 

shakes,  167, 177 

Cupania  wood,  163 
Cupola  furnace,  17 
Cupressus  wood,  131 
Cups,  metal,  125-6 
Curb  roof,  345-6 
Curls,  butt  jointing,  3G1 
Curtisia  wood,  128 
Curvature  of  adze,  256 
Cut  deals,  169 

off  saw,  208 

Cutlery,  burnishing,  454 
Cutters,  milling,  554-8 
Cutting  gauge,  186 

mortice  and  tenon,  232-3 

screws  in  lathes,  539 

square  threads,  546 

tools,  cooling,  542 

for  iron,  49-53 

sheet  metal,  119 

vertical  slot,  545 

Cyanoferric  paper,  11-2 
C'yanotype  paper,  10-1 
Cyclographs,  508 
Cycloidal  surfaces,  505 
Cylindrical  tubes,  striking  out,  US 
Cypress  pine  wood,  131 
wood,  131. 

j  )aCHPAPPE,  618 

biicrophyllum  wood,  139 
Dacrydium    woods,    139,    142,     144, 

162-3 
Dado  plane,  245-6 
Dalbergia  wowls,  147,  153 
1  )aminna  wood,  152. 

2  Y  2 


692 


INDEX. 


Dammar,  472 

Dammara  wood,  135,  162 

Damp  course,  670 

walls,  603,  643 

Dangaha  wood,  152 

Dantzic  fir,  142-3 

Darby,  608 

Dark-yellow  wood,  131 

Darroo  wood,  164 

Ddwata  wood,  152 

Dead  centres,  510 

gilding,  447-9 

Deadened  floors,  340 

Deal  wood,  131-2 

Deals,  169 

Decay  of  wood,  173-4 

D'Ectol's  oscillating  column,  513 

Defects  in  wood,  167-8 

Del  wood,  152 

Deodar  wood,  132,  157 

Derbyshire  spar  marbling,  433 

Desiccating  wood,  171 

Diagonal  catches,  487-9 

Diaphragm  forcing-pump,  514 

Dickson's  device  for  converting  oscil- 
lating into  intermittent  circular 
motion,  509 

Die  square  timber,  170 

Dies  and  stoclis,  59-61 

Dietrich's  copying-paper,  12-3 

Differential  movement,  494-5 

Dillenia  woods,  153 

Dimensions  of  drawings,  5-6 

Dining-chair,  363-4 

Diospyros  woods,  132,  141,  152,  158 

Dipping  steel  tools,  65-6 

Dipterocarpus  woods,  135,  158 

Disc,  crank-pin  and  slotted  connect- 
ing rod  486 

wheels,  523 

Discoloration  of  paint,  416-7 

Disengaging  eccentric  rod,  489 

Disston's  revolving  saw  set,  218-9 

Distemper  paintiug,  610-3 

Ditches,  676 

Divan  chairs,  365-6 

Doatiness,  167-8 

Dodonea  wood,  127 

Doghead.  hammer,  85 

irons,  275 

Dogwood,  132 

Door-shutting  contrivance,  506 

Doom  boom  wood,  132, 151 

Doors,  346-S 

frames,  346 

ledged,  346-7 

panelled,  347 

sash,  347-8 

Dormer  window,  345 

Double-acting  pump,  513 

iloors,  338-9 

framed  floors,  339 

gear  foot-lathe,  537 

lantern  bellows  pump,  513 

notching  joint,  272 

rack,  480 

Doubling  length  of  stroke,  481 

speed,  529 

Dove  marbling,  433 

Dovetail  saw,  198,  208 

tenon,  274 

Dovetailing,  272,  277,  281-2,  299-300 

Dowel  plate,  354 

Dowelled  floors,  278,  339-40 

joint,  277,  282 

Dowling  bit,  248 

Drag  link  motion,  493 

Dragon's  blood,  473 

Drains,  676-7,  6s0 

Draught  of  castings,  3G 


Draw  away,  45 

down,  45 

Drawers,  chest  of,  306-8,  369-80 

in  table,  making,  300 

Draw-filing,  59 
Drawing  boards,  1 

compasses,  5 

in  spinning,  519 

instruments,  buying,  1 

instruments,  keeping,  1 

knife,  233-4 

mechanical,  1-13 

paper,  2 

pens,  4-5 

rules,  parallel,  5 

scales,  1 

squares,  1-2 

testing  straight-edge,  5 

Drawings,  centre  lines,  5-6 

colours  for,  7-8 

copying,  10-3 

dimensions  of,  5-6 

erasing  errors  in,  3-4 

finishing,  7 

fixing  pencil,  8 

inking,  4-5 

mounting,  2-3 

mounting  on  linen,  3 

nature  of,  6-7 

pencilling,  3 

removing  from  board,  8 

shading,  8 

tints  in,  5-6 

title  of;  6 

Dresser,  308-10 

for  flattening  metal,  107 

Driers,  painting,  411-3 

varnish,  473 

Drift  out,  45 
Drifts,  forgint;,  77-8 
Drill-stocks,  56 
Drilling,  549-54 

apparatus,  503 

iron,  54-6 

machine  feed-motion,  480 

Drills,  55-6,  248-9,  543 

Drimys  wood,  134 

Driving  feed-rolls,  489 

Drop  lake,  408 

Drum,  483 

Drummond"s  glazing,  632-3 

Dry  gas-meter,  517 

rot,  173 

Drying-oils,  410-1 

paint,  414 

DucaliboUy  wood,  150 
Duguetia  wood,  150 
Dun  wood,  152 
Durability  of  stone,  562-3 

woods,  179 

Duramen,  166 
Dutch  pink,  409 
Dynamometer,  494,  505 
Dysoxylum  wood,  136, 162 


E. 


ARTH- WALLS,  683-4 
East  Indian  mahogany,  138 
Easy  chairs,  364-5,  402,  404 
Ebonizing,  437-9 

Ebony  wood,  132,  152,  350,  386-7,  395 
Eccentrics,  478,  483 
Economiser  for  grates,  661 
Edge-runners,  505 

tools,  230-46 

miscellaneous  forms,  243-6 

sharpening,  240-3 

Egg-shaped  motion,  487 
Egyptian  green  marbling,  433 
Eiaiocarpus  wood,  134, 162 


Elasticity  of  wood,  179 
Elbow  lever,  485 
Electric  bells,  635-40 

making,  639-40 

systems,  636-9 

lighting,  652-4 

Electro-magnet,  639 
Elemi,  472 

Elkin's  saw-sharpener,  215-6 
Ellipsograph,  485 
Elliptical  spur  gears,  523 
Elm,  132-3,  162 
Els  wood,  151 
Emblica  wood,  158 
Emerald  green,  408 
Emery  paper,  454-5 

wheels,  455 

for  gumming  saws,  220 

sharpening  saws,  216 

Ends,  169 

English  woods,  154-5 

Engravings,  mounting,  8 

Entwisle's  gearing,  531 

Epicyclic  trains,  520-1 

Epinette  wood,  147 

Erasing  errors  in  drawings,  3-4 

Eremophila  wood,  163 

Erool  wood,  175 

Erythrina  woods,  158,  163 

Essen  bout  wood,  151 

Eucalyptus  woods,  129,  133, 134, 135, 

148 
Eugenia  wood,  138,  162 
Euonymus  wood,  141 
Eurybia  wood,  139 
Even  grain  of  wood,  179 
Examination  of  iron  castings,  40-2 
Excaecaria  wood,  163 
Exocarpus  woods,  131,  163 
Expanding  pulley,  493 
Expansion  bit,  250 
eccentric,  483 


F. 


ACE-PLATE,  534 
Facing  chuck,  534 

moulds,  22,  23,  38 

Fagus  woods,  128,  148-9,  149-50,  163 

Fairbairn's  baling  scoop,  514 

Fan-blower,  519 

Fancy  coverings,  403-4 

Fascines,  669 

Fastenings,  268,  277-9 

Feathers,  stufling,  400 

Features  of  wood,  167 

Feed-rolls,  489 

Felling  wood,  166-7 

Felting,  617-8 

Fences,  331-3 

Ferguson's  mechanical  paradox,  520 

Feronia  wood,  158 

Ferro-prussiate  paper,  10-1 

Ficus  wood,  158-9 

Fiddle  drill,  481 

Figures,  casting,  24 

Filed  work,  finishing,  59 

Files,  227-30 

cleaning,  59 

fitting  to  handles,  76-7 

for  saws,  216 

forms,  227-9 

principles,  227 

sharpening,  229-30 

using,  229 

Filing  cast  iron,  53 

-guides,  214-5 

iron,  56-9 

saws,  213-6 

Filletstering  planes,  238,  244-5 
Filling  moulds,  21 


INDEX. 


693 


Filling  wood  for  painting,  414 
Fine  stuff,  606 
Finish  at  one  heat,  45 
Finishing  brickwork,  590-3 

drawings,  7 

filed  ironwork,  59 

iron,  44-90 

tools,  542 

Fir,  silver,  133 

white,  131-2 

Fireirons,  forge,  45 
Fireplaces,  594 
Fireproofing  wood,  175 
Firring  pieces,  340 

up,  274 

Fished  joint,  269 
Fitting  iron,  44-90 

up  files,  76-7 

Fixing  pencil  drawings,  8 

Flagstones,  568 

Flasks,  iron-founding,  38 

Flat  crown  wood,  151 

Flattening  tools,  sheet  metal,  120 

Flaws  in  iron  castings,  40-2 

Fleam  tooth,  222 

Flexible  water-main,  516 

Flindersia  wood,  163 

Float,  608 

Flooded  gum  wood,  135 

Flooring  joint,  277 

Floors,  334-40 

deadened,  340 

double,  338-9 

double-framed,  339 

dowelled,  339-40 

folding,  339 

girders,  339 

joists,  335-7 

materials,  334-5 

paint,  418 

parallel  boarding,  335-40 

pugging,  34U 

single-joisted,  337 

skirting  board,  340 

sounding  boards,  340 

stains,  439-41 

straight  joint,  339 

strutting  joists,  337-8 

trimmers,  338 

wood  for,  179 

Florentine  lake,  408 

Fluxes  for  soft-soldering,  101 

solders,  91 

soldering,  109 

Fluxing-points  of  solders,  91 
Folding  bookcase,  369 

floors,  339 

ladder,  506 

tools,  sheet-metal,  120-1 

Foot  lathes,  532,  537 

rule,  182-3 

Footmgs,  669-70 
Force-pump,  513 
Forcing-frames,  324-5 
Forest  oak,  141 

swamp  oak,  141 

Forge  fireirons,  45 

plug,  44 

stock,  44 

Forged  tools  superseded,  549 

Forges,  46 

Forging  bolts,  69-71 

chisels,  74-6 

defined,  61-2 

drifts,  77-8 

hammers,  73-4 

iron,  44-90 

keys,  66-9 

nuts,  71-2 

punches,  78  9 


Forging  scrapers,  77 

spanners,  79-f  2 

technical  terms,  44-5 

tongs,  72-3 

wrenches,  82-4 

Form  of  iron  castings,  39-40 
Forma  perduta  ca.sting,  22 
Forming  tools,  sheet-metal,  121-4 
Foundations,  667-70 
Founding  and  casting,  13-44 
Foundry  moulds,  14-5 

patterns,  14 

wood  for,  179 

Four-motion  feed,  508 

post  bedstead,  305-6 

-way  cock,  508 

Fourneyron  turbine,  512 

Fowl-houses,  310-21 

Foxiness,  167 

Foxtail  tenon,  274 

Fragile  objects,  castings  of,  22 

Frame-houses,  682-3 

turning  saw,  198 

Frankfort  black,  407 
Fraxinus  wood,  127-8 
Freestone,  568 
French  green,  408 

polishing,  459-70 

Fresco  painting,  423-9 
Fret  saws,  226-7,  39i-6 
Fretwork,  395-9 

brackets,  398-9 

gallery,  396-7 

operations,  396-9 

outline-cutting,  398 

stretchers,  397-8 

tools,  395-6 

woods,  395 

Friction,  505 

polish,  455 

wheels,  523 

Frictional  grooved  gearing,  523 
Fuchsia  wood,  136 
Fuel  economiser,  661 
Furnace  cupola,  17 

for  brass  and  bronze,  17-9 

hot  air,  663-5 

melting,  18-9 

reverberatory,  19 

Furniture  polishing,  459-70 

rough,  making,  294-310 

woods,  179 

Fusee-chain,  476 
Fusibility  of  solders,  91 

GtaL  MENDORA  wood,  152 

mora  wood,  152 

Gallery,  fretwork,  396-7 
Galvanized  iron  roofing,  626-7 

iron,  soldering.  111 

Gap  spanners,  79-80 
•(jarden  requisites,  making,  310-34 
Gardner's  seasoning  proa-ss,  172 
■Gas  fitting,  640 

for  blowpipe  work,  114-5 

generated  in  casting,  23-t 

lighting,  649-52 

meters,  517 

pipe  soldering,  98 

vice,  196 

regulator,  517 

supply,    fitting   blowpipe     to, 

105-6 
Gasometers,  516-7 
Gates,  333-t 
Gauge  for  screw-cutting,  SO-1 

of  saws,  207 

Gauged  stuff,  606 

Gauges,  186-7,  510,  519-20,  548 


Gearings,  621-31 
Gcel  bout  wo<id,  160,  152 
(iencva  sUip,  491 
German  silver  puliBb,  455 
Gilding,  446-9 
Gimlet  bit,  248 
Gimlets,  246-7 
Gipsy  table,  301 
Girders  In  lloorB,  339 
Glass,  627-K,  029 

gilding  on,  449 

to  metal,  Soldering,  113 

Glaze  whwls  for  steel,  455-<S 
Glazing,  627-34 

area  of  window,  628 

glass,  627-8,  629 

lead,  629-32 

putty,  628-9 

special  methods,  632-4 

Glazing  tools,  629 
Glueing,  279,  283 
Gmelina  wood,  128,  159 
Godapara  wood,  152 
(joing  barrels,  499 
Gold  lace,  polishing,  456 

paint,  418 

solder,  90-1 

to  platinum,  soldering,  113 

Gommo-fcrric  pajior,  11-2 
Gooler  wood,  158-9 
Gorukina  wood,  153 
Gossip-chairs,  366-8 
Gouges,  230-3,  390-1,  553-61 
Grafter  saw,  198 
Graining,  429-32 

colours,  430 

hints,  432 

styles,  430-2 

■  tools,  430 

Granite,  567 

marbling,  433 

Grant's  black,  407 
Granulating  solders,  91 
Graphite  crucibles,  19-20 
Grates,  open,  659 
Gravel  loundations,  667 
Graving  tools,  542 
Great  maple  wood,  143 
Green  pigments,  408 

stains,  441 

vcrditcr,  408 

Grcenheart  wood,  133 
Greenhouses,  325-30 
Grewia  wood,  159 
Grey  box  wood,  129 

stains,  441 

Gri-gri  wood,  166 
Grinding  paint,  413 
Grindstones,  240-2 

artificial,  456 

making,  543 

mount,  making,  292-4 

tool-rest,  242 

tracing  device,  241 

Griselinia  wood,  129 
Grits,  568 

Grooved  and  tongued  joint,  27' 
Grout,  586 
Growth  of  wood,  166 
Gru-gru  wood,  166 
Guaiacnm  wood,  136 
Guattcria  wood,  150,  15; 
Guava  wood,  160 
Guiana  woods,  150 
Guiding-tools,  182-93 
Gullet  of  8.1W8,  207 
Gum  resins,  varnish,  472 
Gumming  saws,  212-3,  220 
Gums,  varnish,  472 
Gum-tree  woods,  133 


694 


INDEX. 


Gutters,  340-6! 
Guynemer's  drier,  412-3 
Gyroscope,  502 
governor,  503 

JtlACKMATACK  WOOD,  136 

Haerlem  blue,  407 

Haircloth  upholstery,  403 

Hakea  wood,  166 

Hal  mendora  wood,  153 

milila  wood,  153 

wood,  153 

Half  lap  joint,  281 

round  rinder,  248 

Hall's  sudden-grip  vice,  193-4 

Halving  joint.  272 

Hamburg  lake,  408 

Hammer's  clamp,  197 

Hammering  plates,  84-8 

veneers,  357-8 

Hammerman,  45 

Hammers,  48-9,  241,  357-8,  399,  516 

atmospheric,  516 

dog-head,  85 

forging,  73-4 

long-cross  face,  84 

steam,  516 

twist,  85 

Hand  filing  saws,  213-4 

masts,  169 

saws,  198-222 

set,  217 

vice,  193 

Handles  of  axes,  253-4 

Handling  tools,  560-1 

Hard  silver  solder,  90 

solder,  90-1 

for  gold,  90 

spelter  solder,  90 

soldering,  97-9 

Hardening  cutting  tools,  548-9 

steel,  64-6 

Harding's  ventilators,  656 

Hardness  of  stone,  563-4 

tools,  64 

Harpullia  wood,  150,  163 

Harrison's  going  barrel,  499 

Hatchets,  252-6 

Havanna  cedar  wood,  130 

Hawk,  608 
He  oak,  141 
Heart  wood,  166 
Hearths,  46 

braziers',  103-9 

rieanshakes,  167 

.-teating  soldering-iron,  109 

Hedges,  676 

Hedycarya  wood,  135 

Helicograph,  505 

Heritiera  wood,  159 

Hero's  steam  toy,  516 

Hickory  wood,  133-4 

Hiero's  fountain,  514 

Hinau  wood,  134,  162 

Hinging,  283-9 

Hinoki  wood,  134 

Hirikadol  wood,  153 

Hives,  321-^ 

Hoard  and  Wiggin's  eteam-trap,  517 

Holdfasts,  260-1 

Holding  tools,  193-8 

Hollow  chuck,  534 

walls,  594 

Holly's  rotary  engine,  510 
Hollywood,  350,  388,  395 
Hooshe  wood,  134,  151 
Hopea  wood,  159 
Ho-a  wood,  153 
Hornbeam  wood,  134 


Horoeka  wood,  134 
Horopito  wood,  134 
Horsehair  stuffing,  400 
Hot-air  furnaces,  663-5 

seasoning  wood,  171 

water  heating,  665-6 

Hotchkiss's  atmospheric  hammer,  516 

House-buiWing,  334-50 

Housing,  274 

Howlett's  adjustable  friction  gearing, 

531 
Huon  pine  wood,  142 
Hurdles,  332-3 
Hyawa-bolly  wood,  150 
Hydraulic  ram.  513 
Hydrogen  generator,  95-6 
Hymentea  wood,  136 

Illumination,  646-54 

Inch  masts,  169 

tool,  573 

Indian  ink,  409 

woods,  155-62 

Indigo,  407 

Inflammable  objects,  moulding,  21 

Inga  wood,  146,  159,  175 

Inherent  strains,  36 

Inking  drawings,  4-5 

Inlaying  cabinet  work,  362 

Instantaneous-grip  vice,  194,  262 

Instruments,  drawing,  l 

Intermittent  circular  motion,  493 

Internally  toothed  spur-gear,  523 

Iron  boring,  54-6 

burnt,  62 

cast,  brazing.  98 

burning,  92-4 

casting  in  loam,  39 

sand,  39 

castings,  chilling,  43-4 

examination,  40-2 

form,  39-40 

• heavy,  41 

shrinkage,  37,  42-3 

cements,  88-9 

chisels,  49-53 

cold  shut,  39 

cutting  tools,  49-53 

drilling,  54-6 

filing,  56-9 

finishing,  44-90 

fitting,  44-90 

forges,  46 

forging,  44-90 

defined,  61-2 

•  founders'  pot,  38 

founding,  35-44 

flasks,  38 

patterns,  35-7 

tools,  37-9 

hammers,  48-9 

hearths,  46 

joints,  88-90 

oxide,  407 

•  paint,  418-9 

for,  419 

parting  mixture,  39 

plates,  warping,  41 

polishing,  456-7 

riveting,  89-90 

roofing,  626-7 

screw-cutting  tools,  59-61 

sealing  in  stone,  91 

second  melting,  40 

soldering,  112 

surfacing  tools,  56-9 

swaging  tools,  56 

tempering,  fi2-0 

— —  tools,  hardness,  64 


Iron  turning  tools,  541-2; 

varnish  for,  475 

welding,  62 

Ironbark  wood,  134 

Ironwoods,  134, 146, 151, 153,  159, 163 

165,  166,  175 
Italian  jasper  marbling,  433 
Ivory  black,  407 

gilding  on,  448-9 

Ivy-tree  wood,  134 


'  ACK  PLANE,  235,  237 

wood,  135,  153,  156 

Jaman  wood,  175 

Japanese  bronzes,  26  7 

lacquer,  471-2 

surfaces,  gilding  on,  448 

.lapanners'  gold  size,  446 

Jaral  wood.  135 

Jarrah  wood,  135 

Jejerecou  wood,  150 

Jewellers'  solders,  90-1 

Jewellery,  soldering,  98-9 

Jig  saw,  225,  506 

Joggle  joint,  275 

Johore  cedar  wood,  164 

ironwood,  165 

rosewood,  164 

teak  wood,  164 

Joining  stones,  575-6 

Joints,  bearing,  272-4 

bolts  and  nuts,  27t5 

brandering,  274 

bridle,  276 

butt,  277 

butt-jointing  veneer  curls,  361 

caulking,  272 

chase  mortice,  273-4 

classification,  268 

close  jointing,  267-8 

cogging,  272 

compound  solder,  91 

corner  piecing,  279 

double  notching,  272 

■ •  dovetailing,    272,    277,    281-2. 

299-300 

dowelled,  277 

equal  bearing,  267 

firring  up,  274 

fished,  269 

flooring,  277 

• for  band-saws,  224-5 

glueing,  279,  283 

grooved  and  tongued,  277 

half-lap,  281 

halving,  272 

hinging,  283-9 

housing,  274 

in  carpentry,  266-83 

iron,  88-90 

keying,  279 

keys,  277 

lap  (iron),  89 

lapped  beam,  268 

lengthening,  26S-71 

matched  and  beaded,  277 

metal  pipes,  124-5 

miscellaneous,  276-7 

mitre,  277 

mortice  and  tenon,  232-3  274-6 

306 

pinning,  279 

pins,  277 

post  and  beam,  274-6 

principles,  267 

rabbeted,  277 

red  lead,  83 

rust,  88 

scarfed,  270-1 


INDEX. 


695 


Joints,  single  notching,  272 

—  sockets,  279 

—  strains,  268 

—  straps,  278 

strengthening,  271-2 

—  striped,  99 
-r-  strut,  276 

—  tenon  and  mortice,  23'J-3,  274-6 
306 

—  thin  woods,  283 
toe,  276 

Tredgold  notch,  273 

tusk  tenoning,  273 

wedges,  277 

wiped,  99 

Joists,  binding,  338-9 

in  floors,  335-7 

' trimming,  333 

Jolotong  wood,  164 
Jouval  turbine,  512 
Juglans  woods,  133-4,  150,  159 
Jumping  rotary  motion,  525 
Jungle  jack  wood,  135 
Juniperus  woods,  130 

JYAPOL  WOOD,  153 
Kadubberiya  wood,  153 
Kafir  boom  wood,  151 
Kaha  milila  wood,  153 
Kahata  wood,  153 
Kahika  wood,  162 
Kahikatea  wood,  145,  162 
Kalwhiria  wood,  135 
Kalukela  wood,  153 
Kamahi  wood,  135 
Kameel  boom  wood,  132,  151 
Kanyin  wood,  135 
Karakane  bronze,  26-7 
Karramarda  wood,  175 
Kauri  wood,  135,  162 
Kawaka  wood,  130,  162 
Kaya  nierah  wood,  164 
Keating's  cement,  605 
Keene's  cement,  604-5 
Keim's  fresco  painting,  425-9 
Kershaw's  veniilator,  657 
Keyhole  saw,  208 
Keying,  279 
Keys,  277 

forging,  66-9 

Killing  spirits  of  salts,  101,  109 
King  post  roof,  342,  344 
King's  yellow,  409 
Kingwood,  350 
Kiripella  wood,  153 
KirlwaUa  wood,  153 
Kitchen  chair,  3C3-4 

dresser,  308-10 

table,  making,  295-301 

Kitul  wood,  153 

Knee  lever,  486 

Knife  tool,  541 

Knightia  wood,  146,  163 

Knotting,  painters',  416 

Kohe-kohe  wood,  136,  162 

Kohutuhutu  wood,  136 

Kohwal  wood,  136 

Kokatiya  wood,  153 

Kokoh  wood,  156 

Kon  wood,  153 

Kottamba  wood,  153 

Kouka  wood,  151 

Kowliai  wood,  162 

Krangee  wood,  165 

Kruen  wood,  165 

Kuhlmann's  stone-preserving  process, 

571 
Kulim  wood,  165 
Kwa-wood,  151 


iJAC,  472 
Lacquers,  473-5 

brass,  475 

Japanese,  471-2 

Ladder-poles,  169 

Ladders,  making,  294-5 

Ladle,  108 

Lagerstra'mia  woods,  135,  146,  159 

Lake  pigments,  4U8 

Lampblack,  407 

Lamps,  soldering,  102-4 

Lancewood,  128,  150,  151 

Langdon  mitre-box,  188 

Lansdell's  steam  syphon  pump,  514 

Lantern  wheel-stops,  493 

Lap  joint,  iron,  89 

Lapped  paling,  332 

Lapping  beams,  268 

Larch  wood,  136 

Larix  woods,  136 

loathe  beds,  532 

boring  collar,  535 

cords,  533 

face-plate,  534 

fork,  533 

frames,  533 

mandrel,  532-3 

manipulation,  537  i 

movable  head,  497 

polishing  in,  470-1 

poppet-beads,  533 

prong,  533 

rest,  533 

self-acting,  536 

slide-rest,  536 

skilfulness  with  hand  tools,  539 

speed  motion,  476 

strut  chuck,  533 

supports,  535 

tools,  537-61 

angle  of  holding,  537-8 

for  metals,  540-58 

wood,  558-61 

form,  538-9 

number  required,  537 

selection,  539 

shape  of  edges,  539 

true  framed,  535 

Lathes,  531-9 
Lathing,  608-9 
Lattice  fencing,  331 
Laurelia  wood,  146 
Lawrance's  glazing,  633 
Laying  bricks,  587-94 

concrete,  599-600 

plaster,  609-10 

sheet  lead,  114 

slates.  622 

stonework,  574-5 

Lazy  tongs,  483 
Lead  glazing,  629-32 

paints.  419-20 

sheet,  laying,  114 

Leaden  calmes,  630-1 

pipe,  mending.  114 

vessels,  burning,  93-7 

Leaf-metal,  446 
Lean-to  roofs,  340-2 
Leatherwork  upholsteiy,  400-3 
Lebanon  cedar  wood,  130 
Leclanche  battery,  635 
Ledged  doors,  346-7 
Lengthening  joints,  263-71 
Leptospermum  wood,  138,  163 
Letterwood,  150 
Levels,  1S5-6,  510 
Lever  saw-set,  219 
Lewis  for  lifting  stone,  519 
Libocedrus  woods,  127, 130, 162 


Lichens  destroying  stone,  5C5 
Lilt-pnmp.  .Ma 
Lifliiig-lack,  5U6 
IJght  r.d,  409 
Lighting,  646-54 
liiKhtwooil,  129 
Li>:niini  viUe  wood,  136 
lAuic  paints,  420 

wliitlng,  610-3 

wood,  MO,  387 

Limes,  5S0-1 

Limestones,  569-71 

Linisootsi  wood,  151 

Line,  carpenters',  182 

Linen,  mounting  drawings  on,  3 

lilnk-motion  valve-gear,  489 

Linseed-i)il,  410-1 

liiquld  slating,  435-6 

Liver  rock,  568 

Ijoam,  casting  iron  in,  39 

Lock  saw,  208 

liOcust-treo  wood,  136, 166 

Log,  169 

huts,  680-2 

Long  cross-face  liammer,  84 

Lunt's  rabbeting  and  lilister  router,246 

Lysiloma  wood,  147 


iVlABA  WOODS,  147,  163 
JIacha;rium  wood,  147 
Machinery  wt)ods,  179 
Mackenzie's  glazing,  633 
McNcilc's  seasoning  process,  171 
Magdeburg  gauge,  520 
Mahogany  birch,  350 

graining,  431 

stains,  441-2 

wood,  136-8,  175,  350-1,  337,  395 

Maire  wood,  138,  162 
Mairc-taw-hakc  wood,  133 
Mako  wood.  133,  162 
Makohala  wood,  132,  151 
Mai  buruta  wood,  153 
l\Ialabar  blackwood,  158 
Malachite  green,  408 
Malleable  castinus,  66  ^ 

Mallets,  251-2,  573 
Mandrels,  532-3 
Manganese  l)enzoate  drier,  412 

borate  drier,  412 

oxide  drier,  412 

Mangeo  wood,  162 
Mangi  wood,  162 
Mangifera  woods,  133,  159 
Mangle-rack,  491,  529 

wheel,  525 

and  pinions,  470,  489-91 

Hiango  wood,  138,  159 
Mangrove  wood,  151 
Mansard  roof.  345-6 
Manuka  wood,  138,  163 
Mapau  wood,  163 
Maple  graining,  431 

wood,  138,  351,  395 

Marble,  polishing,  449-51 
iMarbling,  432-3 
;\Iarb(iw  wood,  165 
Marczzo  marble.  607 
Marine  green,  408 
Market  forms  of  wood,  169-70 
Alirking  gauge,  186 
MarralxK)  wood,  1G5 
Martin's  cement,  605 
iMasonry,  561-604 

brickwork,  577-95 

concrete,  596-602 

damp  walls.  603 

gilding  on,  448 

■  salipetreing  walls,  602-3 


696 


INDEX. 


IMasonry,  scaffoldin?,  603^ 

stonework,  561-11 

Masons'  tools,  587 
Massicot,  406-T 
Mastic  resin,  472 

wood,  166 

Matal  wood,  139.  141,  163 

JUatapo  wood,  163 

Match  planes,  238 

Matched  and  beaded  joint,  277 

Mattresses,  404-5 

Measuring  painters'  work,  422-3 

wood,  180-1 

Mechanical  drawing,  1-13 

movements,  475-531 

paradox,  520 

Mediums,  painting,  409-11 
Medullary  rays,  lue 
Melaleuca  wood,  166 
Melanorhoea  wood,  159 
Melia  woods,  139,  159-60,  163 
Melk  hout  wood,  151 
Melting-furnace,  18-9 
Memel  pine,  142-3 
Mending  chairs,  303-4 

cracked  bell,  112 

leaden  pipe,  114 

tin  saucepan,  114 

Mercurial  barometer,  520 

compensation  pendulum,  499 

Messenger's  glazing,  633 

Mesua  wood,  139 

Metal,  black  varnish  for,  475 

boxes,  126 

cups,  125-6 

patterns,  striking  out,  116-3 

pipes,  joints,  124-5 

plate-cutting  shears,  481 

to  glass,  soldering,  113 

turning  tools,  540-58 

cutting  angles,  540 

forms,  540 

grinding,  540 

temper,  540 

■ typical  examples,  540 

Metallic  roofing,  626-7 
Metals,  gilding  on,  448 

polishing,  451-9 

Metrosideros  woods,  145,  146,  163 

Ml  wood,  153 

Mian  milila  wood,  153 

Michelia  wood,  160 

Micrometer-screw  motion,  480 

Middling  hard  solder,  90 

Milk-distemper,  613 

Milkwood,  151 

Miller's  combination  filister,  244-5 

Milling  cutters,  554-8 

tools,  543 

Millingtonia  wood,  160 
Mimusops  woods,  130,  160 
Mineral  green,  408 
Mingi-mlngi  wood,  133 
Minium,  406-7 
Miro  wood,  139,  163 
Mitre  box,  187-9 

joint,  277 

plane,  244 

square,  183 

Mitreing  board,  355 

tool,  189 

MLxing  metals  for  casting,  16-7 
Mokume  bronze,  28 
Molluscs  destroying  stone,  565 
Monkey  jack  wood,  156 
Monoao  wood,  139,  162 
Montgolfier's  hydraulic  ram,  513 
Mora  wood,  139 
Moreton  Bay  pine,  142 
Morrill's  saw-sets,  219-20 


Mortar,  5S2-7 

for  pointing,  592-3 

Mortice  and  tenon  joints,  274-6,  279- 
81,  306 

cutting,  232-3 

gauge,  186 

Morus  wood,  160 
Motootla  wood,  132,  151 
Moulding  board,  355 

brass,  20-2 

bronze,  20-2 

in  wax,  21 

inflammable  objects,  21 

planes,  238 

sand,  22 

wire,  38 

Mouldings,  veneering,  359-60 
Moulds,  faced,  22,  23 

filling,  21 

for  casting  metals,  13-5 

materials  for,  20-1 

metallic,  21 

packing,  15-6 

Mountain  green,  408 
Mounting  drawings,  2-3 

on  linen,  3 

engravings,  8 

Mulberry  wood,  160 
Multiple  gearing,  521 
Mural  painting,  423-9 
Murboo  wood,  165 
Murphy's  bench  clamp,  197 
Muruba  wood,  153 
Muskwo(jd,  139 
aiutti  wood,  139 
Myall  wood,  163 
Myrsine  wood,  163 


N. 


AGESWAR  WOOD,  139 
Nail-pullers,  264 
Nail  punch,  264 
Nails,  263-4,  278 
Names  of  cut  wood,  169-70 
Nanmu  wood,  139 
Naples  yellow,  409 
Natal  woods,  150-2 
Native  box-wood,  166 

pear-wood,  166 

Nauclea  wood,  160 
Naugiia  wood,  139 
Nectandra  woods,  133 
Nedun  wood,  153 
Needlework  chairs,  363-9,  404 
Neem  wood,  139,  156 
Nei-nei  wood,  139 
Nelli  wood,  153 
Nesodaphne  wood,  148,  163 
New  Zealand  cedar  wood,  130 

pine  wood,  135 

woods,  162-3 

Newfoundland  red  pine,  148 
Niello  bronze,  28 
Nies  hout  wood,  147,  151 
Norfolk  Island  pine,  142 
Northern  pine,  142-3 
Norway  pine,  144 

spruce  wood,  131-2 

Nosebit,  248 
Notela?a  wood,  166 
Nuts,  forging,  71-2 


0. 


'AK-GRAINING,  431-2 

stains,  442-3 

varnish,  475 

woods,  140-1,  161,  351,  387 

Ochres,  408-9 

Oil  for  tempering  steel,  65-6 

gold  size,  446 


Oil  lamps,  647-9 

varnishes,  473-5 

Oiling  handles  and  stocks,  265 
Oilstones,  242-3,  561 
Oils,  painting,  410-1 
Oldfleldia  wood,  141 
Olea  woods,  134,  138,  162 
Olearia  wood,  138 
Oliven  hout  wood,  151 
Omphalubium  wood,  150,  351 
One-man  saw,  206-6 
Oomhlcbe  wood,  128,  151 
Oomkoba  wood,  152 
Oomnyamati  wood,  151 
Oomsinsi  wood,  151 
Oomtata  wood,  151 
Oomtombi  wood,  151 
Oomzimbiti  wood,  151 
Opaque  material,  gilding  on,  449 
Open  grates,  659 

paling,  332 

stoves,  659-63 

Orange  ochre,  408 

pigments,  408 

red,  408 

Ore-stamper  motion,  478 
Ornamenting  bronze,  27-8 
Oscillating  column,  513 

into  intermittent  circular  motion 

509 

into  rotary  motion,  506 

Oscillating  piston  engine,  509 
Otis's  safety  stop,  497 
Owenia  wood,  163 
Oxford  ochre,  409 
Oxyandra  wood,  150 


X  ACKING  MOULDS,  15-6 
Pad  saw,  208 
Paddle-wheel,  519 
Pahantea  wood,  130 
Pai-chh'a  wood,  141 
Painted  surfaces,  gilding  on,  448 
Painters'  cream,  423 
Painting,  405-29 

applying,  413 

basic  pigments,  406-7 

brushes,  415 

cement,  for  carton  pierre,  417 

cleaning,  415-6 

coats,  414-5 

coloured,  417-8 

colouring  pigments,  407-9 

composition,  421 

copper,  418 

discoloration,  416-7 

— -distemper,  610-3 

driers,  411-3 

drying,  414 

filling  ground,  414 

for  floors,  418 

•  for  iron,  419 

for  tin  roofing,  420 

for  zinc,  421 

gold,  418 

grinding,  413 

■  iron,  418-9 

knotting,  416 

lead,  419-20 

lime,  420 

measuring,  422-3 

— -  mediums,  409- 11 

miscellaneous,  417-29 

oils,  410-1 

priming  coat,  413-4 

removing,  415-6 

removing  smell,  416 

silicated,  420 

steatite,  420 


INDEX. 


G97 


Painting,  storing,  413 

surface,  415-6 

transparent,  420-1 

tungsten,  421 

vehicles,  409-11 

walls,  423-9 

water-colours,  416 

window,  421 

Paling,  331-2 
Panaga  wood,  165 
Pan;ix  wood,  134 
Panel  saw,  198,  208 
Panelled  door,  347 
Paning,  84-8 
jPanther  wood.  127 
Pantograph,  494 
Paperhanging,  642-S 
Papers,  copying,  10-3 

cyanoterric,  11-2 

cyanotype,  10-1 

drawing,  2 

ferro-prussiato,  10-1 

gommo-lerric,  11-2 

tracing,  9-10 

transfer,  10 

Papier  mache  mouldings,  607-8 

Parabolas,  508 

Parallel  rules,  5,  499-500 

vice,  195 

Parian  cement,  605 

Paring  with  a  chisel,  232 

Parker's  saw-filers'  vice,  193 

Parry's  spirit  fresco,  424 

Parson's  plan  fur  reciprocating  into 

rotary  motion,  508 
Parting  mixture,  39 

sand,  38 

• tools,  392.  541 

Partridgewood,  351 

Patent  green,  408 

Paths,  670^ 

Patterns  for  iron-founding,  35-7 

metal  castings,  14 

strikiug  out,  116-8 

Pavements,  672-4 

Pawl  and  crown  ratchet,  493 

■ — — elbow  lever,  485 

Pear  hout  wood,  151 

woods,  141,  166,  351,  387 

Pencil  drawings,  fixing,  8 
Pencilling  drawings,  3 
Pendulum  saw,  506 
Pendulums,  499 
Pening,  84-8 
Pennycook  glazing,  633 
Pepper-tree  wood,  134 
Persea  wood,  139,  350 
Persian  drill,  480 

red,  409 

wheel,  512 

Persimmon  wood,  141 
Pewter,  burning,  92-4 

burnishing,  454 

soldering,  114 

Pewterers'  solders,  90-1 
PhcEuix  wood,  160 
Phyllocladus  wood,  148 
Pianos,  polishing,  4  64-5 
Picea  woods,  133, 160 
Pickering's  governor,  497 
Picture-frame  clamp,  197 

vice,  194-5 

Pigeon-houses,  310-21 

Pigments,  basic,  406-7 

- —  colouring,  407-9 

Piling,  669 

Pillows,  405 

Piri  wheel  and  slotted  pinion,  491 

Pinaster  wood,  142 

Pincers,  193 


Pine  woods,  142-5,  160,  351 
Pinkwood,  166 
Pinning,  279 
Pins,  277 

in  files,  59 

Pinus  woods,  112-5,  100 
Pipes,  joints  in  metallic,  124-5 
Piscidia  wood,  132 
Piston-rods,  500 
Pitch  of  roofs,  613 

saws,  207 

pine,  143-t 

tree  wood,  135 

Pittospermum  wood,  163 

Pittosporum  wood,  166 

Plain  seats,  u)iJiolstering,  402,  403 

wood,  gilding  on,  448 

Plane  woods,  145,  148 
Planes,  234-40,  354 

atljusting,  239 

circular,  243-4 

dado,  245-6 

forms,  235-8 

mitre,  244 

principles,  234-5 

toothing,  354 

using,  239-40 

Planing-machine  feed  motion, 481, 506 

metal,  in  limited  space,  545 

mider  horizontal  surface, 

545 
Planks,  169 

Plaster  of  paris,  gilding  on,  449 
Plasterers'  mouldings,  607-8 

putty,  606 

tools,  587,  608 

Plastering,  604-10 

lathing,  608-9 

laying,  609-10 

materials,  604-8 

pricking  up,  609-10 

Platanus  woods,  145 
Plate  iron,  45 

powders,  457-8 

Plating  solders,  91 

Platinum  to  brass,  soldering,  111 

to  gold,  soldering,  113 

Pliers,  tinmen's,  118 
Plough  plane,  237-8 
Plug,  forge,  44 
Plum  woods,  163-4 
Plumb  level,  186 
Plumbago  crucibles,  19-20 
Plumbers'  bellows,  97 

solders,  91 

Podocarpus  woods,  139,  141,  145,  147, 

149,  162-4 
Pohutukawa  wood,  145 
Point  chisel,  573 
Pointed  arches,  508 
Pointing  brickwork,  590-3 
Points  of  saws,  207 
Poison-tree  wood,  163 
Pol  wood,  153 
Poles,  169 

Polished  wood,  gilding  on,  448 
Polishing,  449-72 

in  the  lathe,  470-1 

lenses,  506 

marble,  449-51 

metals,  451-9 

mirrors,  505 

wood,  459-72 

Ponds,  679-80 
Pongamia  wood,  160 
Poni  woods,  166 
Poon  wood,  144,  157,  158 
Poplar  woods,  145-6 
Populus  woods,  145-6 
Portable  cramp  drills,  505 


Post  and  beam  joints,  274-6 
I'uultry-houscs,  310-21 
I'ourii  g  brass  and  bron/.e,  22—1 
I'ower's  gos-regulutor,  517 
Prepared  clmlk,  458 
I'lescrviiig  stone,  571-3 

to(.ls,  265-6 

W(xk1,  174-5 

I'ressurc  gauge,  519 
I'rices  of  woods,  181-3 
Pcicking  up  plaster,  609-10 
Priming  coat  of  paint,  413—1 
Proi)urtional  compasses,  509 
Prosiipis  wood,  160 
I'russian  blue,  407 

green,  408 

Psidium  wood,  160 
Pterocarpus  woods,  160-1,  175 
I'terospermum  wood,  350 
Itoroxylon  wood,  147 
I'ugging  floors,  340 
Pukatea  wood,  146 
Pulley  and  buckets,  514 
I'uUeys,  476 
Pumps,  512-6,  679 
Punch,  45 

Punches,  forging,  78-9 
I'unching-machine  motion,  483 
I'uriri  wood,  146,  163 
Purple  brown,  408 

stains,  443 

Putranjiya  wood,  161 
Putty,  628-9 

powder,  458 

soft,  628 

softening,  628-9 

Pymma  wood,  146 
I'ynkado  wood,  146 
Pyrus  woods,  141 

Quarrying  stone,  sec 

Queen-post  roof,  345 
Queensland  woods,  103-4 
Quercus  woods,  140-1,  161 
Quick-return  crank  motion,  480 


K. 


lABBET  PLANE,  237 

Rabbet!  d  joint,  277 

Rabbeting  and  filister  router,  240 

Rack  and  frame,  483 

pinion,  480,  497 

Rail  fence,  331 

Rake  of  saws,  212 

Ramming  heavy  castings,  41 

Ransome's  stone-preservative,  572 

Rasping  tools,  198-230 

Rata  wood,  146,  103 

Ratchet  and  pawl,  493 

brace,  56 

wheel,  491 

stops,  493 

Rate  of  saws,  207 
Raw  sienna,  409 

umber,  408 

Ray's  steam-trap,  517 

Razor  paste,  458 

Rebate  (lane,  237 

Reciprocating  into  rotary  motion,  50G 

lift,  514 

motion  from  continuous  fall  of 

water,  512 

saw,  225 

Rectilinear  motion  of  horizontal  bar, 

480 

of  slide,  480 

Red  birch  wood,  149,  163 

cedar  wood,  149 

els  wood,  151 


698 


INDEX. 


Red  pum  wood,  133,  135 

lead,  406-7,  409 

joints,  88 

• mangrove  wood,  151 

mapau  wood,  163 

pigments,  408-9 

pine,  142-3,  144,  163 

sandal  wood,  161 

^-^  spruce,  148 

stains,  443-4 

Kegistering  revolutions,  527 

Kelations  of  circles,  117 

Releasing  hook  in  pile-driving,  494 

sounding-weight,  494 

Removing  paint,  415-6 

smell  of  paint,  416 

Eendle's  glazing,  634 

Rene's  seasoning  process,  172 

Repairing  chairs,  508 

Resinate  driers,  412 

Resins,  varnish,  472-3 

Retinospora  woods,  134,  147 

Reverberatory  furnace,  19 

Reversing  gear  for  single  engine,  487 

Revolving  saw  set,  218-9 

Rewarewa  wood,  146,  163 

Rhamnus  wood,  132 

Rhus  woods,  131,  161 

Riboute  bronze,  26 

Rickers,  169 

Riga  pine,  142-3 

Rimu  wood,  144,  163 

Rind-galls,  167 

Ripping-saw,  198,  206-7,  208,  222 

Riveting  sheet  metal,  126 

Rivets,  89-90 

Roads,  670-2 

Robert's  friction  proof,  505 

Robinia  wood,  126 

Rock  els  wood,  151 

foundations,  667 

Rod  iron,  45 

Roger's  mitre  plane,  244 

Rohun  wood,  146 

Roller-motion  in  wool-combing  ma- 
cbines,  493 

Rollers,  wood  for,  179 

Rolling  contact,  491 

EoHinia  wood,  150 

Roman  lake,  408 

Roofs,  340-8,  613-27,  688 

curb,  345-6 

dachpappe,  618 

felt,  617-8 

king-post,  342,  344 

lean-to,  341-2 

mansard,  345-6 

metallic,  626-7 

queen-post,  345 

shides,  617 

shingles,  617 

slates,  620-4 

span,  342-6 

thatch,  614-7 

tiles,  624-6 

Willesden  paper,  618-20 

Root's  double  quadrant  engine,  509 

double  reciprocating  engine,  510 

Rose  pink,  409 

Rosewood,  147,  351,395 

graining,  432 

Rosin,  472 

Rot  in  wood,  173-4 

Rotary  engines,  509-12 

motion  from  different  tempera- 
tures in  2  bodies  of  water,  516 

motions,  473 

pumps,  514 

Rotascope,  502 

Rottenstone,  458-9 


Rouge,  459 
Rough  cast,  606 

furniture-making,  294-310 

rubble,  574 

timber,  169 

Roughing-out  tools,  544 

tool,  541 

Round-nose  tool,  541 
Rounder,  244 
Rounding  saws,  214 
Royal  blue,  408 

red  marbling,  433 

Rubble,  574-5 

Rule,  182-3 

Russian    door-shutting    contrivance, 

506 
Rust  joints,  88 

preventives,  265-6 

removers,  2C6 


S- 


ABICU  WOOD,  147 
Safety  stop,  497 
Saffraan  hout  wood,  151 
St.  Ann's  marbling,  433 
Sal  wood,  147,  161,  175 
Salix  woods,  150 
Saltpetreing  walls,  602-3 
Samaran  wood,  165 
Sampling  casting  metal,  23 
Sand,  581  . 

casting  iron  in,  39 

substitutes,  581-2 

Sandal  wood,  138,  161,  163,  175,  351, 

388 
Sandarach,  473 
Sand-burned  castings,  21 

foundations,  667 

Sand-papering,  355,  396 
Sandstones,  568-9 
Santalum  woods,  138,  161 
Sap  wood,  166 
Sapindus  wood,  161 
Sapinette  blanche  wood,  147 
Sapu  milila  wood,  154 

wood,  153 

Sarcocephalus  wood,  164 
Sash-bit,  248 

door,  347-8 

saw,  208 

windows,  348-9 

Satlnwood,  146,  152,  157,  351,  395 

graining,  432 

stains,  444 

Saul  wood,  147,  161,  175 
Sawara  wood,  147 
Saw-filers'  vice,  193 
Sawing-machine  feed,  497 

rest,  261,  355 

speed,  225 

stone,  573 

Saws,  198-227 

back  saw,  221-2 

band  saw,  224-5 

saw-filer,  215 

bent-setting,  216-8 

blazing,  66 

bow,  198 

buck  saw,  222 

carcass,  208 

circular,  222-4 

clamps,  197,  213-4 

clearance  teeth,  206 

compass,  208,  222 

cross-cutting,  204-5,  220-1 

cut-off,  208 

emery  wheels  for,  216,  220 

files,  216 

filing,  211-6 

filing  guides,  214-5 


Saws,  fleam  tooth,  222 

fret,  226-7,  395-6 

gauge,  207 

gullet,  207 

gumming,  212-3,  22ft 

hammering,  84-8 

handles,  203 

jig,  225 

lever  saw  set,  219 

one-man,  205-6 

pendulum,  506 

pitch,  203-4,  2u7 

points,  207 

principles,  198-208 

qualities,  208 

rake,  212 

rate,  207 

reciprocating,  225 

revolving-saw  set,  218-9 

ripping,  198,  206-7,  208.  222 

rounding,  214 

scroll,  222 

selecting,  208-9 

set,  207 

set  of  teeth,  206 

setting,  211-12,  216-20 

sharpener,  215-6 

side-jointing,  214 

space,  207,  211 

teeth,  203-8 

throat,  207 

top-jointing,  214 

nsing,  209-11 

web,  222 

Saw-table  for  jig  or  circular,  225-6 
Saxon  blue,  408 

green,  408 

Scaffold  poles,  169 
Scaffolding,  603-4 
Scagliola,  607 
Scales,  drawing,  1 
Scantlings,  170 
Scarfed  joints,  270-1 
Scarfing-iron,  45 
Scarlet  lake,  408 
Scheele's  green,  408 
Schleichera  wood,  161 
Scotch  pine,  142-3 
Scouring  sluice,  514 
Scrapers,  forging,  77 
Scraping  tool,  542 
Scratcher,  608 
Screw  bolt  and  nut,  480 

clamp,  489 

cutting,  539 

cutting  gauge,  60-1 

motion,  480 

tools,  59-61 

driver,  265 

propeller,  519 

stamping-press  motion,  480 

Screws,  264-5,  278 
Scribing  block,  543 
Scroll  gears,  529 

saw,  222 

Sealing  canned  goods,  91 

iron  in  stone,  91 

Seamed  metal  goods,  124-6 
Seamless  metal  goods,  124 
Seasoning  stone,  564-5 

wood,  170-3 

Seats,  making,  302^ 
Second  melting,  iron,  40 

seasoning,  wood,  172 

Sectors,  toothed,  483 
See-saws,  503 
Seesum  wood,  147 
Selecting  wood,  168-9 
Selenitic  concrete,  602 
mortar,  535-6 


INDEX. 


G99 


I'lenitic  plaster,  606 

-  1  f-ad justing  step-ladder,  506 

recording  level,  510 

-reversing  motion,  4V8 

-jie  wood,  16B 

■^.  ri;ih  wood,  165 

■^rrpen  tine,  567-8 

^  t  uf  lathe  tools,  537-8 

saws,  207 

Settees,  402-3 

Writing  saws,  211-2,  216-20 

>L'\vers,  680 

pewing-machine  feed,  508 

Shading  drawings,  8 

Shakudo  bronze,  28 

Shaping  machine  motion,  480,  487 

Sharpener  for  saws,  215-6 

sharpening  carvers'  tools,  394 

•  chisels,  75-6 

edge  tools,  240-3 

files,  229-30 

metal-turning    tools,    540,  543, 

547-8 

twist  drills,  553 

wood-turning  tools,  5G0-1 

Sliave-hook,  103 

Shears,  481 

She  oak,  141 

pine-wood,  147 

Sheet  lead,  laying,  114 

metal  boxes,  126 

cutting  tools,  119 

flattening  tools,  120 

• folding  tools,  12U-1 

forming  tools,  121-4 

■ patterns,  116-8 

riveting,  126 

seamed  goods,  124-6 

seamless  goods,  124 

spinning,  124 

tools,  118-24 

working,  116-26 

Shell  bit,  248 

Shelley's  glazing,  634 

Shides,  617 

Shinchu  bronze,  27 

Shingles,  617 

.Shipbuilding  woods,  179 

Shiunkei  polisli,  471-2 

Shuuting  boards,  1S8-9,  190-1,  355 

Shorea  woods,  147,  161 

Short-leaved  pine,  145 

Shrinkage  of  iron  aistings,  37,  42-3 

wood,  175-8 

Sideboard,  384-6 
iSide-jointiug  saws,  214 

I tools,  560 

Sided  timber,  169 
Siding  saw,  208 
Sienna  marbling,  433 
Siennas,  408-9 
Sihcated  paints,  420 
Silicatizing  stone,  571-2 
Silk-spooling  motions,  483,  487 
Silver,  burnishing,  454 

fir  wood,  133,  160 

grain,  166 

lace,  polishing,  456 

solder,  90-1 

rj^ — soldering,  98-9,  112-3 
Simplex  glazing,  634 
pingle-gear  foot  lathe,  537 
^1^ —  notching  joint,  272 
Siphon  pressure-gauge,  519 

■ pump,  514 

3issu  wood,  147,  158,  175 
Sizes  for  gilding,  446 

:;; of  cut  wood,  169-70 

Skin  finish  on  bronze,  26 

Skins,  cutting  for  upholstery,  401-2 


f  Skirting  boards,  340 
Skyliglit  windows,  349-50 
_  Slating,  620-4 

liquid,  435-6 

Slide-lathe  motion,  480 

rests,  536-7 

Sliding  journal  box,  497 

Slotted  crank,  486 

Sluice,  514 

Smalt,  408 

Smell  of  paint,  removing.  416 

Smith's  test  fur  stone,  506 

Smiths'  furges,  46 

work,  examples,  66-88 

Smoke-drying  wood,  172 

Smoothing  plane,  2:i7 

Sneezewood,  147,  151 

Socket  spanners,  80-1 

Sockets,  279 

Sodium  amalgam  for  soldering,  97 

Soft-soldering,  99-102 

solders,  91 

colouring,  92 

Softening  steel,  64-6 
Soldering,  90-116 

apparatus,  102-9 

autogenous,  92-7 

blowers,  104-6 

blowpipes,  102 

brass,  114 

brass  castings,  92-4 

brass  to  platinum.  111 

brass  to  steel,  111-2 

brass  wire.  111 

braziers'  hearth,  108-9 

burning,  92-7 

cast  iron,  92-4,  98 

cold,  97 

compo  pipes,  114 

cracked  bell,  112 

fitting  blowpipe  to  gas  supply, 

105-6 

fluxes,  109 

galvanized  iron.  111 

gas-pipes,  98 

glass  to  metal,  113 

hard,  97-9 

hints,  109-16 

iron,  112 

irons,  107-8 

heating,  109 

tinning,  99,  101-2 

jewellery,  98-9 

lamps,  102-4 

leaden  vessels,  93-7 

pewter,  92-4,  114 

platinum  to  gold,  113 

sheet  copper,  100 

silver,  98-9,  112-3 

soft,  99-102 

Steel,  98,  112 

stove  plate,  93 

supports,  107 

thin  sheet  metals,  loO-l 

tin,  99-100 

saucepan, 114 

tools,  107-8 

—  without  an  iron.  111 

zinc,  100,  111 

Solders,  90-2 

burnt.  111 

colouring  soft,  92 

composition,  90-1 

compound  joints,  91 

contaminated,  110-1 

fluxes  for,  91 

fluxing-points,  91 

fusibility,  91 

preparing,  91-2 

purifying,  110-1 


Soldcre.  qnalitlos,  110 

strong,  109-10 

tible  of,  91 

Solvents,  varnish,  473 
Sonneratia  wood,  161 
Sophora  wmxl,  136,  162 
Souiuliiig-boards,  310 
Simr  plum  wood,  103 
Sojiuida  wo<xl,  116,  161 
Space  of  saws,  207,  211 
S[);in  riHjfs,  342-6 
Spanish  bartons,  476 

brown,  4 On 

ochre,  40h 

Spanners,  forging,  79-82 
Sjiars,  169 

Speed  of  sawing,  225 
Spelter,  109-10 

solder,  90 

Spinning  sheet  metal,  124 
Spiral-grooved  drum,  AX6 

line  on  cylinder,  505 

Spirit  fresco,  424 

level,  185-0 

varnishes,  473-5 

Spirits  of  salts,  killed,  101 

Si)okeshave,  233-^ 

Si)ondia8  wood,  164 

Spool Ing-framc  motions,  480,  483,  487 

Spoon  bit,  248 

Spring  box,  476 

chuck, 534 

edges,  upholstering,  403-4 

mattresses,  404-5 

set,  212 

tool,  542 

Sprocket  wheel,  494 
Spruce,  Norway,  131-2 

ochre,  409 

pine,  145 

woods,  147-8 

Spur-gear  stops,  493 
Spur-gears,  521 
Spurious  box-wood,  129 
Square-nose  tool,  542 

rinder,  248 

timber,  169 

Squares,  183-5,  192-3 

drawing,  1-2 

Squaring  wood,  167 
Staining,  433-46 

carvings,  389 

Stairs,  634-5 

Stamper,  iron-founding,  38 
Starrett's  calliper-square,  191-2 
Starshakes,  167 
Star  wheel,  525 
Statuette  in  bronze,  24-8 
Steam-engine  governor,  485,  486,  497 
—  hammer,  516 

heating,  666-7 

siphon  pump,  514 

traps,  517 

Steaming  wood,  171 

Steatite  paint,  420 

Steel,  glaze  wheels  for,  455-6 

polishing,  456-7 

solder,  91 

soldering,  98,  112 

tempering,  62-6 

to  brass,  soldering,  111-2 

til  wrought  iron,  welding,  62 

tools,  hardness,  64 

welding.  62 

Steeling  iron  drifts,  78 
Steering  apparatus,  519 
Steer's  hand-vice,  193 
Stenocarpus  wood.  164 
Stephen's  parallel  vice,  195-6 
Steps,  making,  294 


700 


INDEX. 


Sterciilia  wood,  161 
■Stick  timber,  170 
Stinkwood,  152 
Stock,  forging,  44 
Stocks  and  dies,  59-61 
Stone,  appearance,  564 

classitication,  560 

destructive  agents,  565 

durability,  562-3 

examination,  565-6 

granite,  567 

— —  hardness.  563-4 

joining,  575-6 

laying,  574-5 

limestones,  569-71 

natural  beds,  565 

ochre,  409 

position  in  quarry,  564 

preserving,  571-3 

quarrying,  566 

■ sandstones,  568-9 

sawing,  573 

sealing  iron  in,  91 

seasoning,  564-5 

serpentine,  567-8 

silicatizing,  571-2 

strength,  564 

walls,  576-7 

weight,  564 

working,  563 

Stonemasons'  tools,  573-4 
Stonework,  561-77 
Stop-ch'imler  plane,  238 
Slopperwood,  148 
Stops  for  watches,  491 
Storing  paint,  413 
:Stove  plate,  burning,  93 
Stoves,  close,  663 

open, 659-63 

Straight-edge,  183 

(drawing),  testing,  5 

Straight-joint  floors,  339 

Strains  on  joints,  268 

Straits  Settlements  woods,  164-5 

Straps,  278 

Straw  thatch,  614-7 

Strength  of  stone,  564 

of  woods,  180 

Strengthening  joints  271-2 
Stretchers,  fretwork,  397-8 
•Stretching  plates,  84-8 
Striking  brickwork,  590-3 

out  patterns,  116-8 

tools,  251-2 

Stringy-bark  wood,  143 
Striped  joints,  99 
Strong  solder.  109-10 
Strut-chuck,  533 

joints,  276 

Strutting  floor  joists,  337-3 
Stub-tenon,  275 
Stucco,  606-7 
Stuffed  mattresses,  405 
Stuffings,  upholstery,  400 
Styles  of  graining,  430-2 
Sudden-grip  vice,  193 
Suitability  of  woods,  179 
Summer-houses,  330-1 
Sun  and  planet  motion,  523 
Sundri  wood,  175 
.Supports  for  soldering,  107 
Surface  for  painting,  415-6 
■  Surfacing  tools  for  iron,  56-9 
Suriya  wood,  154 
Swaged  set,  212 
Swaging  tools,  iron,  56 
Swamp  gum  wood,  133 

tea-tree  wood,  1 66 

Sweet  plum  wood,  164 
Swept  up  castings,  21-2 


Swietenia  -woods,  136-8 
Swing  boat,  513 
Swiijging  gutters.  514 
Swivel  tool-holders,  544-54 
Sycamore  wood,  145,  148,  388 
Syzygium  wood,  161 
Szerelmey's  stone  liquid,  572 


T. 


208 


ABLE-SAW, 

stain,  435 

Tables,  making,  295-302 
Taking  a  heat,  45 
Tal  wood,  154 
Tamanu  wood,  148 
'I'aniarak  wood,  136 
Tamarind  wood,  161 
Tamarindus  wood,  161 
Tumbooti  wood,  134,  151 
Tampenis  wood,  165 
'I'anekaha  wood,  148 
Taper  bit,  2J8 

vice,  196 

Tappet  arm  and  ratchet  wheel,  493 
Taraire  wood,  163 
Tasmanian  ironwood,  166 

myrtle  wood,  148 

woods,  166 

Tawa  wood,  148,  163 
Tawhal  wood,  148 
Tawhai-rai-nui  wood,  148 
T'awiri-Kohu-Kohu  wood,  163 
Taxus  woods,  150 
Teak,  149,  154,  161,  164,  175 
Tcale's  economiser,  661 
Technical  terms  in  forging,  44-5 
Toctona  wood,  149,  154,  161,  164,  175 
Telephone  and  bell,  638-9 
Temperature  for  casting,  22-3 

of  tempering,  65 

Tempering  colours,  63-5 

heats,  63-5 

iron,  62-6 

Tenon    and    mortice   joints,    274-6, 
279-81 

cutting,  232-3 

saw,  198,208 

Terminalia  woods,  129,  139,  162,  175 

Terracotta,  579-80 

Tetranthera  wood,  162 

Textiles,  gilding  on,  448 

Thatching,  614-7 

Thespesia  wood,  162 

Thick  stuff,  169 

Thin  woods,  joining,  283 

Three-legged  stool,  making,  302 

Throat  of  saws,  207 

Tiger  wood,  127 

Tilestones,  568 

Tiling,  624-6 

Tilt-hammer,  473 

Timber,  170 

merchants'  fence,  332 

Tin  roofing,  paint  for,  420 

saucepan,  soldering,  114 

Tinmen's  pliers,  118 

Tinned  iron  solder,  91 

Tinners'  solders,  91 

Tinning  soldering-iron,  99,  101-2 

Tints  in  drawings,  5-6 

Tip,  gilders',  447 

Title  of  drawings,  6 

Titoki  wood,  149,  163 

Toe  and  lifter,  499 

joint,  276 

Toggle  joint,  483 

Tongs  for  lifting  stones,  519 

forging,  72-3 

iron,  47-8 

lazy,  483 


Tongue  joint,  iron,  45 
Tool-chests,  making,  289-90,  351- 

holders,  544-54 

rest  for  grindstone,  242 

Tools,  adapting,  542 

boring,  246-50 

brass- turning,  542 

bricklayers',  587 

cabinet-making,  351-5 

care  of,  265-6 

carpenters',  182-266 

carving,  390-4 

chopping,  252-7 

edge,  230-46 

flaws  in,  558-60 

fretwork,  395-6 

gilding,  447 

glaziers',  629 

graining,  430 

- —  guiding,  182-93 

handling,  560-1 

holding,  193-8 

iron  founding,  37-9 

iron-turning,  541-2 

masons',  587 

milling,  543 

parting,  392,  541 

plasterers',  587,  608 

rasping,  198-230 

roughing-out,  544 

sheet-metal  working,  118-24 

slaters',  623 

soldering,  107-8 

stonemasons',  573-4 

striking,  251-2 

thatchers',  615-6 

turning,  537-61 

upholstery,  399 

wood-turning,  553-61 

wood,  149,  157 

Toothed  sectors,  483 
Toothing  plane,  354 
Top-jointing  saws,  214 
Totara  wood,  149,  163 
Toughening  steel,  65-6 
Toughness  of  wood,  179 
Towai  wood,  149,  163 
Tracing  cloth,  8-9 

paper,  9-10 

Tracings,  colouring,  8 
Trammel,  190 
Transfer  paper,  10 
Transmitted  circular  motion,  493 
Transparent  material,  gilding  on, 

paints,  420-1 

Transvaal  woods,  150-2 
Trant's  dado  plane,  245-6 
Treadle  and  disc,  485-6 
Treadwheels,  505-6 
Tredgold  notch,  273 
Trestle  bedstead,  304-5 
Trewia  wood,  162 
Triangular  eccentric,  483 
Trickett's  lever-saw  set,  219 
Trimming  joists,  338 
Trincomalie  wood,  156 
Tripoli,  458-9 
Triptolema^a  wood,  147 
Tristania  wood,  129 
Trowels,  587,  608 
True  black  pine,  139 
Trunk  engine,  509 
Trying  plane,  236 
Tubes  for  burning,  97 

striking  out,  118 

Tuck  pointing,  591 
Tulip-tree  wood,  104 

wood,  150,  163,  351,  395 

Tumbler,  512 
Tumboosoo  wood,  165 


INDEX. 


701 


iingsten  paints,  421 
irbines,  512 
iruing,  531-61 

—  lathes,  531-9 

—  metals,  540-53 

—  operation,  531 

—  tools,  537-61 
impin,  108 

irpentine  varnishes,  473-5 

irtosa  wood,  141 

isle  tenoning,  273 

ivart  wood,  133 

lyere,  45 

veer,  45 

9ist  drills,  551-4 

—  hammer,  85 
visting  in  spinning,  519 
vyer,  45 


J  BBARIYA  WOOD,  154 

mus  woods,  132-3,  162 

nber,  408 

icoiipling  engines,  487 

idercutting  slots,  546 

liform  and  varied  rotary  motion,  523 

—  into  variable  rotary  motion,  523 

—  reciprocating  rectilinear  motion, 
480 

lion  coupling,  494 
liversal  square,  192-3 
isound  iron  castings,  40-2 
iholstery,  399-405 

—  beds,  405 

—  buttoned  seats,  403 

—  couches,  402 

—  coverings,  400 

—  easy  chairs,  402 

—  fancy  coverings,  403-4 

—  haircloth,  403 

—  leatherwork,  400-3 

—  materials,  400 

—  mattresses,  404-5 

—  needlework  chairs,  404 

—  pillows,  405 

—  plain  seats,  402,  403 

—  settees,  402 

—  spring  edges,  403-4 

—  stufSngs,  400 

—  tools,  399 

iset  dies,  206,  218 

—  iron,  45 
isets,  167 


ALET,  carpenters',  260-1 
Ive  motion,  485 

and  reversing  gear,  487 

ndyke  brown,  403 
riable  motion,  495 
rnishes,  ingredients,  472-3 

—  application,  474 

—  kinds,  473 

—  mixing,  473^ 

—  recipes,  474-5 
mishing,  472-5 

rying  speed  in  shaping  machines, 

:S7 

gctable  black,  407 
hides,  painting,  409-11 
langa  wood,  154 
neer  scraper,  244 
neering,  355-62 

—  bed  panel,  360-1 

—  butt  jointing  curls,  361 

—  cauling,  358-60 

—  chest  of  drawers,  375-8 

—  clamps,  359-60 

—  cleaning  off,  362 


Veneering,  corners,  359-60 

hammering,  357-8 

mouldings,  359-60 

on,  woods  for,  35G-7 

resinous  wood,  360 

Veneers,  cutting,  355-6 

fixing,  357-Cl 

removing  and  relaying,  358 

woods  for  making,  356 

Venetian  lake,  408 

red,  409 

Vengay  wood,  175 
Ventilating,  654-8 

casting  moulds,  28-32 

Vepris  wood,  134 

Verd  antique  marbling,  433 

Verdigris,  408 

Verditer,  408 

Vermilion,  409 

Vertical  bucket  paddle-wheel,  519 

Vibrating  motions,  478-80 

Vices,  47-8,  193-6,  261-4,  355 

Vienna  green,  408 

Violet  stains,  444 

Virginian  date-palm  wood,  141 

red  cedar  wood,  130 

Vitex  wood,  146-163 
Volute  wheel,  512 
Voluter,  392 


W. 


AINSCOT  OAK,  141 

varnish,  4  75 

Walbomba  wood,  154 
Waldomba  wood,  154 
Walls,  coloured  washes  for,  610-3 

damp,  603,  643 

earth,  683-4 

footings.  669-70 

hollow,  594 

painting,  423-9 

papering,  642-6 

saltpetreing,  602-3 

stone,  576-7 

whitewashing,  610-3 

Walnut  graining,  432 

stains,  444-5 

woods,  133-4,  150,  159,  351,  388, 

395 
Walukina  wood,  154 
Waney  wood,  170 
Wardrobe,  330-4 
Warming,  658-67,  687 
Warping  of  iron  plates,  41 
Warren's  turbine,  512 
Washstand,  304 
Watch-regulator,  499 
Water-beech  wood,  145 

-colour  painting.  41G 

for  tempering  steel,  65-6 

in  woods,  179 

main,  516 

motion  into  rotary  motion,  517 

raising  machines,  512 

seasoning  wood,  171 

size,  446 

supply,  677-80 

varnishes,  473-5 

wheel  governor,  4SS 

512 

Waterproof  whitewash,  612 
Wax,  moulding  in,  21 
Weather  joint,  590 
Web  saw,  222 
Wedges,  277 

Weeping  myall  wood,  163 
Weight  of  stone,  564 
Weinmannia  racemosa  wood,  135 
Weir  and  scouring  sluice,  514 
Welding  iron,  62 


Welding  steel,  62 

to  wrought  Iron,  62 

wnjunlit  iiiiu,  02 

Welipcnni  wood,  151 

Wells,  G77-9 

West  Indian  crdar  wood,  130 

woods,  160 

Wet  constructions,  woods  for,  179 

gas-meter,  517 

rot,  173-1 

Wewarana  wood,  154 

Weymouth  pine,  144-5 

Wheel  and  pinion,  491 

Wheelbarrows,  310 

Wheeler's  countersink,  249-&0 

rounder,  244 

Wheel-teeth  woods,  179 

White  birch  wood,  128 

cedar  wood,  163 

deal  wood,  131-2 

els  wood,  151 

fir  wood,  131-2 

gum  wood,  133 

holly  wood,  395 

ironwood,  134,  151 

lead,  406 

manuka  wood.  133 

mapau  wood,  163 

pine.  144-5 

walnut  wood.  133-i 

Whitewashing,  610-3 

Whitewood,  166 

White's  dynamometer,  505 

pulleys,  476 

Whiting,  610-3 

\Vhole  deals,  169 

WiddriUL'tonia  wood,  130-1 

Wild  olive  wood,  151 

Wilge  boom  wood,  152 

Willesden  paper,  61H-20 

Willow  wood,  150,  152 

Wilson's  4-motion  feed,  508 

Wind,  effect  on  roofs,  623-4 

motion  into  rotary  motion,  517 

Windlass,  481,  497,  502 

Windmills,  517-9 

Windows,  348-50 

area,  628 

casement,  343 

dormer,  345 

glazing,  627-34 

paint,  421 

sash,  348-9 

skylight,  349-50 

Windsor  chair,  303-1 

Winter's  bark  wood,  134 

Wiped  joints,  99 

Witch-hazel  wood,  128 

Wooden-seated  chair,  303-4 

Wood-turning  tools,  558-61 

Woods,  breaking  weight,  126 

British  Guiana,  150 

■  building,  179 

cabinctmaking,  350-1 

Cape,  150-2 

carpentry,  126-82 

carving,  386-90 

Ceylon,  152-t 

classification,  169 

cohesive  force,  126 

composition,  178-9 

conversion,  175-S 

crushing  force,  126 

decay,  173-4 

defects.  167-8 

durability,  179 

elastiiitv,  179 

English'  151-5 

even  grain,  179 

features,  167 


702 


INDEX. 


Woods,  felling,  lGG-7 

fireprooting,  175 

for  floors,  179 

for  foundry  patterns,  179 

for  rollers,  179 

for  veneering  on,  356-7 

for  veueers,  356 

for  wet  constructions,  179 

for  wheel  teetli,  179 

fretworlt,  395 

furniture,  179 

gilding  on,  448 

growth,  166 

Indian,  155-62 

machinery,  179 

market  forms,  169-70 

measuring,  180-1 

names  of  sizes,  169-70 

Natal,  150-2 

New  Zealand,  162-3 

polishes,  459-72 

preserving,  174-5 

prices,  181-2 

Queensland,  163-1 

seasoning,  170-3 

selecting,  168-9 


Woods,  shipbuilding,  179 

shrinliage,  175-S 

squaring,  167 

stains,  433-46 

Strait  Settloments,  161-5 

strength,  180 

suitability,  179 

Tasmanian,  166 

toughness,  179 

Transvaal,  150-2 

water  in,  179 

West  Indian,  166 

seasoning  process,  172 

Woodworth's  feed  motion  of  planing 

machine,  506 
Working  stone,  563 
Workshop  appliances,  making,  289-94 
Worm  and  worm-wheel,  523 

wheels,  491 

Wrenches,  forging,  82-4 
Wrought  iron  to  steel,  welding,  62 
welding,  62 


X 


YLOPIA  WOOD,  150 


X  ARD  REQUISITES,  making, 

310-34 
Yivri-yari  wood,  150 
Yellow  birch  wood,  128 

lake,  409 

ochre,  409 

orpiment,  409 

pigments,  409 

pine,  139,  142-3,  144,  145 

stains,  446 

wood,  138,  150,  152 

Yew  wood,  150,  388 

Yoke  bar,  485 

Yorke  saran  wood,  166 


Z, 


EI5IIAW00D.  150,  351 
Zigzag  fence,  331 
Zinc,  paint  for,  421 

rooting,  626 

soldering.  111 

white,  407 

Zizyphus  wood,  162 
Zogan  bronze,  27 
Zumatic  driers,  412 


LOKOOK : 


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Bookbinding, 

Bronzes  and  Bronzing. 

Candles. 

Cement. 

Cleaning. 

Colourwashing. 

Concretes. 

Dipping  Acids. 

Drawing  Office  Details. 

Drying  Oils. 

Dynamite. 

Electro  -  Metallurgy  — 
(Cleaning,  Dipping, 
Scratch-brushing,  Bat- 
teries, Baths,  and 
Deposits  of  every 
description). 

Enamels. 

Engraving  on  Wood, 
Copper,  Gold,  Silver, 
Steel,  and  Stone. 

Etching  and  Aqua  Tint. 

Firework  Making  — 
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billons,  Candles,  Fires, 
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Fluxes. 

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Synopsis  of  Contents. 

Freezing. 

Fulminates. 

Furniture  Creams,  Oils, 
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and  Pastes. 

Gilding. 

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kindred  processes. 

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Painting  in  Oils, in  Water 
Colours,  as  well  as 
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Paper. 

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Acidimetry  and   Alkali- 
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Cements  and  Lutes. 
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Synopsis  of  Contents.' 

Dyeing. 

Staining  and  Colouring. 

Essences. 

Extracts. 

Fireproofing. 

Gelatine. 

Glue  and  Size. 

Glycerine. 

Gut. 

Hydrogen  Peroxide. 

Inks. 

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Isinglass, 

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Leather. 

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Alloys. 

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measuring,  microphones, 
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Enamels  and  Glazes. 

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Ruthenium. 

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Silenium. 

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Iron. 

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Terbium. 

Lubricants. 

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Thorium. 

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Tin. 

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Mica. 

Tungsten. 

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Uranium. 

Nickel. 

Vanadium. 

Nisbium. 

Yttrium, 

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Contents  : 

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preparations. 
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cent  character,  liable  to  ignition,  apt    to    suffer  from   insects  or 

damp,  or  easily  broken. 
Embalmin;T  and  Preserving  anatomical  specimens. 
Leather  Polishes. 
Cooling  Air   and  "Water,    producing  low   temperatures,  making  ice, 

cooling  syrups  and  solutions,  and  separating  salts  from  liquors  by 

refrigeration. 
Pumps  and  Syphons,  embracing  every  useful  contrivance  for  raising 

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Mechanical  Engineering.  The  Mechanician  : 
A  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Manipulation  of  Tools,  for 
the  use  and  instruction  of  Young  Engineers  and  Scientific 
Amateurs,  comprising  the  Arts  of  Blacksmithing  and  Forging ; 
the  Construction  and  Manufacture  of  Hand  Tools,  and  the 
various  methods  of  Using  and  Grinding  them  ;  the  Construction 
of  Machine  Tools,  and  how  to  work  them  ;  Machine  Fitting  and 
Erection  ;  description  of  Hand  and  Machine  Processes ;  Turning 
and  Screw  Cutting;  principles  of  Constructing  and  details  of 
Making  and  Erecting  Steam  Engines,  and  the  various  details  of 
setting  out  work,  etc.,  etc.,  by  Cameron  Knight,  Engineer,  96 
4X0  plates,  cofitainiug  WA^"]  illustrations  and  397  pages  of  letter- 
press, second  edition,  re-printed  from  the  first,  4to,  cloth,  iSj-. 

Of  the  six  chapters  constituting  the  work,  the  first  is  devoted  to  forging  ; 
in  which  the  fundamental  principles  to  be  observed  in  making  forged 
articles  of  every  class  are  stated,  giving  the  proper  relative  positions  for 
the  constituent  fibres  of  each  article,  the  mode  of  selecting  proper  quan- 
tities of  material,  steam-hammer  operations,  shaping-moulds,  and  the 
manipulations  resorted  to  for  shaping  the  component  masses  to  the 
intended  forms. 

Engineers'  tools  and  their  construction  are  next  treated,  because  they 
must  be  used  during  all  operations  described  in  the  remaining  chapters, 
the  author  thinking  that  the  student  should  first  acquire  knowledge  of  the 
apparatus  which  he  is  supposed  to  be  using  in  the  course  of  the  processes 
given  in  Chapters  4,  5,  and  6.  In  the  fourth  chapter,  planing  and  lining 
are  treated,  because  these  are  the  elements  of  machine-making  in  general. 
The  processes  described  in  this  chapter  are  those  on  which  all  accuracy 
of  fitting  and  finishing  depend.  The  next  chapter,  which  treats  of  shaping 
and  slotting,  the  author  endeavours  to  render  comprehensive  by  giving 
the  hand-shaping  processes  in  addition  to  the  machine-shaping. 

In  many  cases  hand-shaping  is  indispensable,  such  as  sudden  breakage, 
operations  abroad,  and  on  board  ship ;  also  for  constructors  having  a 
limited  number  of  machines.  Turning  and  screw-cutting  occupy  the  last 
chapter.  In  this,  the  operations  for  lining,  centering,  turning,  and  screw- 
forming  are  detailed  and  their  principles  elucidated. 

The  Mechanician  is  the  result  of  the  author's  experience  in  engine 
making  during  twenty  years  ;  and  he  has  concluded  that  however  reten- 
tive the  memory  of  a  machinist  might  be,  it  would  be  convenient  for  him 
to  have  a  book  of  primary  principles  and  processes  to  which  he  could 
refer  with  confidence. 


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Spons'  Dictionary  of  Engineering,  Civil, 

Mechanical,  Military,  and  Naval,  wiih  Technical  Terms  in 
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Complete  List  of 

Nos. 

Abacus      I 

Adhesion i 

.  Agricultural  Engines       . .      . .  i  and  2 

Air-Chamber 2 

Air-Pump 2 

Algebraic  Signs       2 

Alloy 2 

Aluminium        2 

Amalgamating  Machine 2 

Ambulance       2 

Anchors 2 

Anemometer 2  and  3 

Angular  Motion      3  and  4 

Angle-iron         3 

Angle  of  Friction 3 

Animal  Charcoal  Machine     ..      .,     4 

Aniimony 4 

Anvil         4 

Aqueduct 4 

Arch 4 

Archimedean  Screw        4 

Arming  Press 4  and  5 

Armour 5 

Arsenic      5 

Artesian  Well 5 

Assaying 6 

Artillery 5  and  6 

Automic  Weights 6  and  7 

Auger        7 

Axles         7 

Balance 7 

Ballast       7 

Bank  Note  Machinery 7 

Barn  Machinery       7  and  8 

Barker's  Mill 8 

Barometer         8 

Barracks 8 

Barrage      8  and  9 

Battery       9  and  10 

Bell  and  Bell-hanging 10 

Belts  and  Belting     ..       ..       10  and  II 

Bismuth il 

Blast  Furnace II  and  12 

Blowing  Machine 12 

Body  Plan         12  and  13 


ALL  THE  Subjects. 

Nos. 

Boilers       13,  14,  15 

Bond 15  and  16 

Bone  Mill 16 

Boot-making  Machinery         ..      ..    16 
Boring  and  Blasting        ..      ..  16  to  19 

Brake         19  and  20 

Bread  Machine         20 

Brewing  Apparatus  ..       20  and  21 

Brick-making  Machines         ..      ..    21 

Bridges     21  to  28 

Buffer        28 

Cables       28  and  29 

Cam  29 

Canal        29 


29  and 


Candles 

Cement 

Chimney 30 

Coal,    Cutting  and  Washing  Ma- 
chinery          31 

Coast  Defence         31,  32 

Compasses       32 


Construction 


52  and 


Cooler      34 

Copper 34 

Cork-cutting  Machine 34 

Corrosion  34  and  35 

Cotton  Machinery 35 

Damming         35  to  37 

Details  of  Engines 37>  3^ 

Displacement 3*^ 

Distilling  Apparatus       ..        38  and  39 
Diving  and  Diving  Bells        ..      ..39 

Docks        39  and  40 

Drainage 40  and  41 

Drawbridge      4^ 

Dredging  Machine 4' 

Dynamometer 41  lo  43 

Electro-Metallurgy 43,  44 

Engines,  Varieties 44-45 

Engines,  Agricultural     ..       ..I  and  2 

Engines,  Marine     74'  75 

Engines,  Screw       89,  90 

Engine,  Stationary 9'>  9^ 

Escapement     45>  4^ 

Fan 46 


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Nos. 

File-cutting  Machine      46 

Fire-arms 46,  47 

Flax  Machinery       47,48 

Float  Water-wheels        48 

Forging 48 

Founding  and  Casting  ..      ..  48  to  50 

Friction 5° 

Friction,  Angle  of 3 

Fuel 50 

Furnace S*^,  5^ 

Fuze 51 

Gas 51 

Gearing 51.  52 

Gearing  Belt 10,  11 

Geodesy 52  and  53 

Glass  Machinery     53 

Gold 53,  54 

Governor 54 

Gravity      54 

Grindstone        54 

Gun-carriage 54 

Gun  Metal        54 

Gunnery 54  to  56 

Gunpowder      5^ 

Gun  Machinery       S^,  57 

Hand  Tools      57,  58 

Hanger 58 

Harbour 58 

Haulage 58,  59 

Hinging_ ..      .-59 

Hydraulics    and    Hydraulic    iSIa- 

chinery  59  to  63 

Ice-making  Machine      63 

India-rubber 63 

Indicator 63  and  64 

Injector 64 

Iron 64  to  67 

Iron  Ship  Building 67 

Irrigation 67  and  68 

Isomorphism 68 

Joints        68 

Keels  and  Coal  Shipping       68  and  69 

Kiln 69 

Knitting  ^Machine 69 

Kyanising         69 

Lamp,  Safety 69,  70 

Lead 70 

Lifts,  Hoists 70,  71 

Lights,  Buoys,  Beacons  71  and  72 

Limes,  Mortars,  and  Cements      ..     72 


Nos. 
Locks  and  Lock  Gates  ..      ..       7^,  73 

Locomotive      73 

Machine  Tools        73.74 

Manganese       74 

Marine  Engine  ..  ..  74  and  75 
Materials  of  Construction  75  and  76 
Measuring  and  Folding  ..  ..  7^ 
Mechanical  Movements         ..      76,  77 

Mercury 77 

Metallurgy       77 

Meter        77.78 

Metric  System         78 

Mills 78,79 

Molecule 79 

Oblique  Arch 79 

Ores 79,  80 

Ovens        80 

Over  shot  Water-wheel..      ..      80,81 

Paper  Machinery 81 

Permanent  Way       81,  82 

Piles  and  Pile-driving     . .       82  and  83 

Pipes         83,  84 

Planimeter        84 

Pumps      ?4  and  85 

Quarrying         85 

Railway  Engineering     ..        85  and  86 

Retaining  Walls     86 

Rivers       86,  87 

Rivetted  Joint 87 

Roads       87  88 

Roofs         88,89 

Rope-making  Machinery        ..       ..     89 

Scaffolding       89 

Screw  Engines         89,  90 

Signals      9^ 

Silver        9°,  9i 

Stationary  En;;ine 91,92 

Stave-making  and  Cask   Ma- 
chinery  92 

Steel 92 

Sugar  Mill        92,93 

Surveying  and  Surveying   In- 
struments            93' 94 

Telegraphy       94,  95 

Testing     95 

Turbine 95 

Ventilation       95,  9^,  97 

Waterworks      96,  97 

Wood- working  Machinery     ..     96,97 
Zinc 96,  97 


The  Complete  Work  can  be  had  in  the  following  Bindings : 

3  vols.,  cloth £s     5     o 

In  8  divisions,  cloth         5     8     o 

In  3  vols.,  half-morocco,  top  edge  gilt   ..  6  12     o 


E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,   125,   STRAND. 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  C.-  F.  N.  SPON. 


Algebra.  Algebra  Self-taught.  By  P.  Higgs, 
M.A.,  D.Sc,  LL.D.,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.E.,  Author  of 'A  Handbook 
of  the  Difterential  Calcukis,'  etc.,  second  edition,  crown  8vo, 

cloth,  2S.   6d. 

Contents. 

Symbols  and  the  signs  of  operation— The  equation  and  the  unknown  quantity- 
Positive  and  negative  quantities— Multiplication— Involution— Exponents— Nega- 
tive exponents-Roots,  and  the  use  of  exponents  as  logarithms— Logarithms— 
Table  of  logarithms  and  proportionate  parts— Transformation  of  system  of 
logarithms— Common  uses  of  common  logarithms— Compound  multiplication  and 
the  Binominal  theorem— Division,  Fractions,  and  Ratio— Continued  proportion— 
The  series  and  the  summation  of  the  series— Limit  of  series— Square  and  Cube 
Roots — Equations— List  of  formulae,  etc. 

Applied  Science.    Progressive  Lessons  in  Applied 

Science.     By   Edward  Sang,  V.R.S.E.,  crown  8vo,  cloth,  each 
part,  3J-. 

Part  I.     Geometry  on  Paper. 

Part  2.     Solidity,  Weight,  and  Pressure. 

Part  3.     Trigonometiy,  Vision,  Surveying  InUruments. 

Architect's  Handbook.  A  Handbook  of  For- 
mulae, Tables,  and  Memoranda,  for  Architectural  Surveyors  and 
others  engaged  in  Building.  By  J,  T.  Hurst,  C.E.,  thirteenth 
edition,  royal  32mo,  roan,  5^. 

CONTAINING  : 


Formula;  and  Tables  for  the  Strength 
of  Materials,  Roofs,  Water  Supply, 
Drainage,  Gas,  and  other  matters 
useful  to  Architects  and  Builders. 

Information  connected  with  Sanitary 
Engineering. 

Memoranda  on  the  several  trades  used 
in  Building,  including  a  description 
of  Materials  and  Analyses  of  Prices 
for  Builders'  work. 

The  Practice  of  Builders'  Measurement. 


IMensuration  and  the  Division  of  Land. 
Tables  of  the  Weights  of  Iron  and  other 

Building  Materials. 
Constants  of  Labour. 
Valuation  of  Property. 
Summary  of  the  Practice  in  Delapida- 

tions. 
Scale     of     Professional     Charges     for 

Architects  and  Surveyors. 
Tables  of  English  and  French  Weights 

and  Measures. 


"  The  tenth  edition  of  this  invaluable  Pocket  Book  has  just  made  its  appear- 
ance ;  space  will  not  permit  us  to  describe  all  the  changes  made  in  it,  for  it  has 
been  entirely  re-written.  The  formula;  and  tables  contained  in  former  editions  have 
been  supplemented  by  many  others,  the  chapter  of  useful  Memoranda  regarding 
different  kinds  of  work  has  been  greatly  exlL-iiued,  and  a  most  valuable  addition  has 
been  made  to  the  work  in  the  shape  of  37  pp.  of  admirably  condensed  Memoranda 
connected  with  Sanitary  Engineering.  The  book  is  very  well  got  up,  and  tliough 
it  contains  nearly  twice  as  much  matter  as  the  last  edition,  the  paper  and  type 
have  been  so  arranged  that  it  does  not  occupy  a  greater  bulk." — I^oyal  Engineers' 
Journal. 


E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,   125,   STRATJD. 


8 


CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 


Architectural  Drawing  Copies.    A  Series  of 

Lithographed  Working  Drawings  of  the  most  important  details 
of  Building  Construction,  drawn  to  a  large  scale,  showing  clearly 
how  work  is  put  together,  and  giving  the  technical  terms  used 
in  the  various  trades,  especially  designed  for  instruction  in 
Architectural  Drawing  and  Building  Construction,  by  W. 
Busbridge,  First-Class  Certificated  Teacher  of  the  Science  and 
Art  Department ;  Head  Master  of  the  Metropolitan  Drawing 
Classes  ;  and  Instructor  of  Mechanical  Drawing  at  the  Royal 
Arsenal,  Woolwich.  These  Plates  are  approved  and  recom- 
mended by  the  Science  and  Art  Department  and  their  Profes- 
sional Examiners,  and  are  used  in  the  leading  Colleges,  and 
Science  and  Art  Schools  of  the  Country.  Price  3^/.  per  Sheet. 
Each  plate  is  complete  in  itself,  the  first  26  sheets  in  one  vol., 
7^.  dd. 


Builders'  Price-Book.  Spons'  Builders'  Pocket- 
Book  of  Prices  and  Memoranda,  edited  by  W.  Young,  Architect, 
royal  3 2 mo,  roan,  \s.  6d.,  or  cloth,  vermilion  edges,  y.  6d. 

Published  amuially. 

Contents. 


Ancient  Lights,  Table  of  and  Rules  for 
Calculating. 

Approximate  Cost  of  Buildings,  by 
Cubing. 

Arches,  Architects'  Charges. 

Bricklayers'  Useful  Memoranda. 

Carpenters'  and  Joiners'  Useful  Me- 
moranda. 

Cast-Iron  Hollow  Columns,  Table  of 

Cements,  Composition  and  Strength  of 

Chinmeys,  How  to  Build. 

Chimneys,  Smoky,  Cause  and  Cure  of. 

Churches,  Rules  of  Incorporated 
Society. 

Circle,  Properties  of. 

Coals,  Space  occupied  by,  &  Weight  of. 

Columns,  Strength  of 

Conci'ete  Building. 

Concrete  under  Water. 

Corrugated  Iron  Roofing. 

Cubical  Contents  of  Floors,  Roofs, 
etc.,  Table  of 

Damp  Walls,  Recipe  for. 

Decay  of  Wood,  Cause  and  Cure  of 

Dimensions  of  English  Cathedrals  and 
Halls. 

Drainage  of  Land. 

Drainage  of  Towns,  Cost  of 

Drains  and  Sewers. 


Excavators'  Useful  Memoranda. 

Fire  and  Insurance  Memoranda. 

Five  Orders  of  Architecture. 

Floors  and  Joists,  Table  of  Wood, 

Footings  of  Walls. 

Gasfitters'  Useful  Memoranda. 

Gas  Supply. 

Girders  of  Wood  and  Ii-on,  Strength 
of,  and  Table  of  Safe  Loads. 

Heat. 

Heights,  Measurable. 

Hoop  Iron. 

Iron  Roofs,  Examples  of. 

Lightning  Conductors. 

Limestones. 

Leads  on  Roofs  and  Floors. 

Measurement  of  Builders'  Work. 

Mensuration. 

Mortar,  Smeaton's,  as  used  at  Eddy- 
stone  Lighthouse. 

Mortars. 

Nomenclature,  Architectural. 

Norman,  Early  English,  Decorated, 
and  Perpendicular  Mouldings,  Ex- 
amples of. 

Paviors'  Memoranda. 

Perspective. 

Piers  and  Pillar 

Piles. 


E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  125,  STRAND. 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  o-  F.  N.  SPON. 


Plasterers'  Memoranda. 

Plumbers'  Memoranda. 

Preservation  of  Wood  and  Stone. 

Rainfall. 

Retaining  Walls. 

Rolled  Iron  Joists. 

Roofs,  Table  of  Scanting,  etc. 

Ropes. 

Stone,     Building,     Component     Parts, 

Colour,  Weight,  Strength,  and  Price 

of  Building  Stones  in  England  and 

Scotland. 
Surveying. 
Symbolism. 
Tenacity  of  Materials. 
Thickness  of  Walls. 
Timbers,       Quality,       Weight,       and 

Strength  of. 
Valuation  of  Property. 
Ventilation. 
Warming  by  Steam. 
Water,  Hot. 
Water  Supply. 
Waterw^orks. 


Weight   of  Metals   and   all    Materials 

used  in  ISuilding. 
Wells. 

Wind,  Pressure  of. 
Zinc-workers'  Memoranda. 
Excavators'  Prices. 
Bricklayers'  Prices. 
Masons'  Prices. 
Marble  Masons'  Prices. 
Terra-cotta  Prices. 
Paviors'  Prices. 
Carpenters'  Prices. 
Joiners'  Prices. 
Steam-made  Joinery  Prices. 
Ironmongers'  Prices. 
Slaters'  Memoranda. 
.Slaters'  Prices. 
Tilers'  Prices. 
Plasterers'  Prices. 
Plumbers'  Prices. 
Smiths'  and  Founders'  Prices. 
Zinc-workers'  and  Bell-hangers'  Prices. 
Painters'  and  Paper-hangers'  Prices. 
Glaziers'  Prices. 


Carpentry.     Elementary  Principles   of  Carpentry, 

by  Thomas  Tredgold,  revised  from  the  original  edition,  and 
partly  rewritten,  by  John  Thomas  Hurst,  contained  in  517  pages 
of  letterpress,  and  illustrated  unth  \%  plates  and  150  wood  cngrav- 
i?igs,  fifth  edition,  crown  8vo,  handsomely  bound  m  cloth,  12s.  6d. 


Section  I. — On  the  Equality  and  Dis- 
tribution of  Forces. 

,,       II. — Resistance  of  Timber. 

,,      III. — Construction  of  Floors. 

,,      IV. — Construction  of  Roofs. 

,,  V. — Construction  of  Domes 
and  Cupolas. 

,,      VI. — Construction  of  Partitions. 

,,  VII. — Scaffolds,  Staging,  and 
Gantries. 


Section  VIII. — Construction  of  Cen- 
tres for  Bridges. 

,,  IX. — Cofler-danis,    Shoring, 

and  Strutting. 

,,  X. — Wooden   Bridges    and 

Viaducts. 

,,  XI. — Joints,      Straps,      and 

other  Fastenings. 

,,  XII. — Timber. 


Casting  and  Founding.     A  Practical  Treatise 

on  Casting  and  Founding,  includmg  descriptions  of  the  modern 
machinery  employed  in  the  art,  by  R.  E.  Spretson,  Engineer, 
with  82  plates  drawn  to  scale,  third  edition,  Svo,  cloth,  i8.f. 

Contents, 

Pig  Iron  and  some  of  its  Characteristics— On  Designing  Castings— Furnaces 
and  Fuel  —  Measures  of  Heat  —  Thermometers  and  Pyrometers  —  Refractory 
Materials— Crucibles— Blowing  Engines— Fans  and  Blowers — Patterns — Mate- 
rials used  in  Moulding— Moulding— Chill  Casting— Malleable  Cast  Iron— Case 
Hardening — Casting  on  to  other  Metals— Drying  Stoves— Foundry  Pits— Crane 
Ladles— Foundry  Cranes— Cast  Steel— Brass  Foundry— Bronze  Fine  Art  Work- 
Statue  Founding— Bell  Founding— Cleaning  and  Dressing  Foundings— Examples 
of  Foundries — Cost  of  Moulding  and  Casting — Alloys,  etc.,  etc. 


E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,   125,   STRAND. 


lo  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 


Chemists'  Pocket-Book.    A  Pocket-Book  for 

Chemists,  Chemical  Manufacturers,  Metallurgists,  Dyers,  Dis- 
tillers, Brewers,  Sugar  Refiners,  Photographers,  Students,  etc., 
etc.,  by  Thomas  Bayley,  Assoc.  R.  C.  Sc.  Ireland,  Analytical 
and  Consulting  Chemist,  Demonstrator  of  Practical  Chemistry, 
Analysis,  and  Assaying,  in  the  Mining  School,  Bristol,  fourth 
edition,  royal  32mo,  roan,  gilt  edges,  5^-. 

Synopsis  of  Contents. 

Atomic  Weights  and  Factors — Useful  Data — Chemical  Calculations — Rules 
for  Indirect  Analysis — Weights  and  Measures — Thermometers  and  Barometers — 
Chemical  Physics — Boiling  Points,  etc. — Solubility  of  Substances — Methods  of 
obtaining  Specific  Gravity — Conversion  of  Hydrometers — Strength  of  Solutions 
by  Specific  Gravity  —  Analysis  —  Gas  Analysis — Water  Analysis — Qualitative 
Analysis  and  Reactions  —  Volumetric  Analysis  —  Manipulation — Mineralogy — 
Assaying — Alcohol — Beer — Sugar — Miscellaneous  Technological  matter  relating 
to  Potash,  Soda,  Sulphuric  Acid,  Chlorine,  Tar  Products,  Petroleum,  Milk, 
Tallow,  Photography,  Prices,  Wages,  etc.,  etc. 


Clerk  of  Works.      The  Clerk  of  Works,  a  Vade 

Mecum  for  all  engaged  in'  the  Superintendence  of  Building 
Operations,  by  G.  G.  Hoskins,  F.R  I.B.A.,  third  edition,  fcap. 
8vo,  cloth,  \s.  6d. 

Factories  and  Workshops.    Our  Factories, 

Workshops,  and  ^Varehouses  :  their  Sanitary  and  Fire-Resisting 
Arrangements,  by  B.  H.  Thwaite,  Assoc.  IMem.  Inst.  C.E.,  with 
nitmeroiis  wood  ejigfaviugs,  crown  8vo,  cloth,  91. 

Contents. 

Part  I.  How  the  Development  of  English  Manufacturing  Industries  affected 
ihe  Health  of  the  English  Operatives,  and  compelled  Legislative  Interference. — ■ 
Part  2.  On  the  existing  Sanitary  arrangements  of  Textde  and  other  Manufac- 
tuiing  occupations. — Part  3.  Factory  and  Workshop  Sanitation. — Part  4.  Ar- 
rangements for  the  Prevention  of  Accidents. — Part  5.  The  Origin  of  Conflagra- 
tions, and  their  Prevention. 


^) 


French.  Measures.  French  Measures  and  Eng- 
lish Equivalents,  by  John  Brook.  For  the  use  of  Engineers, 
Manufacturers  of  Iron,  Draughtsmen,  etc.,  iSmo,  roan,  is. 

"  In  a  series  of  compact  tables  the  English  values  of  tlie  French  measures  are 
arranged  from  one  to  a  thousand  millimetres,  and  from  one  to  a  hundred  metres  ; 
the  fractions  of  an  inch  progressing  in  sixteenths  are  also  reduced  to  French 
values.  The  little  book  will  be  found  useful  to  almost  every  engineer." — 
Engineering. 


E.  &  F.  N.  SPOISr,   125,   STRAND. 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  d-  F.  N.  SPON. 


II 


Engineers'  Tables.  Spons'  Tables  and  Memo- 
randa for  Engineers,  selected  and  arranged  by  J.  T.  Hurst,  C.E., 
Mem.  of  the  Society  of  Engineers,  Mem.  Phys.  Soc.  of  London, 
Surveyor  War  Department,  Author  of  '  Architcctual  Surveyors' 
Handbook,  •  Hurst's  Tredgold's  Carpentry,'  etc.,  64mo,  roan, 
gilt  edges,  fifth  edition,  revised  and  improved,  is. 
In  cloth  case,  is.  6d, 

Or  in  metal  case,  2s. 

Contents. 


Excavators'  IMemokanda 
Bricklayers'  ,, 

Fire-Clay  Flue  Linings 
Weight  of  Bricks  and  Tiles 
Ma«;ons'  Memoranda 

Weight  of  Limes  and   Ce- 
ments 
,,  Purbeck  Paving 

„  Yorkshire 

,,  Marble  Slabs 

Slaters'  Memoranda 

Weight  of  Slates 
Carpenters'  Memoranda 
Deal  Standards 
Purlins 

Roof  Scantlings 
Floors 
Rafters 
Plasterers'  Memoranda 
Smiths'  &  Founders'  Memo- 
randa 
Size  of  Heads,  Nuts,  &c. 

„       Rivets 
Shrinkage  of  Castings 
Corrugated  Iron 
Zinc 
Weight  of  Round  and  Square 
Iron 
„  Flat  Bar  Iron 

,,  Round  Cast  Iron 

„  Various  Me'.als  per 

ft.  sup. 
,,  Sheet  Iron 


Weight  of  Hoop  Iron 

,,       Chains,  and  size  of 

Cast  Iron  Pipe 
,,       Heads,  Nuts,  and 

Wasfiers 
,,       Cast    Iron   Socket 

Pipes 
,,       Wire 
Size  and  Weight  of  Nails 
per  M 
„  Spikes 

Weight  of  Cast  Iron  Balls 
,,       Corrugated      Iron 

Rooting 
,,       Nails 

,,       Shoes     for     Door 
Frames 
Relative  Weight  of  various 

Metals 
Proportion  of  Wheels 
Cast  Iron  Pillars 
Relative   Strength   of  Cast 
and  Wrought  Iron  Pillars 
Safe  Load  for  Stone  Pillars 

,,  Floors 

Strength     of    Rolled    Iron 

Beams 
Fire-Proof  Floors 
Wrought  Iron  Roofs 

Plumbers'  Memoranda 
Weight  of  Sheet  Lead 
„  Lead  Pipes 


Painters'    and    Glaziers 

Memoranda 

Sundry  Memoranda 

Weight  of  Metals  per  foot 
cube 
„         Earth,  Stone,  &c. 

per  ft.  cube 
„         Timber 
„         Li(]uids 
,,         Men  and  Animals 
„         Forage 
„        Water 
„         Oil 
,,         Coal 
Ropes 

Railway  Carves 
Measurement  of  Heights 
Railway  Road  Crossings 
Measurement  of  Distance 
Mensuration 
Circumferences  of  Circles 
Areas  of  Circles 
Regular  Polygons 
Money  Tables,  English  and 

Foreign 
Weights  and  Measures 
Weight  and  size  of  casks 
Size  of  Paper 
French  Measures 
Maltese 

Comparison  of  English  and 
!•  oreign  Measures 


This  work  is  printed  in  a  pearl  type,  and  is  so  small,  measuring  only  2J  in.  by 
if  in.,  by  \  in.  thick,  that  it  may  be  easily  carried  in  the  waistcoat  pocket. 

"It  is  certainly  an  extremely  rare  thing  for  a  reviewer  to  be  called  upon  to 
notice  a  volume  measuring  but  2\  in.  by  if  in.,  yet  these  dimensions  faithfully 
represent  the  size  of  the  handy  little  book  before  us.  The  volume— which  contains 
118  printed  pages,  besides  a  i^vr  blank  pages  for  memoranda — is,  in  fact,  a  true 
pocket-book,  adapted  for  being  carried  in  the  waistcoat  pocket,  and  containing  a 
far  greater  amount  and  variety  of  information  than  most  people  would  imagine 

could  be  compressed  into  so  small  a  space The  little  volume  has  been 

compiled  with  considerable  care  and  judgment,  and  we  can  cordially  recommend 
it  to  our  readers  as  a  useful  little  pocket  companion." — Engineering. 


E.  &  F.  N.  SFON,  1S5,   STEAND. 


12 


CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 


Engineers'  Pocket-Book.    A  Pocket-Book  of 

Useful  Formula  and  Memoranda  for  Civil  and  Mechanical 
Engineers,  by  Guilford  L.  INIolesworth,  Mem.  Inst.  C.  E., 
Consulting  Engineer  to  the  Government  of  India  for  State 
Railways,  twenty-first  edition,  revised  and  improved,  32mo, 
roan,  ds. 

Ditto,  interleaved  witli  ruled  paper  for  Office  use,  (^s. 

Ditto,  printed  on  India  paper,  6j-. 

Synopsis  of  Contents. 


Surveying,  Levelling,  etc. 
Strength  and  Weight  of  Materials. 
Earthwork,       Brickwork,        Masonry, 

Arches,  etc. 
Struts,  Columns,  Beams,  and  Trusses. 
Flooring,  Roofing,  and  Roof  Trusses. 
Girders,  Bridges,  etc. 
Railways  and  Roads. 
I  lydraulic  Formulae. 
Canals,  Sewers,  Waterworks,  Docks, 
Irrigation  and  Breakwaters. 
Gas,  Ventilation  and  Warming. 
Heat,  Light,  Colour,  and  Sound. 
Gravity — Centres,  Forces,  and  Powers. 
Millwork,  Teeth  of  Wheels,  Shafting, 

etc. 
Workshop  Recipes. 
Sundry  Machinery. 
Animal  Power. 
Steam  and  the  Steam  Engine. 


Water-power,  Water-wheels,  Turbines, 

etc. 
Wind  and  Windmills. 
Steam     Navigation,     Ship  -  Building, 

Tonnage,  etc. 
Gunnery,  Projectiles,  etc. 
Weights,  Measures,  and  Money. 
Trigonometry,    Conic     Sections,    and 

Curves. 
Telegraph. 
Mensuration. 
Tables  of  Areas   and   Circumference, 

and  Arcs  of  Circles. 
Logarithms,  Square  and  Cube  Roots 

Powers. 
Reciprocals,  etc. 
Eiseful  Numbers. 

Differential  and  Integral  Calculus. 
Algebraic  Signs. 
Telegraphic  Construction  and  Formulae. 


French  -  Polishing.        The     French  -  Pohsher's 

Manual,  by  a  French-Polisher,  containing  Timber  Staining, 
Washing,  Matching,  Improving,  Painting,  Imitations,  Directions 
for  Staining,  Sizing,  Embodying,  Smoothing,  Spirit  Varnishing, 
French-Polishing,  Directions  for  Re-polishing,  royal  3  2 mo, 
sewed,  td. 


Handrailing.       HandraiHng    cut    square    to   the 

Plank,  without  a  Falling  Mould,  as  discovered  and  taught  at  the 
Mechanics'  Institution,  Liverpool,  by  John  Jones,  Staircase 
Builder,  part  i,  with  plates,  royal  8vo,  sewed,  2s. 

Ditto,  ditto.  Part  II.,  containing  additional  examples,  royal  8vo, 
cloth,  3J-.  bd. 


E.  &  r.  N.'.SPON,   125,   STRAND. 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  d-  F.  N.  SPON.  iz 


Mechanical  Engineering.  Notes  in  Mecha- 
nical Engineering,  compiled  principally  for  the  use  of  Students 
attending  the  Lectures  in  this  subject  at  the  City  of  London 
College,  by  Henry  Adams,  Mem.  Inst.  M.E.,  Mem.  Inst. 
C.E.,  ]\Iem.  Soc.  of  Engineers,  crown  8vo,  cloth,  2S.  dd. 

Contents. 

Part  r.  Section  i.  Fundamental  Principles  of  Mechanics — 2.  Properties  of 
]\laterials — 3.  Behaviour  of  Materials  under  Strain — 4.  The  Action  of  Cliisels, 
Hammers,  Punches,  Planes,  Shears,  Drills — 5.  Tempering,  Welding,  Riveting, 
Caulking,  &c.^6.  Tools  used  in  the  Workshop.  Part  2.  P^ounding,  Moulding 
and  Pattern  Making.  Part  3.  Shafting,  Gearing,  and  General  Machinery. 
Part  4.  The  Steam  Engine  :  Stationary,  Marine,  and  Locomotive.  Part  5. 
Different  kinds  of  Boilers  and  Boiler  Fittings.  Part  6.  Hydraulic  Machinery — 
Pumps — Centrifugal,  and  other  Turbines — Water  Wheels — Hoists — Pressure 
Engines,  &c. — Operations  of  the  Pattern  Maker — Founder — Blacksmith  and 
Turner  in  connection  with  Hydraulic  Machinery. 

Plan  and  Map  Drawing.     The  Draughtsman's 

Handbook  of  Plan  and  Map  Drawing,  including  instructions  for 
the  Preparation  of  Engineering,  Architectural,  and  Mechanical 
Drawings,  with  numerojis  illustrations  and  coloured  examples,  by 
G.  G.  Andre,  F.G.S.,  M.S.E,,  crown  4to,  cloth,  <)s. 

Contents. 

Part  r.  The  Essential  Elements  ;  The  Drawing  Office  and  its  Functions  ;  Geo- 
metrical Problems  ;  Lines,  Dots,  and  their  Combinations  ;  Colours  ;  Shading. 
Part  2.  Applications  ;  Lettering,  Bordering,  and  North  Points  ;  Scales  ;  Plotting  ; 
Civil  Engineers  and  Surveyors  ;  Plans  ;  Map  Drawing  ;  Mechanical  and  Archi- 
tectural Drawing  ;  Copying  and  Reducing  ;  Trigonometrical  Formulre  ;  Inchned 
Measure  ;  Curvature  and  Refraction,  etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

Tables  of  the  Weight  of  Iron  and  Steel. 

Tabulated  Weights  of  Angle,  Tee,  Bulb,  Round,  Square,  and 
Flat  Iron  and  Steel,  and  other  information  for  the  use  of  Naval 
Architects  and  Shipbuilders,  by  Chas.  H.  Jordan,  Mem.  Inst. 
N.A.,  Surveyor  to  the  Underwriters'  Registry  for  Iron  Vessels, 
and  Author  of  '  Particulars  of  Dry  Docks  on  the  Thames,'  third 
edition,  revised  and  enlarged,  royal  32mo,  cloth,  2s.  6d. 

"Naval  architects  and  shipbuilders  have  long  been  familiar  with  this  handy 
little  work,  and  have  found  it  of  great  service  in  calculating  the  weights  of  iron 
ships  It  has  also  been  found  very  useful  by  engineers  and  others  in  connection 
with  the  iron  work  of  shore  structures.  Tl^e  chief  feature  in  this  new  edition  is 
the  introduction  of  tables  respecting  the  weight  of  mild  steel  ;  and,  in  view  o(  the 
trrowin-  use  of  this  material  for  shipbuilding,  this  edition  considerably  enhances 
the  value  of  the  little  book.  Mr.  Jordan's  extensive  experience  with  iron  ships 
and  his  position  as  Surveyor  to  the  Underwriters  Registry  for  Iron  \  "scls,  alio  d 
a  sufficient  guarantee  of  the  trustworthiness  of  this  work,  and  we  confident  y 
re-ommend  tt  to  all  who  are  concerned  with  iron  and  steel  work  as  a  handy 
compendium  of  useful  and  accurate  X3.h\&s:'- Nautical  Magazine. 


Eo  &  F.  N.  SPON,  125,   STRAND. 


14  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS 


Steam    Engine.       A    Practical    Treatise    on    the 

Steam  Engine,  containing  Plans  and  Arrangements  of  Details  for 
Fixed  Steam  Engines,  with  Essays  on  the  Principles  involved  in 
Design  and  Construction,  by  Arthur  Rigg,  Engineer,  Member 
of  the  Society  of  Engineers  and  of  the  Royal  Institution  of 
Great  Britain,  demy  4to,  copiously  illustrated  with  woodcuts  and 
(^d plates.  In  one  volume,  half-bound  morocco,  ;£,2  2S. 
Cheaper  Edition,  neatly  bound  in  cloth,  j[^\  ^s. 

This  work  is  not,  in  any  sense,  an  elementary  treatise,  or  history  of  the  steam 
engine,  but  describes  examples  of  Fixed  Steam  Engines  without  entering  into  the 
wide  domain  of  locomotive  or  marine  practice.  To  this  end  illustrations  are  given 
of  the  most  recent  arrangements  of  Horizontal,  Vertical,  Beam,  Pumping,  Winding, 
Portable,  Semi-portable,  Corliss,  Allen,  Compound,  and  other  simdar  Engines, 
by  the  most  eminent  Firms  in  Great  Britain  and  America.  The  laws  relating  to 
the  action  and  pi'ecautions  to  be  observed  in  the  construction  of  the  various  details, 
such  as  cylinders,  pistons,  piston-rods,  connecting-rods,  cross-heads,  motion- 
blocks,  eccentrics,  simple,  expansion,  balanced,  and  equilibrium  slide  valves,  and 
valve-gearing  are  minutely  dealt  with.  In  this  connection  will  be  found  articles 
upon  the  velocity  of  reciprocating  parts  and  the  mode  of  applying  the  indicator, 
heat  and  expansion  of  steam  governors,  and  the  like.  The  writer  has  drawn  illus- 
trations from  every  possible  source,  and  given  only  those  rules  that  present  practice 
deems  correct. 

Surveying.     A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Science 

of  Land  and  Engineering  Surveying,  Levelhng,  Estimating 
Quantities,  etc.,  with  a  general  description  of  the  several  instru- 
ments required  for  Surveying,  LeveUing,  Plotting,  etc.,  by  H.  S. 
Merrett,  /[\  fine  plates  with  illustratio?is  and  tables,  fourth  edition, 
revised  and  corrected  by  G.  W.  Usill,  Assoc.  Mem.  Inst.  C.E., 
royal  8vo,  cloth,  12s.  6d. 

Principal  Contents. 

Parti.  Introduction  and  the  Principles  of  Geometry.  Part  2.  Land  Surveying  ; 
comprising,  general  observations — the  chain — ofi'sets  surveying  by  the  chain  only 
— surveying  hilly  ground,  to  survey  an  estate  or  parish  by  the  chain  only,  surveying 
with  ihe  theodolite — Mining  and  town  surveying — railroad  surveying — Mapping 
— division  and  laying  out  of  land — observations  on  enclosures — plane  trigono- 
metry. Part  3.  Levelling—  simple  and  compound  levelling — the  level-book — par- 
liamentary plan  and  section — Levelling  with  a  theodolite,  gradients — wooden 
curves — to  lay  out  a  railway  curve — setting  out  widths.  Part  4.  Calculating  quan- 
tities generally,  for  estimates — Cuttings  and  Embankments — Tunnels — Brickwork 
— Ironwork — Timber  measuring.  Part  5.  Description  and  use  of  instruments  in 
surveying  and  plotting — the  improved  dumpy  level — Troughton's  Level — the 
prismatic  compass — proportional  compass — box  sextant — Vernier — pantagraph — 
Merrett's  improved  quadrant— improved  computation  scale — the'diagonal  scale — 
straight-edge  and  sector.  Part  6.  Logarithms  of  numbers — logarithmic  sines  and 
co-sines,  tangent  and  co-tangents — natural  sines  and  co-sines — Tables  for  earth- 
work— for  setting  out  curves,  and'for  various  calculations,  etc.,  etc.,  etc. 

Tables  of  Squares   and   Cubes.     Barlow's 

Tables  of  Squares,  Cubes,  Square  Roots,  Cube  Roots,  Recipro- 
cals of  all  Integer  Numbers  up  to  10,000,  post  8vo,  cloth.  6s. 

E.  &  r.  N.  SPON,   125,   STRAND. 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  6^  R  JV.  SPON.  15 


Tables    of    Speeds.       Tables    of    some    of    the 

Principal  Spectls  occurring  in  Mechanical  Engineering,  expressed 
in  Metres  in  a  Second,  by  P.  KeerayelT,  Cliief  Mechanic  of  ihe 
Obouchoff  Steel  Works,  St.  Petersburg,  translated  by  Sergius 
Kern,  M.E.,  Gd. 


Turning.     The  Practice  of  Hand-turn  nig-  in  Wood 

Ivory,  Shell,  etc.,  with  Instructions  for  Turning  such  work  in 
Metal  as  may  be  required  in  the  Practice  of  Turning  in  ^\■ood, 
Ivory,  etc.,  also  an  Appendix  on  Ornamental  Turning,  by 
Francis  Campln,  third  edition,  with  wood  engravings,  crown  8vo, 
cloth  (a  book  for  beginners),  6s. 

Contents. 

On  lathes,  turning  tools,  turning  wood,  drilling,  screw-cutting,  miscellaneous 
apparatus  and  processes,  turning  particular  forms,  staining,  polishing,  spinning 
metals,  materials,  ornamental  turning,  etc. 


Watch-WOrk.  Treatise  on  Watchwork,  Past  and 
Present,  by  the  Rev.  H.  L.  Nelthropp,  M.A.,  F.S.A.,  numerous 
illustrations,  crown  8vo  cloth,  Gs.  Gd. 

Contents. 

Definitions  of  words  and  terms  used  in  watchwork.  Tools.  Time.  Historical 
summary.  On  calculations  of  the  numbers  for  wheels  and  pinions,  their  propor- 
tional sizes,  trains,  etc.  Of  dial-wheels,  or  motion-work.  Length  of  time  of 
going  without  winding-up.  The  Verge.  The  Horizontal.  The  Duplex.  The 
I.ever.  The  Chronometer.  Repeating  Watches.  Keyless  Watches.  The 
Pendulum,  or  Spiral  Spring.  Compensation.  Jewelling  of  pivot-holes, 
Clerkenwell.  Fallacies  of  the  Trade.  Incapacity  of  Workmen.  How  to  choose 
and  use  a  Watch,  etc. 


Warming  and  Ventilation.    A  Treatise  on 

Warming  and  Ventilating  Buildings,  by  Charles  Hood,  F.R.S., 
sixth  edition,  8vo,  cloth,  illustrated,  \2S.  Gd. 

Treatise  on  Valve-Gears,  with  special  con- 
sideration of  the  Link-Motions  of  Locomotive  Engines,  by 
Dr.  Gustav  Zeuner,  Professor  of  Applied  Mechanics  at  the 
Confederated  Polytechnikum  of  Zurich.  Traiislated  from  the 
Fourth  German  Edition,  by  Professor  J.  F.  Klein,  Lehigh 
University,  Bethlehem,  Pa.,  illustrated,  8vo,  cloth,  \2s.  Gd. 


E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  125,   STRAI'JD. 


i6 


CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  B 0 OKS. 


RECENTLY   PUBLISHED. 

In   super-royal  8vo,    1168   pp.,   ivith   2400  illustrations,    in   3    Divisions,    cloth, 
price  \'i,s.  6d,  each ;  or  i  vol.,  cloth,  2/. ;  or  half-morocco,  2/.  Sj. 

A  SUPPLEMENT 

TO 

8P0N8'  DICTIONARY  OF  ENGINEERING. 

€Mt  Ulctljuuical,  Ulilitarijt  aiib  |I;ibii(, 

Edited  by  ERNEST  SPON,  Assoc.  Mem.  Inst.  C.E.,  Mem.  Soc. 

,  Engineers,  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  and  of 

THE  Geologists'  Association. 

The  success  which  has  attended  the  publication  of  '  Spons'  Dictionary  of 
Engineering'  has  encouraged  the  Publishers  to  use  every  effort  tending  to 
keep  the  work  up  to  the  standard  of  existing  professional  knowledge.  As  the 
Book  has  now  been  some  years  before  the  public  without  addition  or  revision, 
there  are  many  subjects  of  importance  which,  of  necessity,  are  either  not 
included  in  its  pages,  or  have  been  treated  somewhat  less  fully  than  their  present 
importance  demands.  With  the  object,  therefore,  of  remedying  these  omissions, 
this  Supplement  is  now  issued.  Each  subject  in  it  is  treated  in  a  thoroughly 
comprehensive  way ;  but,  of  course,  without  repeating  the  information  already 
included  in  the  body  of  the  work. 

The  new  matter  comprises  articles  upon 


No. 

No. 

No. 

Abacus,        Counters, 

Coal  Mining    ,.          6,  7 

Lifts,      Hoists,      and 

Speed     Indicators, 

Coal      Cutting     Ma- 

Elevators 

13 

and  Slide  Rule     .. 

I 

chines    

Lighthouses,     Buoys, 

Agricultural     Imple- 

Coke Ovens.    Copper     7 

and  Beacons..     13, 

14 

ments      and      Ma- 

Docks.    Drainage      7,  8 

Machine  Tools 

14 

chinery  

I 

Dredging  Machinery      8 

Materials  of  Construc- 

Air Compressors         i 

2 

Dynamo-Electric  and 

tion       ..      ..      14, 

15 

Animal  Charcoal  Ma- 

IMagneto -  Electric 

Meters       

15 

chinery  

2 

Machines      ..      ..      8 

Ores,   Machinery  and 

Antimony 

2 

Dynamometers  . .        8,  9 

Processes  employed 

Axles  and  Axle-boxes 

2 

Electrical    Engineer- 

to Dress 

15 

Barn  Machinery 

2 

ing,     _  Telegraphy, 

Piers 

15 

Belts  and  Belting    .. 

2 

Electric     Lighting 

Pile  Driving     .. 

15 

Blasting.     Boilers   .. 

and  its  practical  de- 

Pneumatic Transmis- 

Brakes        

3 

tails,  Telephones  9,  10 

sion        

15 

Brick  Machinery        3, 

4 

Engines,  Varieties  of    10 

Pumps       

15 

Bridges      ..       ..         4, 

5 

Explosives.     Fans  ..    10 

Pyrometers 

15 

Cages  for  Mines 

5 

Founding,    Moulding 

Road  Locomotives  15, 

16 

Calculus,  Differential 

and    the    Practical 

Rock  Drills      .,      .. 

16 

and  Integral 

5 

work  of  the  Foun- 

Rolling Stock..      16, 

17 

Canals       

5 

dry  ID,    II 

Sanitary  Engineering 

Carpentry 

5 

Gas,  Manufacture  of    II 

17, 

iS 

Cast  Iron  ..      ..         5, 

6 

Hammers,  Steam  and 

Shafting 

18 

Cement,       Concrete, 

other  Power         . .    11 

Steel 

18 

Limes,  and  Mortar 

6 

Heat.     Horse  Power   12 

Steam  Navvy  .. 

18 

Cliimney  Shafts 

6 

Hydraulics        ,.       ..12 

Stone  Machinery     .. 

18 

Coal    Cleansing    and 

Hydro-geology         ..    12 

Tramways 

18 

Washing 

6 

Indicators.     Iron    12,  13 

Well  Sinking  .. 

18 

E.  &  r.  N.  SPON,  1S6,  STRAND. 


PUBLISHED  BY  E.  d-  F.  N.  SPON. 


17 


SPONS'  ENCYCLOPEDIA 

OF  THE 

INDUSTRIAL  ARTS,  MANUFACTURES,  AND 
COMMERCIAL  PRODUCTS. 

EDITED  BY 
C.    G.  WARNFORD   LOCK,   F.L.S.,   &c.,   &c. 

In  Super-royal  ^vo,  confaming  2100//.,  a?id  Illustrated  by  nearly 

1500  Engravi?igs. 

Can  be  had  in  the  following  bindings: 

In  2  Vols.,  cloth £3  10    0 

In  5  Divisions,  cloth . .     . .         3    11     G 

In  2  Vols.,  half-morocco,  top   edge   gUt,   boiind 

in  a  superior  manner        4  10     0 

In  33  Monthly  Parts,  at  2s.  each. 

Any  Part  can  be  had  separate,  price  23. ;  postage  2d. 


Complete  List  of  all  the  Subjects. 


Part 

Acids I)  z>  3 

Alcohol 3,  4 

Alkalies        4,  5 

Alloys 5,6 

Arsenic 6 

Asphalte       6 

Aerated  Waters 6 

Beer  and  Wine  . .     . .        6,  7 

Beverages 7,  8 

Bleaching  Powder     ..      ..     8 

Bleaching 8,  9 

Borax 9 

Brushes        g 

Buttons 9 

Camphor       9.  10 

Candles 10 

Carbon 10 

Celluloid       10 

Clays      10 

Carbolic  Acid      11 

Coal-tar  Products      ..      ..11 

Cocoa II 

Coffee 11,12 

Cork      12 

Cotton  Manufactures      12,  13 

Drugs 13 

Dyeing  and  Calico  Print- 
ing      13,  14 


Part 

Dyestuffs 14 

Electro-Metallurgy..     ..   14 

Explosives 14,  15 

Feathers       15 

Fibrous  Substances  ..    15,  16 

Floor-cloth 16 

Food  Preservation    ..     ..   16 

Fruit      10,  17 

Fur        17 

Gas,  Coal 17 

Gems 17 

Glass 17 

Graphite       18 

Hair  Manufactures  ..     ..18 

Hats      iS 

Ice,  Artificial      18 

Indiarubber  Manufac- 
tures   iS,  19 

Ink 19 

Jute  Manufactures    ..     ..19 
Knitted   Fabrics    (Ho- 
siery)         19 

Lace      19 

Leather        19,  20 

Linen  Manufactures        . .  20 

Manures       20 

Matches       20,  21 

Mordants 21 


24 
24 
24 


Part 

Narcotics 21   22 

Oils  and  Fatty  Substances' 

22.  23. 
Paper    

Paraffin         

Pearl  and  Coral 24 

Perfumes      24 

Photography       . .     . .    24,  25 
Pigments  and  Paint  . .     . .  25 

Pottery 25,  26 

Printing  and  Engraving       26 
Resinous  and  Gummy 

Substances       . .     . .  26,  27 

Rope     27 

Salt       27,  28 

Silk        28 

Skins 28 

Soap,  Railway  Grease,  and 

Glycerine 28,  29 

Spices 29 

Starch 29 

Sugar 29,30,31 

Tannin 31,  3a 

Tea        32 

Timber 32 

Varnish 33 

Wool  and  Woollen  Manu- 
factures     3>>  33 


LONDON :   E.  &  F.  N.  SPON,  125,   STRAND. 
NEW  YORK:    35,  MURRAY  STREET. 


18  CATALOGUE  OF  SCIENTIFIC  BOOKS. 

In  Crown  8vo,  cloth,  with  numerous  Illustrations,  price  10s.  6d. 

SOAP. 

A    TREATISE    ON    THE 

MANUFACTURE  OF  SOAP  &  CANDLES,  LUBRICANTS  &  GLYCERINE. 
By  W.   LANT   carpenter,   B.A,   B.Sc. 

(late   of    MESSRS.    C.   THOMAS   AND    BROTHERS,   BRISTOL). 

Contents. 

Historical  Epitome  and  References. — Cliapter  i.  Theoretical  Principles — 
2.  Raw  Materials  :  their  Sources  and  Preparation — 3.  Raw  Materials:  Refining, 
Clarifying,  and  Bleaching — 4.  Raw  Materials  :  their  proximate  Analysis — 
5.  Caustic  All;ah  and  other  Mineral  Salts — 6.  Manufacture  of  Household  Soaps  ; 
the  Process  of  Saponification — 7.  Treatment  of  Soap  after  its  removal  from  the 
Soap  Copper;  Household,  Manufacturers',  and  Toilet  Soaps— 8.  Theory  of  the 
Action  of  Soap ;  its  Valuation  and  Analysis ;  Distribution  and  Position  of  the 
Trade— 9.  Lubricating  Oils,  Railway  and  Wagon  Grease,  etc. — 10.  Candles: 
Raw  Materials,  their  Sources  and  Preliminary  Treatment- — 11.  Processes  for  the 
Conversion  of  Neutral  Fats  into  Fatty  Acids  ;  the  Manufacture  of  Commercial 
Stearin — 12.  The  Manufacture  of  Candles  and  Night-Lights;  their  value  as 
Illuminants — 13.  Glycerine — 14.  Summary  of  Patents — 15.  Bibhography — 
16.  Index. 


In  Crown  8vo,  cloth,  with  numerous  Illustrations,  price  10s.  6d. 


T  A.  IT  ]>T  I  3>T  o. 

A  TEXT-BOOK   OF   TANNING. 

A  TREATISE  ON  THE 

CONVEESIOIT  or  SKINS  INTO  LEATHEE,  BOTH  PEAOTIOAL 

AND  THEOEETIOAL. 

By   henry    R.   PROCTER,   F.C.S., 

OF   I.OWLIGHTS   TANNERY;    EXAMINER    IN    TANNING   TO    THE    CITY    AND    GUILDS 
TECHNICAL   INSTITUTE. 

Contents. 

Chapter  i.  Anatomical  Structure  of  Hide — 2.  Chemical  Composition  of  Hide  — 
3.  Tanning  Materials — 4.  Chemistry  of  Tanning — 5.  Water  as  used  in  Tanning — • 
6.  Chemical  Analysis  for  the  Tannery — 7.  Sole  Leather  ;  preparing  the  Hides— 
8.  Unhairing  Hides — 9.  Tanning  Materials — lo.  Treatment  in  the  Tan-house — 
II.  Treatment  in  the  Shed — 12.  Dressing  Leather — 13.  Currying — 14.  Enamelled, 
Patent,  or  Japanned  Leather — 15.  Morocco  Leather — 16.  Russia  Leather — • 
17.  Chamois,  or  Wash  Leather — 18.  Crown,  or  Preller's  Leather — 19.  Mineral 
Tanned  Leather — 20.  Calf  Kid — 21.  Glove  Kid — 22.  Construction  and  Main- 
tenance of  Tanneries — 23.  Drying  Sheds — 24.  Statistics,  &c. 

E.  &  F.  ]Sr.  SPON,  125,  STRAHD. 

33  1 3a;)  7^ 


M 


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GETTY  CENTER  LIBRARY 


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